What is a Jominy End Quench Test?

Introduction

The Jominy end quench test is used to measure the hardenability of a steel. This

article considers the basic ideas of hardenability, and the Jominy test. It also

discusses how the information obtained from the Jominy test can be used to

understand the effects of alloying and microstructure in steels. The article is based on

an on-line tutorial for undergraduate materials science students, which includes video

demonstrations of the test (http://www.umist.ac.uk/intmic/).

Hardenability

The Jominy end quench test measures the hardenability of steel. This is the ability of

the steel to partially or to completely transform from austenite to some fraction of

martensite at a given depth below the surface, when cooled under a given condition

from high temperature. The quench and temper heat treatment uses this phase

transformation to harden steels. After tempering, the martensite microstructure gives

the steel a good combination of strength and toughness. Without tempering,

martensite is hard, but brittle. To select steels for a heat treated component, it is

important to know their hardenability. Alloying and microstructure both affect the

hardenability, allowing the correct steel and quenching rate to be selected. The prior

processing of the steel also affects the microstructure, and should also be considered.

The hardening of steels can be understood by considering that on cooling from high

temperature, the austenite microstructure of the steel can transform to either

involves diffusion, which takes time. However, the martensite transformation does

not involve diffusion and is essentially instantaneous. These two reactions are

competitive, and martensite is obtained if the cooling rate is fast enough to avoid the

slower formation of ferrite and pearlite. In alloyed steels, the ferrite/pearlite reaction

is further slowed down, which allows martensite to be obtained with slower cooling

rates. The transformation to another possible phase, bainite, can be understood in a

similar way.

The hardenability describes the capacity of the steel to harden in depth under a given

set of conditions. For example, a steel of a high hardenability can transform to a high

fraction of martensite to depths of several millimetres under relatively slow cooling,

such as an oil quench, whereas a steel of low hardenability may only form a high

fraction of martensite to a depth of less than a millimetre, even under quite rapid

cooling such as a water quench.

Steels with high hardenability are needed for large high strength components, such as

large extruder screws for injection moulding of polymers, pistons for rock breakers,

mine shaft supports, aircraft undercarriages, and also for small high precision

components such as die-casting moulds, drills and presses for stamping coins. The

slower cooling rates that can be used for high hardenability steels can reduce thermal

stresses and distortion. Steels with low hardenability may be used for smaller

components, such as chisels and shears, or for surface hardened components such as

gears where there is a desire to maintain a ferrite/pearlite microstructure at the core to

improve toughness. The Jominy end quench test is the standard method to measure

the hardenability of steels [1].

The test sample is a cylinder with a length of 102 mm (4 inches) and a diameter of

25.4 mm (1 inch). The steel sample is normalised (to eliminate differences in

microstructure due to previous forging) and then austenitised. This is usually at a

temperature of 800 to 925°C, and transforms the steel microstructure to austenite.

The test sample is quickly transferred to the test fixture, which quenches the steel as it

sprays a controlled flow of water onto one end of the sample (figure 2). The cooling

rate varies along the length of the sample from very rapid at the quenched end where

the water strikes the specimen, to slower rates that are equivalent to air cooling at the

other end.

The round specimen is then ground flat along its length on opposite sides to a depth of

at least 0.38 mm (15 thousandths of an inch) to remove decarburised material. Care

should be taken that the grinding does not heat the sample, as this can cause

tempering, which can soften the microstructure. The hardness is then measured at

intervals from the quenched end. The interval is typically 1.5 mm for alloy steels and

0.75 mm for carbon steels, beginning as close as possible to the quenched end. The

hardness decreases with distance from the quenched end (figure 3). High hardness

occurs where high volume fractions of martensite (figure 1) develop. Lower hardness

indicates transformation to bainite or ferrite/pearlite microstructures (figure 1).

The measurement of hardness is commonly done using a Rockwell or Vickers

hardness test [1-3]. Conversion charts are available to relate the different hardness

scales [4,5] if necessary, but care should be taken to use the correct charts for steel.

The Rockwell and Vickers hardness tests deform the metal differently, and the results

are affected by work hardening. The hardenability is described by a hardness curve

particular distance from the quenched end.

Uses of Hardenability

Data from the Jominy end quench test can be used to determine whether a particlar

steel can be sufficiently hardened in different quenching media, for different section

diameters. For example, the cooling rate at a distance of 9.8 mm from the quenched

end is equivalent to the cooling rate at the centre of an oil-quenched bar with a

diameter of 28 mm. Full transformation to martensite in the Jominy specimen at this

position indicates that a 28 mm diameter bar can be through hardened, i.e. hardened

through its full thickness.

A high hardenability is required for through hardening of large components. This

data can be presented using CCT diagrams (Continuous Cooling Transformation)

[6], which are used to select steels to suit the component size and quenching media

(Figure 4). Slower cooling rates occur at the core of larger components, compared to

the faster cooling rate at the surface. In the example in figure 3, the surface will be

transformed to martensite, but the core will have a bainitic structure with some

martensite. Slow quenching speeds are often chosen to reduce distortion and residual

stress in components. Reference 6 contains further information on the heat treatment

and properties of steels.

Effects of Alloying and Microstructure

The Jominy end quench test measures the effects of microstructure, such as grain size,

and alloying on the hardenability of steels. . The main alloying elements that affect
hardenability are carbon, a group of elements including Cr, Mn, Mo, Si and Ni, and

also boron [7]. Reference 7 contains further information about the microstructure and

metallurgy of steels.

Carbon

Carbon controls the hardness of the martensite, and increasing the carbon content

increases the hardness of steels up to about 0.6wt% Carbon. At higher carbon levels,

however, the critical temperature for the formation of martensite is depressed to lower

temperatures. The transformation from austenite to martensite may then be

incomplete when the steel is quenched to room temperature, which leads to retained

austenite. This composite microstructure of martensite and austenite gives a lower

hardness to the steel, although the hardness of the martensite phase itself is still high

(figure 5).

Carbon also increases the hardenability of steels by retarding the formation of pearlite

and ferrite. Slowing down this reaction encourages the formation of martensite at

slower cooling rates. However, the effect is too small to be commonly used for

control of hardenability. Furthermore, high carbon steels are prone to distortion and

cracking during heat treatment, and can be difficult to machine in the annealed

condition before heat treatment. It is more common to control hardenability with

other elements, and to use carbon levels of less than 0.4wt%.

Chromium, Molybdenum, Manganese, Silicon, Nickel, Vanadium

The elements Cr, Mo, Mn, Si, Ni and V all retard the phase transformation from

austenite to ferrite and pearlite. The most commonly used elements are Cr, Mo and

Mn. The retardation is due to the need for redistribution of the alloying elements

during the diffusional phase transfromation from austenite to ferrite and pearlite. The
solubility of the elements varies between the different phases, and the interface

between the new growing phase cannot move without diffusion of the slowly moving

elements. There are quite complex interactions between the different elements, which

also affect the temperatures of the phase transformation and the resultant

microstructure. Alloy steel compositions are therefore sometimes described in terms

of a carbon equivalent, which describes the magnitude of the effect of all of the

elements on hardenability. Steels of the same carbon equivalent have similar

hardenability.

Boron

Boron is a very potent alloying element, typically requiring 0.002 to 0.003wt% to

have an equivalent effect as 0.5wt% Mo. The effect of Boron is also independent of

the amount of Boron, provided sufficient is added. The effect of Boron is greatest at

lower carbon contents and it is typically used with lower carbon steels.

Boron has a very strong affinity for oxygen and nitrogen, with which it forms

compounds. Boron can therefore only affect the hardenability of steels if it is in

solution. This requires the addition of "gettering" elements such as Aluminium and

Titanium to react preferentially with the oxygen and nitrogen in the steel.

Grain Size

Increasing the austenite grain size increases the hardenability of steels. The

nucleation of ferrite and pearlite occurs at heterogeneous sites such as the austenite

grain boundaries. Increasing the austenite grain size therefore decreases the available

nucleation sites, which retards the rate of the ferrite/pearlite phase transformation

(Figure 6). This method of increasing the hardenability is rarely used since

substantial increases in hardenability require large austenite grain size, obtained

coarse, with reduced toughness and ductility. However, the austenite grain size can

be affected by other stages in the processing of steel, and therefore the hardenability

of a steel also depends on the previous stages employed in its production.

Summary

The Jominy end quench test is the standard method for measuring the hardenability of

steels. This describes the ability of the steel to be hardened in depth by quenching.

The hardenability depends on the alloy composition of the steel, and can also be

affected by prior processing, such as the austenitisation temperature. Knowledge the

hardenability of steels is necessary to select the appropriate combination of alloy and

heat treatment for components of different size, to minimise thermal stresses and

distortion.

References

1. ASTM A255. Standard Test Methods for Determining Hardenability of Steel.

American Society for Testing and Materials, (1999).

2. ASTM E18. Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell

Superficial Hardness of Metallic Materials. American Society for Testing and

Materials, (2000).

3. ASTM E92. Standard Test Methods for Vickers Hardness of Metallic

Materials. American Society for Testing and Materials, (1982).

4. ASTM A370. Standard Test Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing

of Steel Products. American Society for Testing and Materials, (1997).

6. ASM Handbook, Vol. 4, Heat Treating - Heat Treating of Steel. American

Society for Metals, (1991).

7. Steels: Microstructure and Properties, R.W.K Honeycombe and H.K.D.H.

Bhadeshia. Edward Arnold, (1995).

Figures

Figure 1: Microstructures observed in the Jominy End Quench test of a 0.4wt%

Carbon steel.

(a) Untempered Martensite.

(b) Ferrite and Pearlite. The pearlite is the darker constituent, is a eutectoid mixture

of ferrite and iron carbide.

Figure 2: The Jominy Test.

(a) Jominy test specimen. The coin is an English penny, which is approximately the

same size as an American Cent.

(b) Jominy test equipment. The specimen is inserted at the top, above a jet of water.

(c) Cooling of the Jominy test specimen (schematic diagram).

Figure 3: A typical hardness profile in a Jominy specimen (schematic diagram).

Figure 4: Schematic Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) diagram for an alloy

steel. The cooling curves at the surface and core of a large oil-quenched component

are shown. In this example, the surface will be transformed to martensite, but the core

will have a bainitic structure with some martensite.

the combined hardness of martensite and retained austenite, which can develop at

high carbon levels (schematic diagram).

Figure 6: The effect of austenitisation temperature on the hardenability of steel.

Increased austenitisation temperatures can coarsen the microstructure (schematic

diagram).

By-Line

Dr James Marrow is a senior lecturer at the Manchester Materials Science Centre,

UMIST, Manchester, M60 1QD, UK, (email [email protected]). He has an

interest in the use of the Internet to present educational resources to undergraduate

students, such as the Internet Microscope (www.umist.ac.uk/intmic/). This is an

image library of materials microstructures. His research interest is the fatigue and

fracture of metallic materials.