12 Solids

Conceptual Physics Instructor Manual, 11th Edition

Crystal Structure
Density
Crystal Power
Elasticity
Tension and Compression
Arches
Scaling

The treatment of the crystalline nature of solids and bonding are very brief in this chapter. More
emphasis is on elasticity, tension and compression, and the application to arches. Students should
find the section on “Scaling” of particular interest.

Scaling is becoming enormously important as more devices are being miniaturized. Researchers are
finding that when something shrinks enough, whether it is an electronic circuit, motor, film of
lubricant, or an individual metal or ceramic crystal, it stops acting like a miniature version of its larger
self and starts behaving in new and different ways. Palladium metal, for example, which is normally
composed of grains about 1000 nanometers in size, is found to be five times as strong when formed
from 5 nanometer grains.

Take note of beverage containers that are partially spherical in shape. Some are like two spheres, one
atop the other. Compared with a cylinder, any of these shapes that bulge have less surface area for a
given volume. That’s less waste.

Chromium has long been used to show off a shiny metal surface. But working with chromium has
been environmentally harmful. New research suggests a greener alternative: a nano-crystalline nickel-
tungsten that tops chrome’s features.

Carbon nanotubes have the greatest tensile strength of any material known, able to resist 100 times
more strain than typical structural steel.

Graphene is a relatively new material that consists of carbon sheets one atom thick. It is crystalline
with carbon atoms arranged in a chicken-wire pattern of hexagons. It is the strongest of sheets when
yanked, yet flexes like plastic wrap. It’s an excellent heat and electric conductor. Watch for it in yet-
to-come applications.

There are problems for this chapter in the Problem Solving in Conceptual Physics student
ancillary.

In the Practice Book:

• Scaling
• Scaling Circles

In the Next-Time Questions:

• Infant Growth
• Material Strength
• Wet Gravel

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Three activities, on scaling, density, and elasticity, and one experiment on Hooke’s law are in the
Laboratory Manual.

This chapter may be skipped with no particular consequence to following chapters. If this chapter is
skipped and Chapter 13 is assigned, density should be introduced at this time.

SUGGESTED LECTURE PRESENTATION

Crystal Structure
Begin by calling attention to the micrograph held by John Hubisz in the chapter opener photo. John,
among other services to the physics community founded the North Carolina AAPT after retiring
from College of the Mainland in Texas. The micrograph is evidence not only for the crystalline
nature of the platinum needle, but also evidence for the wave nature of atoms is seen in the resulting
diffraction pattern. It is easy to imagine the micrograph as a ripple tank photo made by grains of sand
sprinkled in an orderly mosaic pattern upon the surface of water.

Density
Measure the dimensions of a large wooden cube in cm and find its mass with a pan balance. Define
mass
density = . (Use the same cube when you discuss flotation in the next chapter.) Some of
volume
your students will unfortunately conceptualize density as massiveness or bulkiness rather than
massiveness per bulkiness, even when they give a verbal definition properly. This can be helped with
the following:

CHECK QUESTIONS: Which has the greater density, a cupful of water or a lakeful of
water? A kilogram of lead or a kilogram of feathers? A single uranium atom or the world?

I jokingly relate breaking a candy bar in two and giving the smaller piece to my friend who looks
disturbed. “I gave you the same density of candy bar as I have.”

Contrast the density of matter and density of atomic nuclei that comprise so tiny a fraction of space
within matter. From about 2 gmcm3 to 2  1014 gmcm3. And in a further crushed state, the interior
of neutron stars, about 1016 gm/cm3.

Elasticity

DEMONSTRATION: Drop glass, steel, rubber, and spheres of various materials onto an
anvil and compare the elasticities.

DEMONSTRATION: Hang weights from a spring and illustrate Hooke’s

law. Set a pair of identical springs as in Problem 4, and ask the class to
predict the elongation before suspending the load.

Tension, Compression, and Arches

Bend a meterstick held at both ends and ask which side is being stretched and which side is being
compressed. Stretching is tension, and compressing is compression. If one side is being stretched and
the other compressed, there must be a “crossover” place—where neither stretching nor compression
occurs. This is the neutral layer.

Compare a cantilever and a simple beam. Then discuss the shape of an I-beam and Exercise 21.

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 Chapter 12 Solids

Discuss the strength of arches. Before the time of concrete, stone bridges and the like were self-
supporting by virtue of the way they pressed against one another—in an arch shape. Wooden
scaffolding allowed their construction, and when the keystone was inserted, the structures stood
when the scaffolding was removed. The same practice is used today.

Discuss the catenary, as shown by my grandson Manuel in Figure 12.14. From my understanding,
the catenary idea likely originated with Robert Hooke, who discussed it with the famed architect
Christopher Wren. Wren wisely used this idea when he designed the dome to St. Paul’s Cathedral in
London. Unlike former structures, the dome needs no buttressing. Indeed, a free standing catenary
could be made of blocks of slippery ice! How many earlier successful domes approximated the
shapes of catenaries? Exercises 27 and 28 at the end of the chapter involve catenaries.

Go a step further with the catenary. Have your students check the curvatures at the ends of an egg.
Guess what? They’re both catenaries, one more pronounced than the other! That’s why it’s difficult
to crush an egg along its long axis. And why the different catenaries on each end? Note that when
rolling an egg it curves. This is important for eggs that accidentally roll out of the nests of birds.
Nature is indeed wonderfully physics!

Area-Volume: Introduce the relationship between area and volume as Chelcie

Liu does by showing the following: Have a 500-ml spherical flask filled with
colored water on your lecture table. Produce a tall cylindrical flask, also of 500 ml
(unknown to your students), and ask for speculations as to how high the water
level will be when water is poured into it from the spherical flask. You can ask
for a show of hands for those who think that the water will reach more than
half the height, and those who think it will fill to less than half the height, and
for those who guess it will fill to exactly half the height. Your students will be amazed when they see
that the seemingly smaller spherical flask has the same volume as the tall cylinder. To explain, call
attention to the fact that the area of the spherical flask is considerably smaller than the surface area of
the cylinder. We see a greater area and we unconsciously think that the volume should be greater as
well. Be sure to do this. It is more impressive than it may first seem.

Scaling
Now for the most interesting part of your lecture. Have at least 8 large cubes on your lecture table as
you explain Figures 12.16 and 12.17. For more about the relationships among the size, area, and
volume of objects, read the essays cited in the first footnote of this chapter.

CHECK QUESTIONS:
1. Which has more surface area, an elephant or a mouse? 2000 kilograms of elephant
or 2000 kilograms of mice? (Distinguish carefully between these different questions.)

2. Cite two reasons why small cars are more affected by wind.

3. Why do cooks preparing Chinese food chop it in such small pieces to stir-fry quickly in a
wok?

4. In terms of surface area to volume, why should parents take extra care that a baby is warm
enough in a cold environment.

5. Why are elevated reservoirs usually spherical in shape? [Minimum building material for the
same volume.]

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6. What does the somewhat spherical shape in beverage containers have to do with ecology?
[Less material, less waste.]

7. How much more surface area is there for a body with twice the volume? [Consider a cube;
twice the volume means each side is the cube root of two, 1.26 times the side of the smaller
cube. Its area is then 1.26  1.26 = 1.588 times greater than the smaller cube. So the twice as
heavy person at the beach would use about 1.6 times as much suntan lotion.]

Regarding Figure 12.18, note that the span from eartip to eartip is about the height of the elephant.
The dense packing of veins and arteries in the elephant’s ears finds a difference in five degrees in
blood entering and leaving the ears. A second type of African elephant that resides in cooler forested
regions has smaller ears. Perhaps Indian elephants evolved in cooler climates. Another consequence
of scaling: elephants can’t jump!

Scaling is not an easy idea to comprehend for students. Its applications in biology are immense.
Scaling is worthy of study.

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 Chapter 12 Solids

SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 12
RANKING

1. D, A, B, C

2. a. C, B, A
b. C, B, A
c. C, B, A
d. C, B, A
e. A, B, C

EXERCISES

1. Both the same, for 1000 mg = 1 g.

2. Disagree, for it is the arrangement of atoms and molecules that distinguishes a solid and from a
liquid.

3. The carbon that comprises most of the mass of a tree originates from CO2 in the air.

4. Physical properties involve the order, bonding, and structure of atoms that make up a material,
and on the presence of other atoms and their interactions in the material. The silicon in glass is
amorphous, whereas in semiconductors it is crystalline. Silicon in sand, from which glass is
made, is bound to oxygen as silicon dioxide, while that in semiconductor devices is elemental
and extremely pure. Hence their physical properties differ.

5. Evidence for crystalline structure include the symmetric diffraction patterns produced by
various materials, micrographs such as the one shown by Professor Hubisz in the chapter-
opener photo, the 3-dimensional shape of materials such as quartz, and even brass doorknobs
that have been etched by the perspiration of hands.

6. Density decreases as the volume of the balloon increases.

7. Iron is denser than cork, but not necessarily heavier. A common cork from a wine bottle, for
example, is heavier than an iron thumbtack—but it wouldn’t be heavier if the volumes of each
were the same.

8. The densities are the same, for they are both samples of iron.

9. Density of water decreases when it becomes ice.

10. Its density increases.

11. Density has not only to do with the mass of the atoms that make up a material, but with the
spacing between the atoms as well. The atoms of the metal iridium, for example, are not as
massive as uranium atoms, but due to their close spacing they make up the densest of the
metals. Uranium atoms are not as closely spaced as iridium atoms.

12. Aluminum has more volume because it is less dense.

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13. Water is denser, so a liter of water weighs more than a liter of ice. (Once a liter of water freezes,
its volume is greater than 1 liter.)

14. For one thing, drop both a steel ball on a steel anvil. It will bounce!

15. The top part of the spring supports the entire weight of the spring and stretches more than, say
the middle, which only supports half the weight and stretches half as far. Parts of the spring
toward the bottom support very little of the spring’s weight and hardly stretch at all.

16. All parts of the spring would stretch more nearly the same because the lower part of the spring
would be supporting nearly as much weight as the upper part is supporting.

17. A twice-as-thick rope has four times the cross-section and is therefore four times as strong. The
length of the rope does not contribute to its strength. (Remember the old adage, a chain is only
as strong as its weakest link—the strength of the chain has to do with the thickness of the links,
not the length of the chain.)

18. The concave side is under compression; the convex side is under tension.

19. Case 1: Tension at the top Case 2: Compression at the top

and compression at the bottom. and tension at the bottom.

20. Concrete undergoes compression well, but not tension. So the steel rods should be in the part
of the slab that is under tension, the top part.

21. A horizontal I-beam is stronger when the web is vertical because most of the material is where
it is needed for the most strength, in the top and bottom flanges. When supporting a load, one
flange will be under tension and the other flange under compression. But when the web is
horizontal, only the edges of the flanges, much smaller than the flanges themselves, play these
important roles.

22. The design to the left is better because the weight of water against the dam puts compression
on the dam. Compression tends to jam the parts of the dam together, with added strength like
the compression on an arch. The weight of water puts tension on the dam at the right, which
tends to separate the parts of the dam.

23. Like the dams in the preceding exercise, the ends should be concave as on the left. Then the
pressure due to the wine inside produces compression on the ends that strengthens rather than
weakens the barrel. If the ends are convex as on the right, the pressure due to the wine inside
produces tension, which tends to separate the boards that make up the ends.

24. A triangle is the most rigid of geometrical structures. Consider nailing four
sticks together to form a rectangle, for example. It doesn’t take much effort
to distort the rectangle so that it collapses to form a parallelogram. But a
triangle made by nailing three sticks together cannot collapse to form a
tighter shape. When strength is important, triangles are used. That’s why
you see them in the construction of so many things.

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25. Scale a beam up to twice its linear dimensions, I-beam or otherwise, and it will be four times as
thick. Along its cross-section then, it will be four times as strong. But it will be eight times as
heavy. Four times the strength supporting eight times the weight results in a beam only half as
strong as the original beam. The same holds true for a bridge that is scaled up by two. The
larger bridge will be only half as strong as the smaller one. (Larger bridges have different designs
than smaller bridges. How they differ is what architects and engineers get paid for!)
Interestingly, how strength depends on size was one of Galileo’s “two new sciences,” published
in 1683.

26. Catenaries make up the arches of the ends of an egg. Pressing them together strengthens the
egg. Not so when pressing the sides, which do not constitute catenary shapes, and easily splay
outward under pressure.

27. Since each link in a chain is pulled by its neighboring links, tension in the hanging chain is
exactly along the chain—parallel to the chain at every point. If the arch takes the same shape,
then compression all along the arch will similarly be exactly along the arch—parallel to the arch
at every point. There will be no internal forces tending to bend the arch. This shape is a
catenary, and is the shape of modern-day arches such as the one that graces the city of St. Louis.

28. No, the rods would not be necessary if the shape of the arch were an upside down version of a
hanging chain. Why? Because compression of the stones in the semi-circular design press
outward. Compression in the hanging chain design (catenary) is everywhere parallel to the arch,
with no net sideways components.

29. The candymaker needs less taffy for the larger apples because the surface area is less per
kilogram. (This is easily noticed by comparing the peelings of the same number of kilograms of
small and large apples.)

30. Kindling will heat to a higher temperature in a shorter time than large sticks and logs. Its greater
surface area per mass results in most of its mass being very near the surface, which quickly heats
from all sides to its ignition temperature. The heat given to a log, on the other hand, is not so
concentrated as it conducts into the greater mass. Large sticks and logs are slower to reach the
ignition temperature.

31. The answer to this question uses the same principle as the answer to the previous exercise. The
greater surface area of the coal in the form of dust insures an enormously greater proportion of
carbon atoms in the coal having exposure to the oxygen in the air. The result is very rapid
combustion.

32. More heat is lost from the rambling house due to its greater surface area.

33. An apartment building has less area per dwelling unit exposed to the weather than a single-
family unit of the same volume. The smaller area means less heat loss per unit. (It is interesting
to see the nearly cubical shapes of apartment buildings in northern climates—a cube has the
least surface area for a solid with rectangular sides.)

34. For a given volume, a sphere has less surface area than any other geometrical figure. A dome-
shaped structure similarly has less surface area per volume than conventional block designs.
Less surface exposed to the climate = less heat loss.

35. The surface area of crushed ice is greater which provides more melting surface to the
surroundings.

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36. Curling up presents less surface area to the surroundings.

37. Rusting is a surface phenomenon. For a given mass, iron rods present more surface area to the
air than thicker piles.

38. More potato is exposed to the cooking oil when sliced thinly than in larger pieces. Thin fries will
therefore cook faster than larger fries.

39. The wider, thinner burger has more surface area for the same volume. The greater the surface
area, the greater will be the heat transfer from the stove to the meat.

40. Cupcakes have more surface area per amount of material than a cake, which means there is
more area exposed to the heat that the oven will provide, which means cooking will be
facilitated. This also means the cupcakes will be overcooked if they are cooked for the time
specified for a cake. (Now you see why recipes call for a “shallow pan” or a “deep dish” when
baking times are given.)

41. Mittens have less surface than gloves. Anyone who has made mittens and gloves will tell you
that much more material is required to make gloves. Hands in gloves will cool faster than hands
in mittens. Fingers, toes, and ears have a disproportionately large surface area relative to other
parts of the body and are therefore more prone to frostbite.

42. Strength varies in approximate proportion to the cross-sectional area of arms and legs
(proportional to the square of the linear dimensions). Weight varies in proportion to the volume
of the body (proportional to the cube of the linear dimension). So—other things being equal—
the ratio of strength to weight is greater for smaller persons.

43. Small animals radiate more energy per bodyweight, so the flow of blood is correspondingly
greater, and the heartbeat faster.

44. As an organism increases in size, surface area decreases relative to the increasing size.
Therefore, a large organism such as a human being must have a many-folded intestinal tract so
that the area will be large enough to digest the needed food.

45. The inner surface of the lungs is not smooth, but is sponge-like. As a result, there is an
enormous surface exposed to the air that is breathed. This is nature’s way of compensating for
the proportional decrease in surface area for large bodies. In this way, the adequate amount of
oxygen vital to life is taken in.

46. Cells of all creatures have essentially the same upper limit in size dictated by the surface area per
volume relationship. The nourishment of all cells takes place through the surface by the process
called osmosis. As cells grow they require more nourishment, but the proportional increase in
surface area falls behind the increase in mass. The cell overcomes this liability by dividing into
two cells. The process is repeated and there is life that takes the form of whales, mice, and us.

47. Large raindrops fall faster than smaller raindrops for the same reason that heavier parachutists
fall faster than lighter parachutists. Both larger things have less surface area and therefore less
air resistance relative to their weights.

48. A child, for a child has more surface area per volume, and therefore loses disproportionately
more water to the air.

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 Chapter 12 Solids

49. Scaling plays a significant role in the design of the hummingbird and the eagle. The wings of a
hummingbird are smaller than those of the eagle relative to the size of the bird, but are larger
relative to the mass of the bird. The hummingbird’s swift maneuvers are possible because the
small rotational inertia of the short wings permits rapid flapping that would be impossible for
wings as large as those of an eagle. If a hummingbird were scaled up to the size of an eagle, its
wings would be much shorter than those of an eagle, so it couldn’t soar. Its customary rate of
flapping would be insufficient to provide lift for its disproportionately greater weight. Such a
giant hummingbird couldn’t fly, and unless its legs were disproportionately thicker, it would
have great difficulty walking. The great difference in the design of hummingbirds and eagles is
a natural consequence of the area to volume ratio of scaling. Interesting!

50. The idea of scaling, that one quantity, such as area, changes in a different way than another
quantity, such as volume, goes beyond geometry. Rules that work well for a system of one
size may be disastrous when applied to a system of a different size. The rules for running a
small town well may not work at all for a large city. Other examples are left to you. This is an
open-ended question that may provoke thought—or better, discussion.

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CHAPTER 12 PROBLEMS

mass 5 kg
1 . Density = = . Now the volume of a cylinder is its (round area)  (its height)
volume V
5 kg 5000 g
 (r2h). So density = density = = = 17.7 g/cm 3 .
2
 h 3.143 10 cm
2 3

2. A cubic meter of cork has a mass of 400 kg and a weight of about 4,000 N. Its weight in pounds
is 400 kg  2.2 lb/kg = 880 lb, much too heavy to lift.

3. 50 N is 5/3 times 30 N, so the spring will stretch 5/3 times as far, 10 cm. Or from Hooke’s law;
F 50 N
F = kx; x = = = 10 cm . (The spring constant k = 5 N/cm.)
k 30 N/6 cm

4. When the springs are arranged as in (a), each spring supports half the weight, stretches half as
far (2 cm), and reads 5 N.
In position (b) each spring supports the full weight, each stretches 4 cm, and each reads 10 N.
Both springs stretch 4 cm so the weight pulls the combination down a total distance of 8 cm.

5. (a) Eight smaller cubes (see Figure 12.16).

(b) Each face of the original cube has an area of 4 cm2 and there are 6 faces, so the total area is
24 cm2. Each of the smaller cubes has an area of 6 cm2 and there are eight of them, so their
total surface area is 48 cm2, twice as great.
24 cm 2
(c) The surface-to-volume ratio for the original cube is = 3 cm 1 . For the set of smaller
8 cm 3
48 cm 2
cubes, it is 3
= 6 cm 1 , twice as great. (Notice that the surface-to-volume ratio has the
8 cm
unit inverse cm.)

6. Twice the mass of gold would have twice the volume = 2cm3 = L3. L = 32 cm = 1.26 cm

1 gram 1 cm 3
 7. $700  109  = 2.46  1010 gram  =
$28.40 19.3 gram
9  1 m 3
3 3 3
1.28  10 cm    = 1.28  10 m . Since this is a cube of volume V = L3,
100 cm 
each side L = 3V = 31.28  103m3 = 10.8 m. (this turns out to be more than five times the
total stored in Fort Knox, and about 16 times the world’s annual gold production.

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