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Module SE1M54
Bridge deck loading and analysis
Units 5 : Wind and Water Loading

Presented by Nigel Hewson

Hewson Consulting Engineers Limited
October 2008

Contents of Lecture
Structure of the wind

Wind loading
Drag force
Lift force
Buffeting
Codified rules

Aerodynamic effe cts

Vortex shedding
Galloping / stall flutter
Classical flutter

Wind tunnel testing

Hydrology
Hydraulic loads
Scour

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 Introduction

W ind imposes loads on bridge structures

Gener ally more impact on pier s and substructure design

Maygovern lat eral loads on bearings

Onlyusu ally imp act on deck d esign when d yn amic behaviour o ccurs

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Introduction

W ind loading involves consider able complexities which must b e taken into
account to achieve safe and serviceable design.

W ind can produce ver y large forces in the longitudinal, tr ansverse (drag), and
vertical (lift) directions.

In the UK wind load ing is specified in Clau se 5.3 of BD 37/01.

(This HA docum ent super sed es Part 2 of the UK bridge d esign code BS 5400;
1978 but Part 2; 2006 is similar).

W ind loads are d ealt with using st atic analyt ical procedures. Aerod yn amic
effects are covered in a separate do cument (BD 49/01).

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 Introduction
W ind can cause bridges to oscillate especially when their natural
frequencies fall within a certain range.

This is particu larly true for light flexible structures which can move in
the wind in r esponse to the induced fluctuating lo ads, eg, tall
buildings, long-span bridges, footbridges, to wers and masts.

For most rigid structures, wind loading is not ver y important but the
effects of wind should always b e con sider ed. For long span bridg es
and tall buildings wind loading can domin ate the d esign.

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Structure of wind

Characteristics of w ind
Mean w ind
Fluctuating component

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Design wind speed and how it is determined

Wind is influenced by a number of parameters:

General meteor ological conditions

General geographical features

Height above gr ound

C haracter istics of the ground sur face

Local geogr aphical features

can increase wind speed (funnelling,
acceler ation over hills)
can decr ease wind speed (shielding)
Presence of surrounding buildings
Horizontal dimensions

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Wind is caused by thermal effects in the atmosphere.

This is then modified by general and local geographical
features.

This is further modified by friction with the ground and

interference from obstacles which cause turbulence.

It is convenient to consider the wind as consisting of a

mean component onto which a fluctuating component is
imposed:
v(t) = v + v(t)

The mean component will be averaged over a certain period

of time (e.g, one hour, 3 seconds)

The fluctuating component will have three components

longitudinal
vertical
transverse

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 Mean wind speed profile

The mean wind speed is modified b y friction

and obstacles in the flo w.

This results in a wind which varies with

height above ground.

The gradient wind sp eed, Vgr , resu lts from

general meteoro logical conditions and is
unaffected b yfriction.

The effect is to redu ce the mean wind speed

close to the ground.

The depth of the atmospher ic boundar y layer

(gradient height) depends on the roughness
of the terrain or "exposur e".

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Mean wind speed profile

Various equations have been proposed

to represent the variation of m ean wind
speed with height, e.g.,

V (z) = Vgr ( z / zg ) a

wh ere zg is the d epth of the boundar y

layer or "grad ient height" and a is an
exponent.
Param eter s Vgr, zg , and a d epend on
exposur e t ype.
Other equations have also b een
developed, eg , log law, but are more
complex.

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Mean wind speed profile
V (z) = Vgr ( z / zg ) a

Surface t ype Exponent Gradient Drag

a height (m) coefficient
Zg CD

Open terr ain with few

obstacles, eg, open 0.16 300 0.005
grasslands, farmland with
few trees, open water.
Uniform obstacles 10-15m
in height, eg, residential 0.28 430 0.015
suburbs, small to wns,
woodland.
Large ir regular obstacles,
eg, centres of large cities, 0.40 560 0.050
very broken countr y with
large tr ees.

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Mean wind speed profile

W ind speed is often given to a

referen ce h eight of say 10m.

For the Stonecutters Bridge, Hong

Kong, the wind profile was then given
as:

10m

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Turbulence

Turbulence, the fluctuating compon ent of the wind,

requires the follo wing for a complete description:

Probabilit y densit yfunction: which indicat es the

likelihood that the wind speed will have a given valu e;

Spectral densit y: which expressed the frequency

content of the gusts;

Correlation function: which expr esses the sp atial

extent of the gusts.

Again, various models have been proposed .

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Turbulence

Example of po wer sp ectrum used on the Stonecutters Bridg e, HK

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Turbulence

General turbulence can taken into account by considering

the 3-second gust speed rather than the mean hourly wind
speed.

For normal structures, codes adopt a quasi-static

approach where equivalent static loads are used in
design.

However, there are also situations where the dynamic

loading due to gusts (buffeting) cannot be considered in
such a simplified way and more sophisticated methods
are required. In many instances wind tunnel test are
carried out.

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Wind Load

The load induced by wind is given by the equation:

P = ½ p V2 A CP

wh ere p is the d ensit y of air = 1.226 kg /m3

V is the wind speed
A is the cross-section area
Cp is a pressure coefficient.

W ind loads are indu ced in the longitudinal direction (dr ag)
and in the across- wind dir ection (lift).

Pressure coefficients (Cd , CL ) are norm ally determ ined from

wind tunnel tests)

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Design Wind Speed

In design, we must consider the most extreme conditions to be

expected during the life of the structure. For bridges, which
hav e a design life of 120 y ears (in the UK), we use the wind
speed with a return period of 120 y ears.

We take this f rom wind maps generated using meteorological

data and statistics. In BD 37, f or example, the wind map
presents the "basic" wind speed.

This mean wind speed is then modif ied according to the conditions
at the bridge site.

BD 37/01 (an d other HA doc uments) can be d own loa ded at [Link]
docume [Link]/docume nt/deps/ha/dmrb/i [Link]

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Wind Loading according to BD 37/01

The wind lo ad is given in Clause 5.3.3 of BD 37 as:

P = 0.613 V d2 A 1 CD

wh ere
Vd is the design wind speed
A1 is the cross-section ar ea
CD is the dr ag coefficient.

A r educed load on r elieving areas is also consid ered.

The design wind sp eed is d etermined from meteorological data

collected over a long per iod of time. Statistics are used to
calculate the maximum exp ected wind sp eed.

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Wind Loading according to BD 37/01

The basic wind speed is the hourl y mean wind

speed with an annual probability of being
exc eeded of 0.02 in fl at open country at an
altitude of 10m above sea level.
This is modified to produc e the design wind
speed for a particul ar site.

Vb : Basic wind speed, from m ap

Vs : Site hourly mean wind speed
=Sp Sa Sd Vb
Vd : Design wind sp eed
=Sg Vs

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Wind Loading according to BD 37/01

Vb is given in the wind map (Figure 2).

This is modified by a number of factors:

Sp – probability factor, usually taken as 1.05, 1.0 for

footbridge, and 0.9 for construction stages
Sa – altitude factor, variable for height
Sd – direction factor, dependent on wind direction
Sg – gust factor, depends on terrain

BD 37/01 gives values for all of these factors

depending on specific site conditions.

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Wind Loading according to BD 37/01

Sg – gust factor, depends on terrain

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Wind Loading according to BD 37/01

Sb – bridge & terrain factor

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 Wind Loading according to BD 37/01
Example: Location: London
Basic wind speed: Vb = 21 m/3
Site hourly mean wind speed: Vs = Sp Sa Sd Vb
Design wind speed: Vd =Sg Vs

Sp = 1.05
Sa = 1.05 for 50m above sea level
Sd = 0.85 for South Direction
Sg = Sb Tg Sh ’

= Sb ’ K f Tg Sh ’

= 1.91 x 0.99 x 0.99 x 1.0

for 40m loaded length; 10km from sea
Near edge of town with no significant features
Vd = 36.8 m/s

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Wind Loading according to BD 37/01

Then
Pt = 0.613 Vd2A1 Cd

wh ere
A1 is the area of deck exposed to the wind
and
CD is the dr ag co efficient.

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 Wind Loading according to BD 37/01

Single beam or box girders

Two or more beam box girders
Single plate girders
Two or more plate girders
Truss girders
Parapets and safety fences
Bridge piers
Different erection stages

Drag coefficients are given for a range of bridge

deck types and shapes:

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Wind Loading according to BD 37/01

A1 is the area of deck exposed to the wind

CD is the dr ag co efficient.
For decks;

Determination of ar ea A1 to use for:

Various deck configuration s
Solid par apets
Open par apets
W ithout traffic load
W ith traffic load

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 hewson consulting engineers
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Wind Loading according to BD 37/01

For Pier s
CD is the dr ag co efficient.

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Wind Loading according to BD 37/01
BD 37 specifies:
Partial safety factors for different load com binations
(Wind loading in load combination 2 - Table 1)
Load on relieving areas
Shielding effect
Longitudinal loading
Vertical loading (lift)
Effects of solid/open parapets
Where wind tunnel tests are required
(w here CD and CL are beyond the scope of the code)

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Wind Loading according to BD 37/01

Need to consider:
Transv erse load: Pt
Vertical load: Pv
Longitudinal load: Pl

Load combinations (clause 5.3.6):

1. Pt : Transverse load
2. Pt in combination with +/- Pv
3. Pl : Longitudinal load
4. 0.5Pt in combination with Pl +/- 0.5 Pv

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Wind Loading according to BD 37/01

Partial safety factors (clause 5.3.7)

Wind considered U LS SLS

with
a) Erection 1.1 1.0
b) Dead + superimposed 1.4 1.0
c) Combination 2 loads 1.1 1.0
d) Relieving effects 1.0 1.0

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Wind Loading according to BD 37/01

Stability, clause 5.3.8:

For narrow piers it is necessary to check the

stability of the bridge to overturning when a
heavy vehicle is on the outside lane.

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 Wind Loading to Eurocodes

Eurocode 1 – Part 4 – 1

UK National Annex not yet issued

100 y ears design period

– needs adjusting for UK 120 y ears design life

Applicable to standard bridge lay outs with

constant depths

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Wind Loading to Eurocodes

Eurocode 1 – Part 4 – 1

Vbo = characteristic 10min wind speed at 10m height

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Mean wind velocity, vm(z)

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Turbulence Intensity = Iv(z) = standard dev iation / mean wind velocity

Standard dev iation of turbulence;

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 Aerodynamic effects
In addition to the static (or quasi-static) wind loading,
aerodynamic effects also need to be considered in design

Forms of aerodynamic excitation:

Limited amplitude response
Turbulence response
Vortex shedding
Div ergent amplitude response
Galloping and stall flutter
Classical flutter
Non-oscillatory div ergence

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Aerodynamic effects
Limited amplitude response –
oscillations of limited amplitude caused by shedding of v ortices
Or
oscillations caused by f luctuations in wind

Div ergent amplitude response –

Interaction of pitching movements with lift and drag with angle of
incidence of the wind
Or
coupling between vertical bending and torsional oscillations

Non-oscillatory div ergence –

Caused when rate of change of pitching moment with rotation is

negativ e

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 Turbulence response

The forces and mom ents gen erated b y wind on br idge decks fluctuate
over a wid e rang e of frequencies. If sufficient energ y is present in
frequencyb ands encompassing on e or mor e natural frequen cies of the
structure, o scillations may be cau sed.

Turbulence r esponse, or buffeting, is only important in light, lo w damped

bridges. If the natural frequen cies (in torsion and sh ear) are gr eater than
1 Hz, the effects of turbulen ce m ayb e ignored .

If this condition is not satisfied, d ynam ic analysis mu st be carried out to

determine the amplitudes of vibration.

For long span structures (>500m), the inter action bet ween the br idge and
the wind is complex and wind tunnel tests ar e often carried out

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Vortex shedding

Vortex shedding is a limited amplitude response where

vortices are shed from upper and lower surfaces. This causes
periodic fluctuations in aerodynamic forces.

Resonance can occur if the frequency of vortex shedding

coincides with natural frequency of structure. In extreme
cases failure can occur.
Excitation due to turbulence and vortex excitation can be
tolerated, provided fatigue damage does not occur.
Amplitudes are restricted through damping.
Tuned mass dampers are often used to reduce
excessive vibrations.

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 Aerodynamic effects
Limited amplitude response: could cause dam age (fatigue), but can be designed for.

Divergent amplitude r esponse: amplitudes in crease rap idly so must b e avoided.

Non-oscillator y divergence: instabilit y: must b e avoided

Aerod yn amic effects are g enerally only important for long-span or "light" bridges,
e.g., footbridges, long-span suspen sion bridges.

These effects are covered b y simplified rules in BD 49/01.

This document applied for br idges g ener ally less than 500m. It indicates when wind
tunnel tests are requir ed.

For long span bridg es, wind tunnel tests are g ener ally carried out.

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Vortex shedding from circular cylinder

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 Vortex shedding

Vortex trail in wind tunnel

From Si miu and Scanlan (1978

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Vortex shedding

Satellite photo of Jan Mayen Island

Visualisation of vortex
shedding from surf on the
ocean as a sea current flows
across an island

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Vortex shedding from square

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Vortex shedding from rectangle

Re-attachment

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 Vortex shedding plate

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Vortex shedding

The f requency of v ortex shedding is related to wind

speed by the equation:

S is the Stroudal number ( 0.2 f or a circular cylinder)

n„ is the frequency of vortex shedding
V is the wind speed
D is a reference across-wind dimension

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 Vortex shedding

The worst situation occurs when the wind speed is such

that the frequency of vortex shedding is equal to the natural
frequency (not necessarily the highest wind speed that
can occur). This is termed the "critical" wind speed.

In general there are several modes of vibration and

therefore several critical wind speeds need to be
considered.

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Dynamic response of a structure

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 Vortex shedding

Plate and box girder bridges (decks which present a "bluff' section to the
wind) are prone to v ortex shedding oscillations.

Truss stiffened suspension bridges are generally f ree of v ortex excited

oscillations.

Decks are often designed with an aerodynamic section to reduce the

effects of v ortex shedding.

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Vortex shedding
To reduce vortex shedding effects:

 Shallow deck section

 Perforation of beams to vent air into wake

 Soffit plate close off space between girders

 Tapered fairings or inclined web panels

Avoid high solidity fascias, parapets and

barriers

Use of deflector flaps or vanes

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Helical strakes
used to suppress

vortex shedding
from a chimney

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Stockwell absorber
used to suppress

vortex shedding
from cables

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 Galloping or stall flutter

Galloping is a large (divergent) amplitude oscillation

which occurs in long linear structures such as cables and
bridge decks.

It occurs for certain shapes of deck cross-section when

the v ariation of drag, lift and torsion f orces with angle of
incidence of the wind has certain characteristics.

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Galloping or stall flutter

Galloping can initiate at relatively low wind speeds.

Once this wind speed has been reached, the amplitude of v ibration
continues to increase with wind speed.

This can lead to catastrophic f ailure so must be av oided in design.

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 Classical flutter

This is another large (div ergent) amplitude oscillation

of structures of particular cross-sections and dynamic
properties. It is caused by "stalling" of the airflow and
inv olves coupling betw een the vertical bending and
torsional oscillations.

It occurs w hen the v ertical bending and torsional

natural frequencies are close together in magnitude.

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Non-oscillatory divergence

Non-oscillatory divergence can occur if the aerodynamic

torsional stiffness (ie, the rate of change of pitching moment
with rotation) is negative.

At a critical wind speed, the negative aerodynamic stiffness

becomes numerically equal to the structural stiffness resulting
in a zero total stiffness. The deck then becomes unstable.

This effect has been demonstrated in a wind tunnel but has

never occurred in practice

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 Aerodynamic instability

Galloping
Flutter
non-oscillatory divergence

Unlike buffeting and vortex shedding, these are

instabilities and must not be allowed to occur. BD 49
presents simplified rules to determine the critical wind
speed for these phenomena.

Wind tunnel tests can also be used to ensure that critical

wind speeds, if the occur, are sufficiently greater than the maximum
design wind speed

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BD 49/01

BD 49 presents simplified rules for determining whether

particular bridges are susceptible to aerodynamic effects.

It applied to bridges up to spans of about 500m, and

indicates when bridges are "safe" and when wind tunnel tests
might be necessary.

In general, the critical wind speed are determined and checked

against the maximum design wind speed to ensure that they
have a negligible probability of occurring

BD 49/01 (and other HA documents) can be downloaded at [Link]

[Link]/hWdmrb/[Link]

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 Objectives of BD 49/01

To determine whether a bridge is susceptible to aerodynamic

effects

To provide design values for vortex sheddingloading

To provide guidelines for fatigue damage assessment


To provide guidelines for wind tunnel tests

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Application to existing and new designs

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 Format of BD 49/01

Normal
Normal Normal
construction height Geometr y

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The aerodynam ic susceptibility parameter (BD 49/01, clause 2.1)

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 Flow chart

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Wind Tunnel Tests

W ind tunnel tests are often used to ch eck the aerod ynamic char acter istics
of bridges.

Models should accurately simulat e the extern al cross-sectional details of

the deck including non-structural fittings, eg, parapets, barr ier s, safet y
fences, etc.

Theyshould b e provided with a repr esentative rang e of natural frequencies

and damping values appropriate to the var ious pr edicted modes of
vibration of the bridge.

Due consid eration should b e given to the influ ence of

turbulence and to the effect of in clined wind.

Laminar (ie, smooth) flow can b e used to provide conservative estimates of

critical wind speeds and amp litudes.

BD 49 gives more d etailed advice on wind tunnel testing r equirements

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Wind Tunnel Tests
Wind tunnel tests can be used to determine:
Loads and pressure
distributions due to turbulent wind

Lift, drag and torsional

coefficients

Response to buffeting and

vortex shedding
Determination of critical wind
speed for aerodynamic
instability (galloping, flutter,
divergence)
Sectional model

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Wind Tunnel Tests

Aeroelastic model

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 Bridge Investigation
Purpose:

Suitability
General suitability of the bridge site

Design
Provide data required for design

Construction
Plan best method of construction

Effect of change
Deter mine changes that may arise due to bridge construction

Choice of site
Advise on the relative suitability of different sites

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Bridge Investigation

Investigations requires:

Reconnaissance survey
Preli minary office study and site visit

Site and catchment terrain

Evaluation of terrain and topographic survey

Waterway investigation
Hydrology studies, hydraulic studies, scour
evaluation and prediction, design of scour protection

Soil investigation
Geological studies, sub-surface investigation, field
testing, laboratory testing

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 Hydraulic Action

Adverse hydraulic action is the most common form of bridge

failure. It is therefore essential that sufficient attention is paid to
the prevention of such failures when designing bridges over
rivers, estuaries and flood plains.

Failure can be due to:

Scour
Bank erosion
Hydraulic forces on piers

Hydraulic forces on bridge deck

Debris
Ice forces
Ship collision

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Hydraulic Action

The vulnerability of bridges to damage by hydraulic action

must be minimised.

This can be accomplished by keeping piers and abutments

well away from the water channel, or by ensuring that
foundation depths are kept below the greatest possible scour depth.

Need to consider:
Normal flow
Flood conditions
Scour
Change in direction of flow
(eg, effect of tides, sediment)

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 Hydraulic Action

Hydraulics is a specialist multi-disciplinary subject (structures,

geotechnics, hydrology, hydraulics) and for major structures
hydraulic design should only be undertaken by specialists.

This is only a general introduction to the subject. Text books

and design documents should be consulted for more detailed
information.

Further guidance is given in BA 59: Design of highway bridges

for hydraulic action.

This includes design guidelines for ice, debris and ship

collision, as well as scour

BA 59 (and other HA docu ments) can be downl oaded at h ttp:/[Link]-

[Link] ocumenVdeps/hWdmrb/in [Link]

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Hydraulic Action

BA 59: Design of highway bridges for hydraulic action.

Overall objectives of hydraulic design:

 The effect of the bridge on the existing water regime must be

Minimised

 The design of the bridge should aim to prevent failure due to water
loads, scour, etc.

Designer must

1)Consult with National Rivers Authority or other applicable authority

2)Calculate hydrodynamic forces and potential scour depths in order

to check the adequacy of the structural design.

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 Hydraulic Action

Normal flow

Bridge supports must be designed to resist lateral f orces f rom

water in normal f low conditions. Forces are calculated using the
same formula as f or wind:

P = ½ p V 2 A CP
except that p is the density of water (1,000kg/m 3) rather than air.

Values of Cd can be d etermin ed from Table 9 of BD 37.

Guidance is given in B A 59: Design of high way bridges for h ydrau lic
action.

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Hydraulic Action

Drag factors

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 Hydraulic action

Flood conditions

Flood conditions can exert considerable more load on bridges

and piers than in normal conditions.

Bridges can be overtopped, and then the loads acting on the

deck can be considerable.

The build up of debris and trash can significantly increase the

loads.

Bridge should be designed based on flood return periods of up

to 200 years.

The best approach is to avoid the problem by designing all supports as

f ar as possible from the water channel.

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Hydraulic action
Scour is caused by erosion of the river bed around piers and abutments. It
can cause undermining of the foundations and the ev entual collapse of the
bridge.

Scour at a bridge site has two possible causes

From a general increase in water f low velocity due to constriction of the

channel (general scour);

From a local disturbance due to bridge piers

or abutments placed in the channel
(local scour).

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 Hydraulic action
General scour results in a lowering of the river bed level across the
width of the river. Few formulae are available.

Local scour results in concentrated loss of bed material at the

foundations of piers and abutments. Many formulae are available, often
giving widely differing values.

Where both types occur, the total depth of scour can be taken as the
sum of the general and local scour. More refined methods are available.

Calculations for scour depths are only approximations!

Equations for:
General scour depth (where flow is contained within the channel)
General scour depth (where abutments constrict the flood plain)
Local scour depth

are given in Appendix B of BA 59, along with some sample calculations.

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Hydraulic action
Effects of scour:
Under mining of pier or abutment
Reduction in soil resisting lateral loads on bridge structure
Additional lateral loads due to hydraulic forces on exposed piers
Reduction in bearing capacity of foundations due to removal of
overburden
Reduction in pile capacity due to loss of skin friction
Increased bending stresses in piles
Failure of embankments, retaining w alls, approach roads

Increased corrosion in footings

and piles

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 Hydraulic action

It is not always possible or economic to design bridge elements to

withstand the maximum possible scour.

An alternative is to use scour protection works to prevent or reduce

scour.
Scour protection methods:
Paved inverts
Enlargements or plinths to piers and abutments
Stone or grout bags
Gabion or grouted mattresses.
Sheet piling
Gabion or grouted mattresses.

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Hydraulic action

Scour protection
gabions

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 Scour protection

Gabions for r iver

bank protection

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Hydraulic action

Scour protection
Rip-rap

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 Hydraulic action

Scour protection
Sheet piles

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Some recent examples

Failure from scour at

abutment

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Some recent examples

Bridge washout

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Some recent examples

Scour around
abutment

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Some recent examples

Retaining walls
washed away

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END OF LECTURE

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