Cartesian Coordinates Polar Coordinates

An oldie but a goodie, yet not always the best choice!

Polar 𝑥 = 𝑟 Cos[𝜃] 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 Cartesian
Area of a circle in Cartesian coordinates to 𝑦 to
𝑅 √𝑅2 −𝑦 2 Cartesian 𝑦 = 𝑟 Sin[𝜃] 𝜃 = ArcTan [ ] Polar
𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑥
∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 ⇒ 𝜋𝑅 2
−𝑅 −√𝑅2 −𝑦 2 Unit Vectors
Area of a circle in Polar coordinates
2𝜋 𝑅 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑦 𝑥̂ = Cos[𝜃] 𝜌̂ − Sin[𝜃] 𝜃̂ 𝑟̂ = Cos[𝜃] 𝑥̂ + Sin[𝜃] 𝑦̂
∫ ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 ⇒ 𝜋𝑅 2
0 0 𝑦̂ = Sin[𝜃] 𝜌̂ + Cos[𝜃] 𝜃̂ 𝜃̂ = −Sin[𝜃] 𝑥̂ + Cos[𝜃] 𝑦̂

Area Element Area Element

𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃

Cylindrical Coordinates Spherical Coordinates

𝑥 = 𝜌 Cos[𝜃] 𝜌 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 = 𝑟 Sin[𝜃] Cos[𝜙] 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

𝑦 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )1/2
𝑦 = 𝜌 Sin[𝜃] 𝜃 = ArcTan [ ] 𝑦 = 𝑟 Sin[𝜃] Sin[𝜙] 𝜃 = ArcTan [ ]
𝑥 𝑧
𝑦
𝑧=𝑧 𝑧=𝑧 𝑧 = 𝑟 Cos[𝜃] 𝜙 = ArcTan [ ]
𝑥
Volume Element Volume Element
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑟 2 Sin[𝜃] 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑟 2 Sin[𝜃] 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
 Dot Product Cross Product
𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵
ሬԦ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵
ሬԦ = ൫𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 ൯𝑥̂
= ห𝐴Ԧหห𝐵
ሬԦหCos[𝜃] + + (𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 )𝑦̂
+ + ൫𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 ൯𝑧̂
𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑧̂
ሬԦ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑧̂
𝐵

 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵
ሬԦ is a scalar  𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵
ሬԦ is a vector
2
 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 ሬԦ ∙ 𝐴Ԧ
ሬԦ = 𝐵 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐴Ԧ = ห𝐴Ԧห  𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵 ሬԦ × 𝐴Ԧ
ሬԦ = −𝐵 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐴Ԧ = 0
ሬԦ
 For any unit vector 𝑛̂, 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝑛̂ represents the length  Direction given by right-hand rule and magnitude
of 𝐴Ԧ along the direction 𝑛̂ ห𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵
ሬԦห = ห𝐴Ԧหห𝐵
ሬԦหSin[𝜃] equal to parallelogram area

Law of Cosines

 Triangle defined by vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵

ሬԦ
Proof
 Thirds leg given by 𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵
ሬԦ
𝐶Ԧ ⋅ 𝐶Ԧ = ൫𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵
ሬԦ൯ ⋅ ൫𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵
ሬԦ൯
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
ሬԦห = ห𝑨
ห𝑪 ሬԦห + ห𝑩
ሬሬԦห − 𝟐ห𝑨
ሬԦหห𝑩
ሬሬԦห𝐂𝐨𝐬[𝜽] 2 2
= ห𝐴Ԧห + ห𝐵
ሬԦห − 2 𝐴Ԧ ⋅ 𝐵
ሬԦ

Trig Functions
Cos[0] = 1 Sin[0] = 0
𝜋 ξ3 𝜋 1
Cos [ ] = Sin [ ] =
6 2 6 2
𝜋 ξ2 𝜋 ξ2
Cos [ ] = Sin [ ] =
4 2 4 2
𝜋 1 𝜋 ξ3
Cos [ ] = Sin [ ] =
3 2 3 2
𝜋 𝜋
Cos [ ] = 0 Sin [ ] = 1
2 2
Cos[𝜋 − 𝑥] = −Cos[𝑥] Sin[𝜋 − 𝑥] = Sin[𝑥]
∞ Sin[𝑥 + 𝑦] = Sin[𝑥]Cos[𝑦] + Cos[𝑥]Sin[𝑦]
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑗+1 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
Sin[𝑥] = 𝑥 − + − ⋯ = ∑(−1)𝑗 =
3! 5! (2𝑗 + 1)! 2 Cos[𝑥 + 𝑦] = Cos[𝑥]Cos[𝑦] − Sin[𝑥]Sin[𝑦]
𝑗=0
∞
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥 2𝑗 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 Sin[2𝑥] = 2Sin[𝑥]Cos[𝑥]
Cos[𝑥] = 1 − + − ⋯ = ∑(−1)𝑗 =
2! 4! (2𝑗)! 2 Cos[2𝑥] = Cos[𝑥]2 − Sin[𝑥]2
𝑗=0
= 2Cos[𝑥]2 − 1 = 1 − 2Sin[𝑥]2
 𝐹Ԧ
𝐹Ԧ⊥
Torque
Circular Motion
|𝜏Ԧ| = |𝑟Ԧ|ห𝐹Ԧ⊥ ห
𝐹Ԧ|| 𝑚𝑣 2
𝜏Ԧ = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ θ 𝐹Ԧtot = − 𝑟̂
𝑟 𝑟Ԧ
𝑣Ԧ
𝐹Ԧtot
𝑟Ԧ
𝜏Ԧ  Ex: Geostationary orbit, laboratory
 Bigger wrench yields more torque centrifuge, playground carousel
 Force pointing at base point has 𝜏Ԧ = ሬ0Ԧ  Tighter circles require larger 𝐹Ԧtot

𝑎Ԧ Linearly Accelerating Frame Rotating Reference Frame

Fictitious force ሬሬԦ
𝐹linear = −𝑚𝑎Ԧ Fictitious force ሬሬԦ
𝐹cent = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟Ԧ
𝜔
ሬԦ
 Bus starts moving → Pushed into seat  Turn in a car → Pushed outwards
 Elevator moves up → You feel heavier  Earth rotating → Oblate spheroid

𝑟Ԧ 𝐹Ԧcent
Newton’s Laws
=𝜔 ሬԦ
1st: 𝑎Ԧ = ሬԦ
0 implies 𝑣Ԧ = constant
𝑑𝑝Ԧ
× 𝑟Ԧ
2nd: ∑𝐹Ԧ = = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ (constant 𝑚)
𝑑𝑡
3rd: Equal and opposite forces 𝑣Ԧ𝑚 𝑣Ԧ𝑀
𝑚 𝑀
𝑉[𝑥]
𝑚 𝐸 Energy Momentum Elastic collision with 𝑚 = 𝑀
1
𝐸= 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑉[𝑥] 𝑝Ԧ = 𝑚𝑣Ԧ  Masses swap velocities
2
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝐹[𝑥] = −
𝑑𝑉 
𝑑𝑥
Mass in potential 𝑉[𝑥] Elastic collision with 𝑚 ≪ 𝑀
 𝑚 oscillates between 𝑥1 and 𝑥2  𝑀’s velocity nearly unchanged
 𝑣 = 0 when 𝐸 = 𝑉[𝑥1 ] = 𝑉[𝑥2 ]  𝑚’s velocity increases to 𝑣𝑚 + 2𝑣𝑀

Elastic Collision Inelastic Collision

 𝑣 maximum at minima of 𝑉[𝑥]
Masses rebound elastically → Energy conserved Masses stick together → Energy not conserved
No net force → Momentum conserved No net force → Momentum conserved

Before Collision Before Collision

After Collision After Collision

 Angular Momentum and Kinetic Energy
𝜔CM
𝑦 𝑦
𝜔

𝐿ሬԦ
ሬԦCM
𝑉
𝑅ሬԦCM
𝑟Ԧ 𝑥 𝑥
𝑣Ԧ
𝑚

Point mass Extended body, pure rotation Extended body, general motion
ሬԦ = 𝑚𝑟Ԧ × 𝑣Ԧ
𝐿 ሬԦ = 𝐼𝜔
𝐿 ሬԦ ሬԦ = 𝑀𝑅ሬԦCM × 𝑉
𝐿 ሬԦCM + 𝐼CM 𝜔
ሬԦCM
1 1 2 1 2
1 2
KE = 𝑚𝑣 2 KE = 𝐼𝜔 KE = 𝑀𝑉CM + 𝐼CM 𝜔CM
2 2 2 2

Moment of Inertia Center of Mass

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑚 (About an axis) ∑𝑗 𝑚𝑗 𝑟Ԧ𝑗 ∑ 𝑚 𝑣Ԧ
𝑅ሬԦ CM = ሬԦ CM = 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗
,,,𝑉
∑𝑗 𝑚𝑗 ∑𝑗 𝑚𝑗

Parallel Axis Theorem

1
1D Rod 𝑀𝐿2 𝐼 = 𝐼CM + 𝑀𝑑 2
12
1
Example (1D Rod): 𝐼CM = 12 𝑀𝐿2
𝑙 2 1
About end, 𝐼 = 𝐼CM + 𝑀 ቀ2ቁ = 3 𝑀𝐿2
Hollow
𝑀𝑅 2
Cylinder Perpendicular Axis Theorem
(For flat objects on x-y plane)
𝐼 𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦
1
Example (2D Disk): 𝐼𝑧 = 2 𝑀𝑅 2 out of plane
Solid 1
Cylinder 𝑀𝑅 2 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦 by symmetry → 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦 = 𝑀𝑅 2
1
2 4

Rotational Dynamics
ሬԦ
𝑑𝐿
∑𝜏Ԧ = = 𝐼𝛼 (pure rotation)
𝑑𝑡
Hollow 2
Sphere 𝑀𝑅 2
3

Solid 2 Hollow Sphere

Cylinder 𝑀𝑅 2 Solid Sphere
5
Hollow Cylinder
Solid Cylinder