1. Potentiometer is a device used to compare the e.m.f.
(electromotive force) of two cells,
2. Measure the internal resistance of a cell,
3. Potential difference across a resistor.
4. Displacement sensor
• It consists of a long wire of uniform cross-sectional area and of 10 m in length.
• The material of wire should have a high resistivity and low temperature
coefficient.
• The wires are stretched parallel to each other on a wooden board.
• The wires are joined in series by using thick copper strips. A metre scale is also
attached on the wooden board.
It works on the principle that when a constant current flows through
a wire of uniform cross sectional area, potential difference between
its two points is directly proportional to the length of the wire
between the two points.
• Battery is connected across a resistor via a switch and a rheostat as
shown in the figure below
• The resistor has the uniform electrical resistance per unit length
throughout its length. Hence, voltage drop per unit length of the
resistor is equal throughout its length.
• Electromotive force (emf) is a measurement of the energy that causes current
to flow through a circuit. It is the energy provided by a cell or battery per coulomb of
charge passing through it. It can also be defined as the potential difference across the
terminals of a cell, when no current flows through it.
Using a potentiometer, we can determine the emf of a cell by obtaining the balancing length
l. Here, the fall of potential along the length l of the potentiometer wire is equal to the emf
of the cell, as no current is being drawn from the cell.
Internal resistance
• Internal resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of
current offered by the cells and batteries themselves
resulting in the generation of heat. Internal resistance is
measured in Ohms. The relationship between internal
resistance (r) and emf (E) of cell s given by.
E = I (r + R)
Where, E = EMF i.e. electromotive force (Volts), I = current
(A), R = Load resistance, and r is the internal resistance of
cell measured in ohms.
On rearranging the above equation we get;
E = IR + Ir
• In the above equation, V is the potential difference
(terminal) across the cell when the current (I) is flowing
through the circuit.
• If a cell of emf E and internal resistance r, connected to an
external resistance R, then the circuit has the total resistance
(R+r). The current I in the circuit is given by,
•
This means, V is less than E by an amount equal to the fall of potential
inside the cell due to its internal resistance.
POTENTIOMETERS
1. Potentiometers are not a device, it is a circuit.
2. They are used as displacement sensor
3. They are also used to measure the potential gradient and EMF of the
cell.
4. The potentiometer is an electric circuit in which the resistance can be
changed manually by the sliding contacts.
5. The potentiometer is an electric circuit in which the resistance can be
changed manually by the sliding contacts.
Potentiometric sensors are available in two configurations: linear and
rotary, as shown in Figure, respectively. In both configurations,
resistance change is the result of position variation (x or θ) of a
movable contact (wiper) on a fixed resistor, resulting in an output
voltage change
Potentiometer as displacement sensor
• A known voltage is applied to the resistor
ends. The contact is attached to the moving
object of interest. The output voltage at the
contact is proportional to the displacement
• For the linear displacement potentiometer
circuit diagram shown. The input voltage Vi is 5
volts, so when the sliding contact B is at the
center, the distance AB = BC = 50 mm, the
output voltage Vo is 2.5 volts. Now the sliding
contact point B moves 6 mm towards C.
• Determine:
a - The output voltage reading
Problems
• A resistive positive displacement transducer
with a shaft stroke of 10cm is used in the
circuit of figure below. The total resistance of
potentiometer is 500Ω and the applied
voltage Vi is 15V. If the wiper, W is 7.5cm from
A, what is the value of
• (a) R2 (125Ω)
• (b) Vo (3.75 V)
Potentiometer
circuits: (a) circuit
symbols (voltage
divider and
adjustable
resistor) (b) a
voltage divider
circuit; (c) a
voltage divider
circuit with a
load
The potentiometer R2 in Figure b functions as a voltage divider. The voltage across R2 is the
measured output
If a load RL is placed across R2, as shown in Figure 2.2c, the amount of current “diverted”
from R2 will depend on the magnitude of RL relative to R2. The output voltage across R2
(which is also the load voltage) is then
One drawback of this circuit is that the relationship between Vout and R2 is nonlinear, since Vout =
VS/(R1/R2 + 1). This means that Vout is not proportional to R2. In practice, an operational amplifier
(op-amp) circuit is used
Problems
Problems
Problems
• A resistor of 250 ohms is connected in series with a second resistor
of 750 ohms so that the 250 ohm resistor is connected to a supply
of 12 volts and the 750 ohm resistor is connected to ground (0v).
Calculate the total series resistance, the current flowing through
the series circuit and the voltage drop across the 750 ohm resistor.
Problems
Problems
= 5.4 Volts
• Wear occurs on the resistive element over time, and this condition
is accelerated by contaminates compromising long-term reliability.
• The range of movement of its wiper or slider (and hence the output
signal obtained) is limited to the physical size of the potentiometer
being used.
Construction
• The terminals: potentiometer has three terminals, two fixed
and one variable.
• The wiper: This is the one terminal that slides over a resistive
strip to make an electrical contact.
• The resistive element
Materials for resistive track
• Carbon Composition: This is made from carbon granules and is one
of the most common types of resistive material used, because of its
low cost. It also has a reasonably low noise and lesser wear than
other materials. However, it is not that accurate in its operation.
• Wire wound – These are basically Nichrome wires and are wound
over an insulating substrate. They are mostly used in high power
applications and last really long. They are precise but have limited
resolution.
• Conductive plastic: Often used in high end audio applications, they
have very good resolution but are really costly, and can be used in
low power applications only.
• Cermet: A very stable type of material, it has a low temperature
coefficient and is highly resistant to temperature. Composite
material of ceramic and metal. high temperature resistance and
hardness
Problems
• Potential drop across the two points is
proportional to the length between the points.
Hence potential gradient is given by:
• σ = VAC/L= 5 / 100 = 0.05 V/mm
ΔV= 2.65 – 2.5 = 0.15 Volts.
Thus the displacement of the object is
0.15 / 0.05 = 3 mm
Since the output voltage has become more positive,
the displacement is towards A
• A 270o single-turn 1.5kΩ carbon track rotary
potentiometer is required to provide a 6 volt supply
from a 9 volt battery. Calculate, 1. the angular position
of the wiper on the track in degrees
Problems
Example 2
A piezoelectric sensor is made by fitting a 2.5 cm
× 1 cm rectangular quartz between two metal
plates. The plates can transmit the force to the
piezoelectric element and also serve as
electrodes to collect the electric charges yielded
for output. The quartz has a piezoelectric charge
coefficient of 2.3 × 10−12 C ⋅ N−1 at 20°C. If a 100
N force is applied, find
(1) the stress σ of the sensor,
(2) the electric flux density DΦ,
(3) the output charge Q.
Example 3
An LVDT’s core motion range is −1.5 TO +1.5 cm.
Its linearity over this range is ±0.3%, and its
sensitivity is 23.8 mV ⋅ mm−1. If used to track a
workpiece motion from −1.2 to +1.4 cm, find the
sensor’s expected output voltage and the error
in position determination due to nonlinearity.
Assume a linear transfer function Vout = a Vin.
