BA9204- ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

UNIT I

FOCUS AND PURPOSE

Definition of Organizational Behavior

OB is a study that analyzes and explains the behavior of the workforce acting as
individuals and as groups in an organization. It attempts to apply this knowledge in the effective
management of human resources in an organization. OB is a discipline that studies the effect of
organizational structure and design, and the changes in the organizational environment on the
behavior of the workforce. According to Fred Luthans, OB is “the understanding, prediction, and
management of human behavior in organizations.”

OB is considered as an applied science as it provides theoretical concepts that are

applicable to real life situations. The knowledge gained with regard to the OB practices of one
organization may be applied to several other organizations. Thus, OB can be defined as the
systematic study and application of human aspects in the management of an organization.

Social sciences like psychology, sociology, philosophy, political sciences, and economics
along with research studies contribute to the constant improvement and development of OB as a
scientific discipline

Need and Importance of Organisational Behaviour

Organisational behaviour offers several ideas to management as to how human factor

should be properly emphasised to achieve organisational objectives. Barnard has observed that
an organisation is a conscious interaction of two or more people. This suggests that since an
organisation is Ihe interaction of persons, they should be given adequate importance in managing
the organisation. Organisational behaviour provides opportunity to management to analyse
human behaviour and prescribe means for shaping it to a particular direction.

Understanding Human Behaviour Organisational behaviour provides understanding the

human behaviour in all directions in which the human beings interact. Thus, organisational
behaviour can be understood at the individual level, interpersonal level, group level and inter-
group level.

Organisational behaviour helps to analyse 'why' and 'how' an individual behaves in a

particular way. Human behaviour is a complex phenomenon and is affected by a large number of

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factors including the psychological, social and cultural implications. Organisational behaviour
integrates these factors to provide* simplicity in understanding the human behaviour.

 Interpersonal Level: Human behaviour can be understood at the level of interpersonal

interaction. Organisational behaviour provides • means for understanding the
interpersonal relationships in an organisation. Analysis of reciprocal relationships, role
analysis and transactional analysis are some of the common methods, which provide such
understanding.

 Group Level: Though people interpret anything at their individual level, they are often
modified by group pressures, which then become a force in shaping human behaviour,
Thus, individuals should be studied in groups also.. Research in group dynamics has
contributed vitally to organisational behaviour and shows how a group behaves in its
norms, cohesion, goals, procedures, communication pattern and leadership. These
research results are advancing managerial knowledge of understanding group behaviour,
which is very important for organisational morale and productivity.

 Inter-group Level: The organisation is made up of many groups that develop complex
relationships to build their process and substance. Understanding the effect of group
relationships is important for managers in today's organisation. Inter-group relationship
may be in the form of co-operation or competition.

The co-operative relationships help the organisation in achieving its objectives. Organisational
behaviour provides means to understand and achieve co-operative group relationships through
interaction, rotation of members among groups, avoidance of win-lose situation and focussing on
total group objectives.

 Controlling and Directing Behaviour: After understanding the mechanism of human

behaviour, managers are required to control and direct the behaviour so that it conforms
to the standards required for achieving the organisational objectives. Thus, managers are
required to control and direct the behaviour at all levels of individual interaction.
Therefore, organisational behaviour helps managers in controlling and directing in
different areas such as use of power and sanction, leadership, communication and
building organisational climate favourable for better interaction.

 Use of Power and Sanction: The behaviours can be controlled and directed by the use of
power and sanction, which are formally defined by the organisation. Power is referred to
as the capacity of an individual to take certain action and may be utilised in many ways.

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 Organisational behaviour explains how various means of power and sanction can ,be
utilised so that both organisational and individual objectives are achieved simultaneously.

 Leadership: Organisational behaviour brings new insights and understanding to the

practice and theory of leadership. It identifies various leadership styles available to a
manager and analyses which style is more appropriate in a given situation. Thus,
managers can adopt styles keeping in view the various dimensions of organisations,
individuals and situations.

 Communication: Communication helps people to come in contact with each other. To

achieve organisational objectives, the communication must be effective. The
communication process and its work in inter-personal dynamics have been evaluated by
organisational behaviour.

 Organisational Climate: Organisational climate refers to the total organisational

situations affecting human behaviour. Organisational climate takes a system perspective
that affect human behaviour. Besides improving the satisfactory working conditions and
adequate compensation, organisational climate includes creation of an atmosphere of
effective supervision; the opportunity for the realisation of personal goals, congenial
relations with others at the work place and a sense of accomplishment.

 Organisational Adaptation: Organisations, as dynamic entities are characterised by

pervasive changes. Organisations have to adapt themselves to the environmental changes
by making suitable, internal arrangements such as convincing employees who normally
have the tendency of resisting any changes.

Nature and Scope of Organization Behavior

Behavior-

Behavior is a way how people react to certain situation.

Organization Behavior

Roman J. Alday has defined “O.B as a branch of the social science that seeks to build
theories that can be applied to predicting understanding and controlling behavior in
workorganizations”. Organization Behavior is the study of application of knowledge abouthow
people act within organizations. It is a human tool for human benefit. It appliesbroadly to the
behavior of people in all types of organizations, such as business,government, school and service
organizations.
Natures

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1.It has assumed the status of a distinct field of study. It is a part of general management. It
represents behavioral approach to management.

2.It contains a body of theory, research, application associated when a growing concern for in
work place. Its study helps in understanding human behavior.

3.The study of theories and research experiences of organization facilitates manager for creative
thinking to solve human problems in organizations.

4.This discipline is heavily influenced by several other behavioral sciences and social sciences
like psychology, Sociology and anthropology.

5.It provides rational thinking about people. It concentrates on three level of behavior. They are
individual behavior, group behavior and organizational behavior.

6.O.B. has psychological foundations. The concept like learning, perception, attitude, motivation
etc is borrowed from psychology, sociology and anthropology.

7.Organization behavior is both art and science. It is considered as art because it contains
knowledge about behavior of individuals. It is considered as science because it involves
application of science.

8.Organization behavior is dynamic rather than static. It essence is reflected in change in

behavior of individuals in organization.

9.It attempts to reduce the wasteful activities through economic and psychological means and
thus increasing the effectiveness of the people and the organization.

Scopes

The Different Fields from which Organization Behavior takes its matter include:-
Psychology: Psychology is defined as the study of human behavior which tries to identify the
characteristics of individuals and provides an understanding why an individual behaves in a
particular way. Thus psychology provides us with useful insight into areas such as human
motivation, perceptual processes or personality characteristics.

Sociology: Sociology is the study of social behavior, relationships among social groups and
societies, and the maintenance of social order. The main focus of attention is on the social
system. This helps us to appreciate the functioning of individuals within the organization which
is essentially a socio-technical entity.
Social Psychology:  Social psychology is the study of human behavior in the context of social
situations. This essentially addresses the problem of understanding the typical behavioral
patterns to be expected from an individual when he takes part in a group.

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Anthropology: Anthropology is the science of mankind and the study of human behavior as a
whole. The main focus of attention is on the cultural system, beliefs, customs, ideas and values
within a group or society and the comparison of behavior amongst different cultures in the
context of today’s organizational scenario. It is very important to appreciate the differences that
exist among people coming from different cultural backgrounds as people are often found to
work with others from the other side of the globe.

Economics: Any organization to survive and sustain must be aware of the economic viability of
their effort. This applies even to the non-profit and voluntary organizations as well.

Political Science: Although frequently overlooked, the contributions of political scientists are
significant to understand arrangement in organizations. It studies individuals and groups within
specific conditions concerning the power dynamics.

Framework

Theoretical frameworks such as cognitive framework, behavioral framework, and social

learning framework help in developing an overall model of organizational framework.

Cognitive Framework

The cognitive approach is based on the expectancy, demand, and incentive concepts.
Under this approach, behavior is determined with the help of cognition. The term cognition can
be explained as a psychological process of recollecting information and past experiences.
Cognition, in general, precedes behavior and thus provides inputs regarding a person’s thoughts,
perception, problem solving, and information processing.

The concept of a cognitive framework is clearly explained by Edward Tolman, who

conducted some laboratory experiments on animals. He believed that behavior was the
appropriate unit of analysis, meant for a definite purpose, and was directed towards a goal.
According to Tolman, if a particular event always led to a certain consequence, it could be
assumed that the event would always lead to the same consequence. He further elaborated that
such findings led to the expectancy that a particular event would always have a certain
consequence. The concept of expectancy implied that every organism thought of and was aware
of the goal.

Although there were controversies regarding the contributions of this approach to

behavioral sciences, the framework gained importance after the progress made in the field of
psychology. In OB, the cognitive approach is applied in the analysis of perception, personality
and attitude, goal setting, and motivation.

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Behavior Framework

Ivan Pavlov and John B Watson who pioneered the Behavior theory explained human
behavior with the help of stimulus-response experiments. The duo observed that a stimulus
elicits a certain response, which results in learning. For example, when a person is pricked with a
pin, he immediately flinches. The theory tried to explain the role of physical reflexes in human
beings that contributed to the stimulus-response relationship

BF Skinner further developed this concept and explained operant behaviors that had not
been dealt with by the earlier researchers. Operant behavior indicates voluntary or learned
behavior. After conducting operant conditioning experiments, Skinner concluded that the
consequences of the response of an individual to a stimulus could lead to a particular behavior
rather than the stimulus itself. He concluded that stimuli only managed to prompt a certain
behavior and did not actually cause the behavior. Skinner believed that behavior was a function
of the consequences to response.

Although the Behavior approach is based on the environment, some Behavior scientists
believe that cognitive variables too have a role in this approach. As a result of continuous efforts,
a new area called the social learning approach has evolved, which incorporates both cognitive
and Behavior concepts.

Social Learning Framework

The social learning approach incorporates both the cognitive and behavioral approaches
though it is influenced more by the behavioral approach than the cognitive approach. Like the
Behavior framework, the social learning concept considers behavior as the appropriate unit of
analysis. According to the social learning framework, people are self-aware and make efforts
toward conscientious behavior. They gain knowledge of the environment and accordingly alter
and construct it in a manner that is most suitable to them.

Albert Bandura explained behavior as a continuous reciprocal interaction among

cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants. According to him, the individual through
his/her actions creates an environmental condition that in turn affects his/her behavior. He also
explained that the environmental situation does not necessarily stimulate an individual to
respond; rather, it is the mutual interaction between the environment and the individual that
elicits a response. This experience generates a specific behavior in the

individual. This behavior so observed may help in predicting the future behavior of the
individual.

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A Model of Organizational Behavior

Organizational behavior is a relatively young and developing field. Traditionally, many

theorists like Douglas McGregor used a humanistic approach to OB. Later, theorists like Victor
Vroom, Lyman Porter, and Edwin Locke used cognitive concepts in OB. However, modern
theorists and researchers have been increasingly applying the Behavior approach in OB. They
also emphasize the need to integrate the Behavior and cognitive approaches to develop a
comprehensive model of OB. Since the social learning approach incorporates both the concepts,
the theoretical foundation of OB is based on the social learning approach.

The model is built based on the fact that the cognitive approach helps in understanding
the behavior of human beings whereas the Behavior approach helps in predicting and controlling
human behavior. Edward Thorndike in his book Classic Law of Effect explained that the
Behavior approach held that a particular behavior when followed by positive consequences
would be reinforced and exhibited frequently in an organization, whereas, a behavior that was
followed by an unpleasant consequence would become weak and be exhibited less frequently.
Thus, managing the immediate work environment helps managers to predict and

Control organizational behavior.

The internal causal factors in an organization are cognitively oriented whereas the
external environmental factors are Behaviorally oriented. Therefore, both the approaches have
gained considerable importance in the development of the conceptual model of OB. Hence,
social learning that incorporates both the approaches is used in the OB model.

The OB model based on the social learning approach is termed as the SOBC model,
where S stands for stimulus, O for organism, B for behavior, and C for consequence.

The S-O-B-C model gives the basic framework rather than a complete explanation of OB.

A Model of Organizational Behavior

S – Stimulus is an environmental variable that depicts the environmental situation, both

contextual and organizational.

O – Organism is a cognitive variable that understands organizational participants which

link the environmental situation and the resulting organizational behavior.

B – Represents the organizational behavior.

C – Consequence is an environmental variable that depicts organizational and group

dynamics and the consequences of previous interactions between environmental, personal and
behavioral variables.

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 OB models play a significant role in the management of an organization. Models are
frameworks of description of how things work and are also known as paradigms. Every model in
OB makes certain assumptions regarding the nature of the people working in the organization.
Models of OB not only differ from organization to organization but also from department to
department within an organization. The organizational practices are also largely dependent on a
manager’s personal preferences.

The Autocratic Model

The autocratic model is based on power. Under this model, the person who holds power
has the authority to demand work from workers. This model was widely popular during the
Industrial Revolution. It is based on the assumption that work can only be extracted by means of
pushing, directing, and persuading the employees.

The model empowers managers with authority which might be used for unfair practices
such as suspending the employees for not obeying the orders, giving low pay, etc. Such a work
environment motivates very few employees to exhibit higher productivity. However, the
autocratic model works well under certain conditions, particularly in times of an organizational
crisis.

The Custodial Model

In the custodial model, the emphasis is laid on providing job security to the employees. It
has been observed that employees generally prefer jobs that promise job security. Therefore,
employers offer fringe benefits to strengthen the employee’s confidence in job security. While
this helps in retaining the employees, knowing that they are going to get incentives irrespective
of their job performance might cause the employees to be more laid back in their approach
toward work.

The Supportive Model

The supportive model emphasizes leadership rather than power or money. Under this
approach, leaders promote an environment for the employees to grow while they help in
achieving the organization’s objectives.

Also the support extended by the management motivates the employees to work. The
employees are self motivated to enhance their performance and are not compelled to do so. The
model might not be effective for employees whose lower level needs are not satisfied.
Nevertheless, the supportive model enhances the relationships between the employee and the
employer.

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The Collegial Model

In the collegial model, employees are self-disciplined, self-satisfied, and have specific
goals which motivate them to improve their performance. In this approach, the superior acts
more like a leader who leads the way and motivates employees that to perform at their best. The
term ‘collegial’ refers to a group of persons working for a common purpose. This approach is an
extension of the supportive model.

UNIT II

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

PERSONALITY: (ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR – DR.S.S.KHANKA)

Personality of an individual also affects human behavior. Personality is the total of an

individual’s psycho-physical systems that determine his/her behavior in a given
environment/situation. There may be so many personalities as many persons. Personality means
different things to different people. To some, it means one’s charm, dress and attractiveness, to
others, it means a unitary mode of response to life situations.

The English word ‘personality’ has been derived from the latin word per sonare. It
means ‘ to speak through’. Originally , the term denoted the masks worn by the actors in the
ancient Greek dramas. In this way, personality is used in terms of physical attractiveness.
However, perceiving personality in terms of external appearance is in narrow sense. Personality
includes something more.

‘Personality can e described as how he understands and views himself, and his pattern of
inner and outer measurable traits’.Eg: We find in our day-to-day life that some people are quiet
and passive, while others are loud and aggressive in their behaviours.

Personality can be defined as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with others and environment. In other words, personality is an organized behavior of an
individual to react to a given stimulus in a set manner. This is most often in the form of
consistent response to environmental stimuli.

Personality Types A B C

Can we really differentiate or classify people according to personality types A B C? Will

it be a true measure for scaling an individual? To know more about the personality types A B C,
read on...

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 Any policeman can guarantee that no two men can have identical finger prints.
A psychologist, who is lecturing you about the personality types A B C, can expostulate, "When
it comes to the personalities of men as well as women, like finger prints, the personality of a man
can be classified or typed, based on the common factors that are at the core of each personality
type", he or she may add. But how to go about testing personality types. Every one exhibits,
knowingly or unconsciously, these factors or personality traits which broadcast, like a
lighthouse, what kind of men or women they are, i.e. personality types A B C which they belong
to.

Different Personality Types - A B and C

Human behavior is not only a complex subject to understand, but it is also cursed with the
element of unpredictability. Every one tries to fathom what the next guy is thinking about or how
he or she will act in a certain environment such as the work place.

The advances in the field of psychology and the deeper understanding of the psyche of
men, too, have come up with personality types A B C D. People in a work place such as an office
or factory, can be grouped under any one of the personality types a,b,c, based on the their
behavior and personality traits as follows. If the world is full of people of personality types A B
C only, then it will be a very bleak place to live in. You will be extremely lucky to find a true
specimen of the personality type A B C as described below. Read more on personality traits list.

Personality Type A

The individuals that come under personality type A are of a highly independent nature.
These are the bulldozers in the personality types a, b, c. Their ambition to leave their mark in the
world singles them out from the rest. They are self driven and know the importance of goal
setting, positive thinking and motivation. If you are interested in studying one of the specimens
of personality type A, choose one from the ranks of business leadership. They are competitive in
nature, in fact they thrive on it as if it is the fuel of their life. They are well known for their
sharpness in getting to the heart of the matter in no-nonsense and blunt terms. Individuals of
personality type A are risk takers which characterize an entrepreneurial spirit or mind. They do
have the ability to put on the veil of practicality to solve a problem as and when required. You
will find that open minded individuals of personality type A are the ones who welcome changes
in technology and practices and who don't baulk under the requirements and necessity of change
and success.

Personality Type B

These people can be described as the "bombers" among the personality types A, B and C.
These characters are extroverts to the soles of their boots and think that life is nothing but getting

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under the spotlight and spell binding the rest. Individuals that fall under the personality type B
are human magnets that can attract the attention of the rest in a gathering, effortlessly. This make
their type seem special among the various other personalities. These individuals have a very
engaging personality and when it comes to conversations they are as sleek as eels. Individuals of
personality type B are the people who can sell a fridge to an Eskimo who, after the sale, thanks
all his departed ancestors and the snowman for bestowing the honor of buying something from
this wonderful man. Because of their ability to get tuned in with the people, others find them a
fountain of entertainment and charisma. Turn and focus your microscope to sales
and marketing or to those people in the field of entertainment and you will find them in no time
(aren't they in the limelight too?). Persons of personality type B thrive on the interaction with the
rest. Your act of ignoring them or their efforts is as good as you sticking a knife in their back, for
them. Not being able to to attract your attention or making you sway to their tune, will hurt these
people.

Personality Type C

The apt term to describe these individuals in personality types A, B and C is "seekers". If
you are searching for a promising heir to your microscope, you can choose any person of
personality type C. These are introverts who are interested in details which separates them from
the rest of the types in personality types A, B, C. They could turn heaven and hell upside down
or inside-out, depending on their mood, to find the detail or fact they are interested in, before
taking it to pieces in order to restart the process. These people tend to shrink from social or
human interaction. Arranging facts (these include women and their behavior, how foolish!)
around them, in logical order is what drives these people to no end. This type of a person can live
with an individual of personality type B, as happily as a meditative pound of matter with an
outgoing, bubbling, jesting and noisy pound of antimatter. Yes, personality type C is as exactly
opposite of the personality type B as an electron with the left spin is the antithesis of the one with
the right spin. You can find specimens of personality type C personified in accountants,
computer programmers etc. These people find it difficult to get out of their shell and
communicate with other people, but are tigers when it comes to numbers and logic. Reservedness
is a mark of personality type C and they are cautious, too. Risk taking is not a very attractive
option for these people who tend not to venture into something until they have gone over all the
facts with a fine toothed comb.

Personality Type D

These gentlemen really believe in inertia which they have no shortage of. These people
prefer to stick to the trodden paths and established routines over the uncertainty of change. You
will find, don't train your microscope or binoculars on a stage bathed under a a flood of spotlight,
a true specimen of this type are people engaged as clerks. These are followers of the spent
actions and executors of the direct commands. You will find them doing their best not to stretch

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their neck out when it comes to taking responsibility and risk. With the help of professionals in
the field of personality development and through sheer power of self motivation or self
improvement, these individuals can overcome their handicap to some extent.

It is found that the lifestyles led by individuals of personality types A B C makes them prone to
diseases such as heart attacks and cancer. In reality, an individual is a mixture of personality
traits characterizing personality types A B C. Won't you agree with me that, this makes men
more complex, women more mysterious to understand and the world more colorful? This is why,
a layman, has to work real hard and over a long period of time to know a person in depth. The
personality types A, B and C which can unveiled with the help of a personality test, are just
guidelines to follow in order to know a man and not the absolute truth.

INTROVERTS EXTROVERTS
1)Like quiet for concentration 1)Like variety and action
2)Tend to be careful with details, dislike sweeping 2)Tend to work faster, dislike complicated
statements
3)Have trouble remembering names and faces procedure
3)Are often good at greeting people
4)Like to think a lot before they act, sometimes 4)Often act quickly, sometimes without
without acting thinking
5)Work contentedly alone 5)Like to have people around
6)Have some problems communicating 6)Usually communicate freely
7)Tend not to mind working on one project for a 7)Are often impatient with long slow jobs
long time uninterruptedly
8)Dislike telephone intrusions and interruptions 8)Often do not mind interruptions of
answering the telephone

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONALITY :( ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR –

M.S.MISHRA)

Personality is the outcome of a continuous personal quality development process.

The role of personality becomes clear in a particular situation. Man is born with certain physical
and mental qualities which are developed in the environment of family, society, education, etc.
Personality is recognized in a situation. Personality is the result of personal quality interaction in
a particular condition. The determinants of personality can be classified into three: Heredity,
Environment and Situation.

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Heredity: Heredity has a great influence on biological and mental features. Heredity refers to
the transfer of personal characteristics from father and mother to their children. Based on the
definition of personality, it can be said that it includes external appearance, behavior, social
stimulus, self inner awareness as a permanent organizing force, the particular pattern or
organization of measurable traits, both inner and outer. The contribution of heredity to
personality development is vividly clear for developing external appearance, behavior, social
stimuli, self inner awareness, organizing traits, etc. Heredity influences biological features, brain
stimulation and bio-feedback.

Biological Features: Biological features are developed as per the genes of the parents. A person
is tall or short, fat or thin, handsome or ugly, self-confident or perplexed, has high or low blood
pressure are examples of heredity. The endomorphic, mesomorphic and ectomorphic body
structures are the results of genetic transferences. Physical and psychological characteristics are
transmitted through heredity. Personality traits are similar to the parental or forefathers genetic
code. Biological features are transferred from one generation to another because of the
molecular structure of the genes located in the chromosomes. Research has revealed that
heredity plays a vital role in shaping the biological features. Genetic engineering has revealed
the similarities in biological features of members of the same generation. It has revealed that
personality traits such as aggressiveness, sensibility, drug addiction, intelligence, sociability and
livelihood are determined by genetic endowment.

Brain Stimulation: Heredity has a great impact on brain stimulation. Intelligence and emotions
are usually transmitted from one generation to another. Father and children generally adopt the
same type of brain stimulation. The differences are caused by environment. Electrical
stimulation of brain (ESB) and split brain psychology (SBP) are the outcome of genetic
transmission. They are helpful in moulding employee’s behavior. ESB is used for motivating
employees towards better performances. Managers are trained to use SBP for mobilizing
employees for proper behavior. Split brain psychology has been supported by Indian mythology
where persons with a broader and smaller forehead, big and small ear lobe, big and small eyes,
stronger right or left hemisphere of brain have certain personal characteristics and behavior.
Persons with a broader right hemisphere of brain have a leaning towards truth, welfare, beauty,
justice and kindness. Similarly, persons having a broader left hemisphere of brain are cruel,
strong, bureaucratic and have criminal tendencies. InKathoupanishad, it is stated that persons
with the right part of their body broader and stronger are kind, sympathetic, emotional, spiritual,
holistic, artistic, creative and helpful as the right side is considered the place of the moon.
Similarly, the left is considered the abode of the sun. consequently, persons having a broader
and stronger left part of the body are strong, cruel, logical, practical, dominant, intellectual,
active, dominating and complex. Ancient Indian books have described the functions of electrical
stimulations of the brain as telepathy, emotion, godly appealing and justice loving.

Bio-feedback: Heredity helps the development of a specific bio-feedback . Bio-feedback

training is also influenced by the environment. It causes brain wave patterns, fluctuations in

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blood pressure, temperature, and gastric and saliva secretions. Electronic devices are used to
measure the effects of heart functioning on BFT. Thumb-impression and blood pressure are the
outcome of the bio-feedback which is influenced by heredity. BFT tells us how to control the
body process. It has been preached by Indian philosophers that meditation and self-
concentration develop the BFT. The developed brain will become an asset for human behavior.
Heredity has a distinctive impact on bio-feedback training.

Environment: The environment, wherein a person interacts, has a great impact on personality
development. The environment components are culture, religion, family, school and place of
work.

a. Culture: The accepted norms of social behavior are known as culture. The way in
which people behave with others and the driving force of such functions are considered
significant components of culture. Culture is based on tradition. Cultural factors shape
one’s personality. Children brought up in a traditional culture imbibe the qualities of
traditional norms, attitudes and values. Modern culture has inspired children to become
independent, free-thinking and self-developing. The ideology of the culture is imitated by
the following generations. The personality attributes of independence, aggression,
competition and cooperation are the outcome of cultural interaction. Western and
oriental culture also have a distinctive role in shaping the personality of people. These
are subcultures in a particular type of culture which are also determining factors of
personality.

b. Religion: Religion plays a significant role in shaping one’s personality. Hindus have
different personalities from those of Muslims and Christians. Children in Hindu
Societies learn from the very beginning about hard work and god-fearing attitudes. They
develop frugality and family closeness. Protestants are taught ethics, family system,
friendship and cooperation. Western Christians are open, independent, aggressive,
industrious and cooperative. Muslims are ready to undertake any job and profession and
acquire varying personalities. They are dogmatic, superstitious and have close
personalities.

c. Family: Children learn from their parents, sisters and brothers. Family is the first factor
affecting personality development, after hereditary characteristics are endowed. The
mother is the first teacher in initiating personality development. The father motivates and
modifies the behavior. The socio-economic class of the family has a favorable impact on
the personality. Rich people have different personalities from those of poor people. In
India, caste has differentiated personality features. Higher caste people are more active
and enterprising than those of lower caste. Children develop themselves on the basis of
such models. Social interactions help in personality modification. Children nurtured
under a warm, loving and stimulating environment are positive and active as compared to
children neglected by their parents. Children develop negative and aggressive

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 personalities when neglected. Over attention and over indulgence develop destructive
personalities. The role of the family can be better understood in the light of parental and
sibling influences.

d. Parental Influences: The positive and negative personalities of children are dependent
on their parents’ characteristics and mutual behavior. Children develop negative
personalities if the parents (mother and father) have no cordial relations. A constantly
feuding couple cannot make their children develop positive attitudes. Maladjusted
children have distinctive personalities. They experience separation trauma. Children of
divorces, estranged and inattentive parents have been found to be inept, hostile and
inefficient. Proper parental guidance to children makes them active and efficient. They
develop a lifelong pattern of achievement and upward movement.

e. Siblings Influence: Siblings of the family have personality impacts on each other. The
first child of the family is found to be more responsible and active than the last child of
the family. The order of birth in the family has seen to influence personality
development. If the first child in the family is a daughter, the subsequent male child will
be carefree and comfortable. Similarly, the first male child is more serious and efficient.

f. School: School mates and peers influence each other in personality development. The
learning process helps in the development of children. Personality is the result of a
cognitive and reinforcement process. The content of learning has a great influence on
personality. In India, primary books include the stories of great men. The behavior and
success of great persons become the reference points for personality development. The
school atmosphere, teachers’ behavior and social well-being are the influencing factors of
development.

g. Place of work: Employees learn at the workplace and develop personalities

consequently. A person’s ambitiousness and industriousness, career and procession have
great impacts on personality development. Heredity sets the personality within the limits.
The workplace helps development of persons who adjust themselves to the demands and
requirements of their environment.

Personality development is a socialization process. Organization is a place of socialization

wherein employees learn from each other, get inspiration and try to modify their personalities.
Seers and peers, friends, working partners, father, mother, brothers, sisters, relatives ,
government ideologies, national characters and religious and cultural institutions are the several
factors affecting socialization. Attitudes, values, behavior, and work style are changed as a result
of socialization because people get training and feedback at the workplace.

Situation:

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 Personality is known as personal quality and interaction in a situation. Therefore,
the situation plays a vital role in personality development. A situation is an antecedent to
behavior. A person having a pleasant personality may develop anger in a confronting situation.
People placed in a bureaucratic situation become apathetic, aggressive and non-personal. People
are changed as per situations. One cannot be rigid and strong in his personality. A situation
influences one’s personality. Interaction in a particular situation helps in the development of
personality. It has been observed that many arrogant and indisciplined employees became
humble and disciplined in a particular situation; those having a criminal history may become
powerful and strong administrators; simple teachers are converted into aggressive and dominant
political leaders as a result of countered situations.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (Dr.S.S. KHANKA)

As there are so many definitions of personality, so are theories of personality as well. As

such, there is no consensus among the theorists about the theories of personality. Among
several theories, the more prominent are : type, trait, psychoanalytic, social learning and self
theory. A brief discussion of each follows.

Type Theory:

Like other sciences, the first students of human nature also endeavoured to study human
personality by classifying them into certain types. Personality classification was made on two
bases: (i)Body Build, and (ii) Psychological Factors. In case of body build basis, personalities
were classified into types by establishing relationship between one’s body build/ features and
personality. Accordingly, persons having a short or plumb body build were characterized as
sociable and relaxed, tall and thin persons as restrained, self-conscious and fond of solitude and
those with heavy set mascular body build as noisy, callous and fond of physical activity.
Admittedly, an individual’s body build/physique may exert some influence on his/her
personality, yet the relationship between the two seems much subtle than what such classification
implies.

Personality types on the basis of psychological factors are based on the assumption that
personality is the totality of a person’s interacting sub-systems. Then, personalities are,
accordingly, classified into two types: (i) introverts, and (ii) extroverts. As already mentioned
while discussing types of personalities, introverts are those who primarily look inward at
themselves, avoid social contacts and interaction with others, quiet and enjoy solitude. On the
contrary, extroverts are sociable, friendly, gregarious, aggressive, etc. No doubt, typing
personalities into introverts and extroverts looks simple and interesting, but it does not serve
much of its purpose in understanding personalities in more detail and depth. The reason is that,
as stated earlier also, most of the people to be neither introverts nor extroverts but ambiverts, that
is, they are in between the two extremes of introverts and extroverts.

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Trait Theory:

Some psychologists have tried to understand personality on the basis of individual’s

traits. Trait is an enduring characteristic of a person in which he/she differs from another.
Popular human characteristics include shy, aggressive , submissive,lazy, ambitious, loyal and
timid. In practice, the more consistent the characteristics and more frequently these occur in
diverse situations, the more important traits become in describing a person. Thus, traits can be
described as individual variables or dimensions.

Trait theory is based on the following three assumptions:

1.Traits are common to many individuals but vary in absolute amounts between the individuals.

2.Traits are relatively stable. Their consistent occurance influences the human behavior.

3.One’s trait can be inferred by measuring his/her behavioural indicators.

Allport and Cattell have been among the early psychologists who made efforts to isolate
individual traits. Allport , in his study, identified as many as 17,953 traits. Obviously, predicting
human behavior based on such a large number becomes virtually impossible. Realising the need
for reducing such large number to a manageable one, Cattell first isolated 171 traits and , then,
the same reduced to 16 traits, which he termed as source or primary traits. These 16 traits have
already been listed while describing the types of personalities.

Thus, trait theory of personality attempts to understand how a set of personality variables
exerts on one’s behavior. However, this theory suffers from one lacuna is that it is very
descriptive rather than analytical. In fact, no hard evidence supports trait theory as a valid
measure of personality.

In recent years, John has propounded a personality model called The Big 5 Model. In
this mode, he advocates that the following five basic personality variables/ dimensions underly
all other variables:

1.Extraversion: who is sociable, talkative, and assertive.

2.Agreeableness: One who is goodnatured, co-operative and trusting.

3.Conscientiousness: A Person who is responsible, dependable, persistent and achievement

oriented.

4.Emotional Stability: someone characterized by calm, nervous, enthusiastic, depressed and

insecure.

5.Openness to Experience: A person who is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual.

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Psychoanalytical Theory:

Psychoanalytical theory is yet another type of personality. The basic notion on which
psychoanalytical theory is based on is that human behavior is influenced more by unseen forces
than conscious and rational thoughts. Sigmund Fraud developed psychoanalytical theory based
on his 40 years of writings and clinical practice. Fraud’s clinical experiments on his patients’
behavior led him to conclude that behavior is mainly influenced by unconscious framework.
This unconscious framework is composed of three elements—id, ego and super ego. Fraud
himself considers the division as hypothetical one rather than specific structures of one’s
personality. The reason being the failure of neuroanatomy in properly locating them within the
central nervous system.

A brief description of these three elements i.e., id, ego and super ego, follows:

(i)The Id: The id is innate and the source of psychic energy. It seeks immediate gratification
for biological or instinctual needs. It is like raw and , thus, remains basic to the individual
throughout life. The id follows the basic principal of all human life i.e. , the immediate
discharge of psychic energy (libido) produced by animal drives such as sex and aggression which
if pent up, causes tension in the personality system. The id, by immediately reducing tension,
thus, obeys the pleasure principle. As id knows and obeys no laws and rules, it may result in, as
Fraud himself felt, danger for the person concern and for society as well.

(ii)The Ego: The id is unconscious part while the ego is conscious part of human personality.
The ego is associated with reality. It checks the id through logic and intellect. The ego can best
be described as controlling id through realities. A starving man cannot control or satisfy his
hunger simply by eating images, but by really having food. Thus, here lies the role of ego i.e.
reality in satisfying hunger or reducing tension created by hunger.

(iii)The Super Ego: The super ego represents system of values, norms, and ethic that guide and
govern a person to behave properly in the society. In one sense, the super ego can be described as
conscience. It provides norms and values to ego to determine what is wrong or right at a given
time in given situation/society. In other words, the super ego judges whether an action/ behavior
is right or wrong as per the set norms and standards of the society.

In total , it can be concluded that the id seeks pleasure, the ego verifies reality and the
super ego strives for perfection.

As mentioned earlier, Fraud’s psychoanalytical theory is hypothetical based on

theoretical conception. However, it does not provide any measure for its scientific verification
and validity. That is why this theory is not found very relevant and appropriate in predicting
human behavior. Nonetheless, it provides the idea of unconscious motivation which adds to the
understanding of human behavior in a better manner.

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Social Learning Theory:

In fact, human behavior is generally either learnt or modified by way of

learning.Learning can simply be defined as any change in one’s behavior that occurs as a result
of experience. In other words, learning occurs when an individual behaves as a result of
experience in a manner different from the way he/she formerly behaved.

Learning occurs through two ways: (i)Reinforcement , and (ii) Observing others.
Learning by observing others is also called ‘vicarious learning’. The social learning theory
emphasizes on how an individual behaves or acts in a given situation. This theory holds the
view that the specific characteristics of a situation determine how an individual will behave in
such situation. His/her understanding of the situation and behavior evinced in past in similar
situations may also influence how he/she will behave in given situation. Admittedly, situation
evokes an individual’s behavioural pattern. At the same time, it is also true that an individual’s
behavior also at times influences the situational conditions. Individual, by selectively attending
to what is happening, can prevent certain conditions from impinging on him/her . Thus, the
relationship between the situation and the individual is of reciprocal pattern.

Self Theory:

Carl Rogers is credited with self theory of personality. This theory is also described as
‘Phenomenological’ which studies individual’s subjective experience , feelings and his concepts
of world and self. Rogers self theory is composed of perception of the ‘I’ or ‘me’. The
following four factors are included in self theory:

(i)Self-Image: By nature, every person has certain beliefs about what or who he/she is. In other
words, self-image is one’s image of oneself. This is how one sees oneself.

(ii)Ideal-self: The ideal-self refers to what one would like to look like. The basic line of
difference between self-image and ideal-self is that the former indicates the reality of a person
whereas the latter implies the ideality of the person. The latter one, i.e., ideal self stands more
important to motivate an individual to behave in a particular manner.

(iii)Looking Glass-self: This refers to how others are perceiving the individual. In other words ,
this means the way an individual thinks people perceive about him and not the way people
actually see him. This indicates that one’s belief about self is a reflection of others’ perception
about the person.

(iv)Real-self: The real-self is what one actually is. The first three self-concepts relate to an
individual’s perception about himself/herself. They may be the same or differ from the real-self.

People perceive the same situation differently depending upon their conception of the
situation. This, in turn, influences them to behave differently, Thus, in any attempt of analyzing

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and understanding organizational behavior, the self-concept plays a significant role in
reacting/behaving in a particular manner.

LEARNING (DR .s.s. khanka)

DEFINITION:

According to Stephen p.Robbins, “ Learning is any relatively permanent change in

behaviour that occurs as a result of experience”.

In the opinion of Steers and Porter,” Learning can be defined as relatively permanent
change in behaviour potentiality that results from reinforced practice or experience”.

Components:

a) First, Learning involves change, be it good or bad.

b) Second, the change in behaviour must be relatively permanent. For that matter, a
temporary change in behaviour as a result of fatigue or temporary adaptations are not
considered learning.

c) Third, only change in behaviour acquired through experience is considered learning.

Therefore, a change in individual’s thought process or attitudes, if accompanied by no
change in behaviour, would not be learning. For example, the ability to work that is
based on maturation, disease, or physical damages would not be considered learning.

d) Fourth, some form of experience is necessary for learning. Experience may be acquired
directly through practice or observation or indirectly, as through reading.

e) Finally, learning is not confined to our schooling only. As a matter of fact, learning is a
life-long process.

TYPES OF LEARNERS (internet)

The final principle of learning is the learning styles. Learning style refers to the ability of
an individual to learn. A manager’s long –term success depends more on the ability to learn than
on the mastery of the specific skills or technical knowledge. There are four styles people use
when learning:

 Activists (accommodation),
 Reflectors (divergence),
 Theorists (assimilation),

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  Pragmatists (convergence)
The four styles are based on two dimensions:
1. Feeling versus thinking

2. Doing versus observing

Activists:An activists learns by doing and feeling. He/she tends to learn primarily from hands-
on experience. He or she tends to act on gut feeling rather than on logical analysis. An activist
tends to rely more heavily on people for information while making decisions. He/she seeks
action-oriented careers such as marketing, politics, public relations and management.

Reflectors:A reflector learns by observing and feeling. The reflector has the ability to view
concrete situations from different angles. When solving problems, reflectors enjoys
brainstorming. He or she takes time and analyses many alternatives. Reflector is imaginative
and sensitive to the need of the other people. He/she seeks careers in entertainment, arts and
services sector.

Theorists:A theorists learns by observing and thinking. The theorists is effective at

understanding a wide range of information and putting in to concise and logical form. It is more
important for the theorists that an idea or theory is logical than practical. Theorists tends to be
more concerned with abstract ideas and concept than with people. He/she tends to seek careers
in education, information and science.

Pagmatists:A pragmatists learns by doing and thinking. The pragmatists seeks practical use of
information. When presented with problems and making decisions, the pragmatists tends to
focus on solution. Pragmatist tends to prefer dealing with technical takes and problem rather
than social and interpersonal issues. Pragmatists seeks technical careers in various field and
work at engineering, production supervision, IT and managerial jobs.

TYPES OF LEARNERS

Types of Learners

Many people aren’t aware of this but there are actually many different types of learners
and what we try and do as a teacher is move our students from passive active learning and to do
this in the best possible way we often need to adapt a teaching style to the types of learn that we
have in the classroom.

But before we can understand how to adapt our teaching style, it stands to reason that we
need to actually figure out what types of learners there are in the first place. So in this initial
post, I’m going to talk about the types of learners and their common traits so you can easily
identify the types of learners that your students are.

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Visual learners

 Visual learners learn primarily through the written word and sight.
 They learn well on their own.
 They tend to be readers who diligently take down every word.
 Provide them with written materials and exercises
 Have them write key words and take notes while reading
 Use visuals or graphics
 They will do best reviewing topics in a text book or reviewing their own written notes

Visualisers are pretty common they tend to speak very very fast, described things in the
visual and imagination provoking manner and often exhibit impatience and sometimes a
tendency to interrupt. These students do their best learning when they see and they visualise so
your teaching strategy that these type of students is to use visually pleasing props and materials
that help backup a lesson in hand. For example, when teaching the solar system and the science
behind outerspace it would make great sense to hold up a tennis ball and a football to really bring
to life the difference in sizes between planets — that’s a great example of teaching and visual
students in an effective way.

Auditory Learners

 Auditory learners learn primarily through listening and talking with others.
 They learn well in groups.
 They focus their ears and attention on your words, listening carefully to everything you
say.
 They like to talk rather than write and relish the opportunity to discuss what they’ve
heard.
 They will do best reviewing topics in a group by discussing them and quizzing each other
out loud.

As you can probably imagine, auditory learners very very good at listening. In
comparison to visual learners, auditory learners have a tendency to speak slowly and often sink
in a linear manner.
These are the types of students who would much prefer to have things explained to them
rather than to read written information so in other words they learn by listening and verbalising.
If you have a class of auditory learners you should try and make your lessons come
across in a conversational manner and make them sound effective.

Kinsethetic Learners

 Kinesthetic learners learn best by doing and moving their body.

 This group learns best when they can physically practice what they’re learning.
 They want to have their hands on the keyboard, the hammer, or the test tube because they
think in terms of physical action.
 Encourage underlining and highlighting.

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  Provide real-life simulations and examples
 Offer hands-on activities 

Kinaesthetic learners are the practical people — these are the kind of students who really
learn by actually doing things rather than reading about things or listening to people talk about
things.

Commonly, keen aesthetic learners, are the slowest talkers out of all types of learn, they
tend to make slow decisions and they use all their senses to engage in learning. These people will
make the most out of practical, hands-on lessons — an example would be a technology class
where pupils were asked to build something.

Read-Write Learners

these students really prefer information to be in written form – they like to be able to soak
up information from a book and really emphasised text based input and output.

When teaching these pupils is really important that you asked them to do a lot of reading
and writing and put things in list form. More commonly happens, is that these learners will
indulge in the text and so colossal the information up — they are very good at retaining
information because of their higher than average ability with text and information.

LEARNING PROCESS (M.N.MISHRA)

Stimuli: Stimuli are any objects and language which draw the attention of people. Employees
get stimuli from the actions of their superiors. Superiors tell and advice employees who pay
attention to these stimuli. All the stimuli may not be fully attended to. Literary works are also
stimuli which are given attention by educated employees. Stimuli are provided at jobs by perks
and scores. Universities and colleges also impart stimuli for learning. Stimuli provides quality
performances. Practical training and vocational teaching are forceful stimuli. The stimuli
available at work are numerous . Social, political, cultural and geographical factors provide
varieties of stimuli for learning.

Attention: The degree of attention depends upon the nature of stimuli. All stimuli are not paid
attention to . Technical and interesting stimuli are highly attended. Career oriented stimuli are
generally accepted by employees. The personality levels of employees influence their desires to
learn, motives for need fulfillment and tension reduction. Employees having more values of life
pay more attention to the stimuli for acquiring more knowledge and experience. People’s
creative attitude are favourable factors for learning and paying more attention to available
stimuli.

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Recognition: Attention-paid stimuli are recognized as acceptable factors of improvement and
new life styles. Employees paying attention to stimuli are recognizing the stimuli for learning
purposes. The levels of recognition depend upon the levels of values, preferences, needs and
desires of the employees. When objectives are unclear, employees do not pay attention and do
not recognize the training as a fruitful process of improvement. In the learning process,
unambiguous activities must be observed for recognition by employees as useful factors for their
well being and satisfaction.

Translation: Recognised stimuli are evaluated at the mental level to eliminate the irrelevant
points for accepting a part of the stimulus for changing behaviour. The evaluation and appraisal
of the recognized stimuli helps in reinforcement. An activity will not take place unless it is
found useful by employees. The translation and evaluation process is a crucial point for
implementing the stimuli in behaviour through reinforcement. Employees behave properly
through attitude changes, objectivity, mental and physical development. It is observed in better
performances.

Reinforcement: Reinforced perception is learning. The perception process includes stimuli,

attention, recognition, translation and behaviour. Perception leads to learning , but perception
itself is not learning unless it is reinforced. Repeated action is reinforcement. Reinforcement
maybe positive, negative, punishment and extinction. Learners learn as per their perception
levels. Generally positive reinforcement is more effective for making permanent changes in
behaviour.

Behaviour: Learning change behaviour through reinforcement of perceived knowledge. It

makes permanent changes in behaviour. A temporary change in behaviour is not learning.
Positive behaviour gives rewards to employees.

Reward: Employees expect rewards for learning. If the translated behaviour provides a reward,
it is accepted, otherwise it is not accepted. Employees develop their behaviour into habits.
Rewards may be monetary or non-monetary. A non-monetary reward includes job satisfaction,
status recognition and task achievement. Professional satisfaction is attached to the behaviour
which influences the form of reward. The behaviour of employees decides the level and form of
reward. The reward reinforcement makes employees learn more than positive reinforcement
behaviour.

Habits: A permanent change in behaviour becomes a habit which helps continuous improvement
in behaviour and performance. Employees develop the habit of self-appraisal and development.
It helps to instill creativity and confidence in employees who are encouraged to behave properly
again and again. Right behaviour is reinforced repeatedly. Habits help the development of
capability and capacity of employees. Habits translate theoretical knowledge into practice. Skill
development requires habitual performance.

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Motives: Motives depend on the level of satisfaction. Employees getting more satisfaction
through learning develop high motives. Less satisfied learners have low motives. Learning is
complete only when motives are fully realized and translated into efforts.

Efforts: Habits help achieve good efforts and performance. This is a continuous process.
Efforts are the automatic outcome of good habits which are acquired through the learning
process. Self- development is possible through self-effort. Employees willing to develop
themselves are self-motivated and effort-oriented. Efforts become the stimuli for learning after
development of the standard of employees. Self-learning has been observed when employees
have developed good habits and right motives. The learning process itself provides all these
opportunities.

The learning process is totally associated with the mental process, inspiration and action.
Stimuli reach only the unconscious mind. If it pays attention to stimuli it goes to the inner-level
of the mind at subconscious level. Attention is paid by the subconscious mind which analyses
the stimuli and filters out irrelevant stimuli from the employees angle. The relevant stimuli are
attended to, but a smaller portion of the stimuli attended is recognized by the clear mind.
Recognition of stimuli is done only by the clear mind. The stimuli recognized further go to the
inner part of the mind only when the clear mind has received them and the feeling cell of the
mind evaluates their utilities. A felt mind has the capacity to evaluate and appraise the
recognized stimuli. The evaluated stimuli if found correct are stored at the level of the feeling
cell of the mind. The stored stimuli or retention work for mobilizing the function through
reinforcement. Repeat and recall are mobilizing factors for action. Similarly, a tense mind gets
reinforcement; it compels and forces the heart to activate the body for action and behaviour.
Intensity at the mental level activates the heart to function. The level , quality and direction of
intensity give the behavioural function a real shape. Behaviour is the outcome of intensified
stimuli and the heart’s activitisation. Behaviour producing reward helps the mental process to
think and rethink again and again at all the five levels of the mind. The reward itself becomes a
stimulus which is attended, recognized, translated and reinforced respectively by the
unconscious, subconscious, clear, felt and intense mind. It reaches to the heart level, and
consequently this process develops into a habit. Permanent changes in behaviour converge in the
form of a habit.

Employees learn to behave properly. The process will be more effective if each and
every process is given due importance and placed at the respective level.

LEARNING THEORIES (OB – Dr.S.S.Khanka)

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 The most basic purpose of learning theory like any other is to better
explain how learning occurs. Attempts have been made by the psychologists and behavioural
scientists to develop theories of learning. To date, the most widely recognized theories of
learning are four : classical conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitive and social learning
theories.

Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning is modifying behaviour so that a conditioned

stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and elicits an unconditioned behaviour. Ivan
Pavlov, a Russian psychologist developed classical conditioning theory based on his
experiments to teach dog to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell. When Pavlov presented
meat (unconditioned stimulus) to the dog, he noticed a great deal of salivation (unconditioned
response). But, when merely bell was rung, no salivation was noticed in the dog. Then, what
next Pavlov did was to link the meat and the ringing of the bell. He did this several times.
Afterwards, he merely rang the bell without presenting the meat. Now, the dog began to salivate
as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the sound of the bell,
even if no meat was presented. In effect, the dog had learned to respond i.e., to salivate to the
bell.

The above cited example is logical, yet classical conditioning has real limitations in its
applicability to human behaviour in organizations – for at least three reasons. First, human
beings are more complex than dogs but less amenable to simple cause-and-effect conditioning.
Second, the behavioural environment in organizations is also complex. Third, the human
decision making process being complex in nature makes it possible to override simple
conditioning. Skinner feels that the complex human behaviour is better learned through operant
learning.

Operant Learning:

What Pavlov did for classical conditioning, the Harvard Psychologist B.F.Skinner did for
operant conditioning. Skinner’s operant conditioning is based on the notion that behaviour is a
function of its consequences, which may be either positive or negative. He argued that creating
pleasant consequences to follow specific forms of behaviour would increase the frequency of
that behaviour. The consequences of behaviour are used to influence, or shape, behaviour
through three strategies: reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Thus, operant conditioning
is the process of modifying behaviour through the use of positive or negative consequences
following specific behaviours.

Difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

After going through classical and operant conditioning theories, a few lines of distinction
between the two can easily be drawn as follows:

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING

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 1. A change in stimulus elicits a particular Stimulus serves as a cue for a person to
response. emit the response.

2. The strength and frequency of classically The strength and frequency of operantly
conditioned behaviours are determined conditioned behaviours are determined
mainly by the frequency of eliciting mainly by the consequences.
stimulus.

3. The stimulus serving as reward is present The reward is presented only if the
everytime. organism gives the correct response.

4. Responses are fixed to stimulus. Responses are variable both in types and
degrees.

Cognitive Theory:

There are some psychologists who believe that neither of the two learning theories
discussed so far can explain all the human learning that takes place. They view that most
problem solving situations are hard to explain in the two manners. It is cognitive theory that
explains such situations.

Let us first understand what cognition means. Cognition refers to an individual’s

thoughts, knowledge, interpretations, understandings or views about oneself, and his/her
environment. Based on it, cognitive theory argues that the person tries to form his/her cognitive
structure in memory, which preserves and organizes all information relating to the events that
may occur in learning situation. Let this be exemplified by an example experimented by Kohler.

Kohler presented two sticks to a monkey in the cage. Both sticks were too short to reach
a banana lying outside cage. This produced an experience, or say, cognition, insight monkey.
What monkey did without any prior exposure, joined both sticks together and pulled the banana
inside the cage. Clearly, learning took place inside the mind of monkey. Thus, the learning
process involved in this case is putting or organizing bits of information in a new manner
perceived inside the mind. This type of learning is very important in organizational behaviour
for changing attitudes by the individuals. That is why, many researchers are currently interested
in knowing the relationship between cognition and organizational behaviour.

Social Learning Theory:

Individuals also learn by observing their models whom they admire. Much of what we
have learned so far came from watching our models like parents, teachers, peers, superiors,

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motion pictures and television. Thus, learning through both observation and direct experience
has been called social-learning theory.

In social learning , a person starts displaying his/her behaviour like that of someone else,
i.e. model. For example, a person who has been promoted to a new job/position may imitate
some of the behaviour of his/her predecessor. Like other learnings, social learning too can have
negative consequences. For example, the subordinates of an organization/department can learn
to come late or display temper tantrums if their senior behaves in this manner.

Usually, the influence that a model will have on an individual is determine by the
following four processes:

1.Attention Process: People can learn from their models provided they recognize, and pay
attention to the critical features. In practice, the models that are attractive, repeatedly available,
or important to us tend to influence us the most.

2.Retention Process: A model’s influence depends on how well the individual can remember or
retain in memory the behaviour/action displayed by him/her when the model is no longer readily
available.

3.Motor Reproduction Process: Now, the individual needs to convert the model’s action into
his/her action. This process evinces how well an individual can perform the modeled action.

4.Reinforcement Process: Individuals become motivated to display the modeled action if

incentives and rewards are provided to them.

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION (OB – L.M.PRASAD)

Organisational behaviour modification is a sophisticated tool for improving the

organizational effectiveness. Derived and developed from the concept of Skinner’s operant
conditioning, this technique is used to modify or eliminate undesirable behaviour and replace it
with behaviour that is more compatible with goal attainment. Behaviour modification
concentrates on a person’s overt behaviour and this allows a manager to realistically try to
observe and deal with outward manifestations of behaviour. It is built around the use of rewards
for observable behaviour. OB Mod can be defined as the techniques for modifying behaviour of
the organizational members so that they are engaged in desirable behaviour. Robbins has
defined OB Mod as follows.

“OB Mod is a programme where managers identify performance- related employee

behaviours and then implement an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable behaviours and
weaken undesirable behaviours”.

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Steps in OB Mod:

OB Mod is a tool and , therefore, managers have to go through certain steps to apply it in
practice. OB Mod exercise begins with identification of critical behaviour relevant to
organizational performance. These behaviours are measured, and if there is no discrepancy
between desirable behaviour and measured behaviour, no further action is necessary. However,
if there is discrepancy , further steps of OB Mod are required . These steps are functional
analysis of behaviour, using intervention strategies for behaviour modification, and finally
evaluating whether the behaviour has been modified in the light of desirable behaviour after the
use of intervention strategies. Thus, OB Mod goes through five steps in modifying the
undesirable behaviour. A discussion of these steps is presented below.

1.Identification of Critical Behaviour: In order to apply OB Mod , it is necessary that critical

behaviours which have significant impact on the performance outcome of the employees should
be identified. Employees may be engaged in several behaviours in the organization. Out of
these, some behaviours may be critical like absenteeism or attendance, tardiness or promptness,
complaints or constructive criticism and doing or not doing a particular task or procedure and
some behaviours may not be critical like bad attitudes or goofing off. Critical behaviours may be
identified through the discussion with the particular employee and his immediate superior as
both are closely intimated with the job behaviours. A systematic behaviour audit can also be
carried on to identify such behaviour. The audit would systematically analyse each job in
question on the pattern of job analysis.

2.Measurement of the Behaviour: After the critical behaviours are identified, these are
measured in terms of the rate at which these are occurring. If the rate of occurrence is within the
acceptable limit (for example, rate of absenteeism at the rate of one per cent), no action may be
required. However, if it is more, it is required to be changed. Measurement of behaviours can be
through either by observing and counting or by extracting from existing records.

3.Functional Analysis of Behaviour: Functional analysis involves a detailed examination of

present behaviours of the employees to determine what consequences each of the behaviours
produces, what conditions lead to their occurrences, etc. It pinpoints one of the most significant
practical problems of using an OB Mod approach to change critical performance behaviours.
Since only contingent consequences of behaviour have an impact on subsequent behaviour,
functional analysis must make sure that the contingent consequences are identified. Further,
functional analysis often reveals that there are many competing contingencies for every
organizational behaviour, therefore, the analysis must not be deluded by the contingent
consequences that, on the surface, appear to be affecting the critical behaviour.

4.Intervention: Identification of critical behaviours to change and the factors that cause such
behaviours will determine the development of an appropriate intervention strategy. Intervention
is the action taken for changing the undesirable critical behaviours. Its main objective is to

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strengthen and accelerate desirable performance behaviour and /or weaken and decelerat
undesirable behaviours. There may be many intervention strategies that can be used, but the
main ones based on the principles of reinforcement, as discussed earlier, are positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement , and withdrawal of positive reinforcement. The strategies
selected must be appropriate to the situation and should produce the desired result.

5.Systematic Evaluation: The final step in OB Mod is the systematic evaluation whether the
intervention strategies are working properly or not. Since the basic purpose of OB Mod is to
bring change in undesirable behaviours so as to improve performance, the evaluation must be
made on this line. Changed behaviours can be compared with baseline behaviours and
deviations can be noted. If there is positive change, it suggests that the strategies are successful.
However, if the change is not significant, it may call for adoption for more appropriate strategies.

Contribution of OB Mod:

OB Mod has been applied successfully in many organizations starting from service
organizations to manufacturing organizations, ranging from some people in the organization to
the entire organization. The major strengths of OB Mod are follows:

1.It deals with observed behaviours. Therefore, it can be put to testing.

2.OB Mod presents a set of tools by which people can learn new behaviours and skills thereby
replacing undesirable behaviours.
3.It provides managers various tools for effectively controlling and influencing the behaviours
Employees in the organization.

4.The understanding of OB Mod techniques is comparatively easy. Therefore, managers can use
these without much problems.

Criticisms of OB Mod:

OB Mod has been applied in many organizations with very encouraging results about
improving morale of employees and increased profit. However, because OB Mod has only
recently been applied to industrial settings, few criticisms have been made against this. Such
criticisms can be divided into three categories: metaphysical and ethical, theoretical and general,
and practical.

Metaphysical and Ethical Problems:

The critics of OB Mod suggest that this technique is an applied rat morphism and tends to
equate human beings with rats. The basic reason of this criticism is that Skinner’s operant
conditioning principles were developed after a series of experiments with white rats. On ethical
ground, the main objections against OB Mod are as follows:

1.OB Mod techniques ignore the individuality of man and constitute a threat to the concept of

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Personal autonomy. These techniques are employed to manipulate and control the human
beings into another person’s concept of ideal person.
2.Behaviour modification restricts freedom of choice of behaviour. Therefore, this works
against the concept of creativity and innovation. Such things are required for successful
working of the organizations.
3.The idea of changing behaviour through reinforcement under OB Mod tantamount to bribery
as some reward is presented when the person shows the behaviour according to the wishes
the change agent.

Theoretical and General Problems:

There have been some criticisms on theoretical ground particularly on the

basis that conceptualization of OB Mod process is highly oversimplified and many variables
affecting human behaviour have not been considered. The main criticisms in this category are as
follows:

1. The OB Mod is based on a simple principle of conditioning. The assumption is made

that individual behaviour is a function of, or is controlled by environmental stimuli, and
that forces internal to the individual have little effect on operant behaviour. However,
empirical evidence suggests that operant behaviour is also a function of certain cognitive
and affective variables residing in the individual like perception, beliefs, expectations,etc.
These variables have not been considered in OB Mod.

2. OB Mod cannot be considered as an innovative and new technique of management. It is

just like old wine in new bottle and new name has been given to the old concepts. In
past, many techniques of behaviour modification have been in practice.

Practical Problems:

Application of OB Mod presents some practical problems in organizations

because organizational settings are different than those in experimental laboratories. Behaviour
modification has been applied primarily with such groups as younger students in schools,
delinquents in institutions, patients with varying behavioural disorders, and mentally retarded.
All these applications have several things in common like.

1.subjects are dependent upon the therapists;

2.they are submissive to the therapists;

3.they have short-time perspective;and

4.they perform only those tasks which are assigned to them.

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 In order to apply behaviour modification, these conditions should be prevalent in
organizational settings. However, organizational settings are different than laboratory settings
and , therefore, behaviour modification cannot be applied in organizational settings, as applicable
to laboratory.

No doubt, OB Mod has been criticized both on theoretical and practical grounds;
however, its usage has been increasing in business organizations. This technique can be applied
in areas of human resource management, resocialisation of workers, management by objectives,
personnel development, job design, compensation and alternative rewards, facilitating change by
positively reinforcing behaviour , and organizational design. The various criticisms point out
that management should take care of the shortcomings of the technique while applying it in the
organization. Thus, this technique should not be treated as panacea for all organizational
behaviour problems but must be applied within the context of its limitations and shortcomings.

MISBEHAVIOUR (INTERNET)

Organisational misbehavior is defined as ‘anything you do at work that you are not
supposed to do’. It is also often identified as behaviour that is unacceptable to management and
may significantly disrupt its functioning. Organisational misbehavior is voluntary and committed
by choice. The intention to misbehave is defined as behaviour exhibited by an individual or
group that is purposeful and can be harmful to a person, the work group, or the organization.

Reasons for the Organisational Misbehaviour:

1.To benefit the individual

2.To benefit the organization

3.With the intention to damage and hurt a particular individual, organization asset or
social unit.

Types :

Organisational Misbehaviour:

1.Rumour and Gossip: Although rumour and gossip are often viewed as misbehavior because
they are often assumed to undermine productivity and reduce employee morale, they are
however important in the workplace because they involve detailed knowledge of not just what is
happening, but also who is doing what, with whom, how and why. Broadly, these can be
depicted as information, influence and entertainment.

2.Workplace Romance: Workplace romance is an informal relationship that occurs between

men and women working together in an organization. The most extreme negative power

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behavior changes influde favouritism towards the partner, defected power, ignoring complaints
about the partner, promoting the partner, flaunting and assuming more power.

3.Workplace Sabotage: Workplace sabotage is another type of misbehavior that demonstrates

employees resistance. Powerlessness is one of the mechanisms that drive employees to engage
in sabotage in order to achieve a sense of authority. It intends to damage, disrupt or subvert the
organisation’s operations by creating unfavourable publicity, embarrassment, delays in
production, damage to property, destruction of working relationships, or the harming of
employees or customers.

4.Employee Theft: Employee theft constitutes one of the most serious types of misbehavior in
organizations. It is estimated that three- quarters of all employees steal from their employers at
least once and many of them repeat such actions on a regular basis.

Common Misbehaviour:

1.Notice Me Behaviours: These behaviours include clowning, cuteness, some eating problems,
interruptions, shyness, showing-off and whining. They are very common in young children who
think that the world revolves around them.

2.Help Me Behaviours: These behaviours include incompetence, laziness, forgetfulness and

untidiness which are all great ways to keep parents in childrens service. When parents respond
to help me behaviours by reminding, tidying and doing things for kids soon become helpless.

Both behavior types achieve the goal of attention. You know you have attention-seeking
behaviours if your feel annoyed or frustrated . And you tend to respond by scolding, crrecting,
reminding or doing tasks for kids, which is B-grade attention but good enough at any rate.

3.Make Me Behaviours: These behaviours include defiance, arguing, dawdling, temper

tantrums and stubbornness. These behaviours let parents that they cant make them do anything
they don’t want to do. The goal is power and control. You know you have power-seeker on
your hands if you feel angry. You actually want to make your child do something. Its not pretty.
If you respond by telling them what to do you often get an argument, more defiance or lack of
cooperation. These kids don’t mind a good scrap

4.Hurt You Behaviours: These hurtful behaviours include hit, stealing, refusal to cooperate and
saying hurtful things. The behaviours vary but the goal is the same to retaliate or hurt others
around them. When confronted with these retaliatory behaviours you feel hurt or even
threatened

Children – Misbehaviour:

1.Attention-Seeking Behaviours: Attention seeking behaviors include behaviours that result in

attention from others, including negative attention such as being punished or ridiculed.

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Examples of attention-seeking behaviours are whining, being silly, or interrupting others. If a
behavior results in feelings of annoyance in others. It is likely an attention-seeking behavior.
Giving a child plenty of attention for positive behavior is the best antidote to attention-seeking
misbehavior.

2.Power-Seeking Behaviours: Power-seeking behaviours are a child’s way of seeking some

control over his circumstances. Examples include debating or arguing, refusal to follow
instructions, or tantrums. Attempts at strict rule enforcement will likely result in more defiant
behaviours. An effective strategy for dealing with power-seeking behaviours is to offer choices
rather than demands.

3.Confidence-Seeking Behaviours: A child who lacks confidence in his abilities may be

described as lazy, unmotivated, sloppy, or forgetful, but these children are saying, “ I cant do it”.
This type of behavior often results in feelings of frustration for others. Parents often reinforce
these behaviours by doing the tasks for the child, rather than encouraging independence.
Providing step-by-step instruction for tasks, along with plenty of positive feedback when each
step is accomplished, is a helpful method to correct this type of behavior.

4.Revenge-Seeking Behaviours: Revenge-seeking behaviours include bullying, vandalism or

aggression against younger or weaker children. Children exhibiting these behaviours are
communicating that they feel unaccepted and a need to get even. They have usually failed to get
their needs met through any of the previous types of misbehavior. They are seeking emotional
responses from others, so responding in a controlled and consistent manner is most effective.
Indicate the rule they have violated, the consequences of breaking that rule, and then follow
through with administering the consequences is essential. Finally , providing positive feedback
for positive behavior will help ensure that those behavior increase.

Management Intervention

EMOTIONS: (Dr.S.S.Khanka)

Emotions and moods vary from person to person and from time to time in case of
same person and, accordingly affect the behaviour. Before we can proceed with our analysis, it
seems pertinent first to clarify the terms emotions and moods and distinguish between the two.

The three terms affect, emotion, and mood are used interchangeably throughout
much of the literature, without distinguishing between them. The confusion, to some extent, may
be a result of the overlap among the concepts of three terms. Though we do not want to obsess
over their definitions, let us define and clarify the differentiation between these three terms.

Of late, the term emotion has become a major variable in psychology and has been
receiving increasing attention in the field of organizational behaviour. Similar to other

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psychological constructs, the exact definition and meaning of emotion are not totally agreed upon.
Different authors have defined emotions differently. According to N.H. Frijda, “Emotions are
intense feelings that are directed at someone or something”. In practice, we show our emotions
when we are happy about something, angry at some person, and afraid of something. For example,
we feel happy or glad when we see our friend after a long time , become angry when our directives
are not followed by our subordinates, and we become afraid of technological changes to replace us
in our organization. Thus, emotions can best be described as how a person feels about something.

Types of Emotions:

What are the types of emotions? Or how many emotions are there? Like the
meaning of emotion, there is also not total agreement on the types of emotions. Some try to list as
many number of emotions as they can. The list includes anger, contempt, enthusiasm, envy, fear,
frustration, disappointment, disgust, happiness, hate, hope, jealousy, joy, love, pride, surprise, and
sadness. There are other researchers who try to limit emotions into a few primary or basic ones
such as anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. They argue that all the others are
composed of some of these six basic emotions. Some researchers have tried to place these six
basic emotions along a continuum ranging from happiness, surprise, fear, sadness, anger to disgust.

1)Positive Primary Emotions:

a)Love/Affection: Acceptance, adoration, longing, devotion, infatuation

b)Happiness/ joy: Cheerfulness, contentment, bliss, delight, amusement, enjoyment, enthrallment,

thrill, euphoria, zest.

c)Surprise: Amazement, wonder, astonishment, shock.

2)Negative Primary Emotions:

a)Fear: Anxiety, alarm, apprehension, concern, qualm, dread, fright, terror

b)Sadness: Grief, disappointment, sorrow, gloom, despair, suffering, dejection.

c)Anger: Outrage, exasperation, wrath, indignation, hostility, irritability.

d)Disgust: Contempt, disdain, abhorrence, revulsion, distaste.

e)Shame: Guilt, remorse, regret, embarrassment, humiliation.

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EMOTIONAL LABOR: (ANNA UNIVERSITY)

Meaning:

Emotional labor is an employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions

during interpersonal transaction at work. The term “ emotional labor” was first defined by the
sociologist Arlie Hochschild as the “management of feeling to create a publicity observable facial
and bodily display”.

Following her piece in which she coined this term, several conceptualizations of
emotional labor have been proposed. Some conceptual ambiguity persists, but each
conceptualization has in common the general underlying assumption that emotional labor involves
managing emotions so that they are consistent with organizational or occupational display rules,
regardless of whether they are discrepant with internal feelings.

According to Morris and Feldman, “Emotional labor is the effort, planning , and
control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions”.

According to Hochschild, jobs involving emotional labor are defined as those that:

1)Require face-to-face or voice-to-voice contact with the public;

2)Require the worker to produce an emotional state in another person;

3)Allow the employees to exercise a degree of control over their emotional activities. Display
rules refer to the organizational rules about what kind of emotion to express on the job.

Forms of Emotional Labor:

Employees can display organizationally- desired emotions by acting out the

emotion. Such acting can take two forms:

1)Surface acting, involves “painting on” affective displays, or faking; Surface acting involves an
employee’s (presenting emotions on his or her “surface” without actually feeling them. The
employee in this case puts on a façade as if the emotions are felt, like a “persona”).

2)Deep acting wherein they modify their inner feelings to match the emotion expressions the
organization requires.

Though both forms of acting are internally false, they represent different intentions.
That is, when engaging in deep acting, an actor attempts to modify feelings to match the required
displays, in order to seem authentic to the audience (“faking in good faith”); in surface acting, the
alternative strategy, employees modify their displays without shaping inner feelings. They
conform to the display rules in order to keep the job, not to help the customer or the organization,
(“faking in bad faith”). Deep acting is argued to be associated with reduced stress and an increased

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sense of personal accomplishment; whereas surface acting is associated with increased stress,
emotional exhaustion, depression, and a sense of inauthenticity.

Emotional Labor in Organizations:

In past, emotional labor demands and display roles were viewed as a

characteristics of particular occupations, such as restaurant workers, cashiers, hospital workers, bill
collectors, counselors, secretaries, and nurses. However, display rules have been conceptualized
not only as role requirements of particular occupational groups, but also as interpersonal job
demands, which are shared by many kinds of occupations.

Determinants of Using Emotional Labor in Organization

1)Societal, occupational, and organizational norms; for example, empirical evidence indicate
that in typically “busy” stores there is more legitimacy to express negative emotions, than there is
in typically “slow” stores , in which employees are expected to behave accordingly to the display
rules; and so, that the emotional culture to which one belongs influences the employees
commitment to those rules.

2)Dispositional traits and inner feeling on the job; such as employee’s emotional
expressiveness, which refers to the capability to use facial expressions, voice, gestures, and body
movements to transmit emotions ; or the employee’s level of career identity (the importance of the
career role to one’s self-identity), which allows him or her to express the organizationally-desired
emotions more easily, (because there is less discrepancy between his or her expressed behaviour
and emotional experience when engage their work).

Supervisory regulation of display rules; That is, Supervisors are likely to be important
definers of display rules at the job level, given their direct influence on worker’s beliefs about
high-performance expectations. Moreover, supervisors impressions of the need to suppress
negative emotions on the job influence the employees impressions of that display rule.

Implications of Emotional Labor:

Researches indicate that emotional labor jobs require the worker to produce an
emotional state in another person. For example, flight attendants are encouraged to create good
cheer in passengers and bill collectors promote anxiety in debtors.

Research on emotional contagion has shown that exposure to an individual

expressing positive or negative emotions can produce a corresponding change in the emotional
state of the observer.

Accordingly, a recent study reveals that employees’ display of positive emotions is

indeed positively related to customers’ positive affect.

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 Positive affective display in service interactions, such as smiling and conveying
friendliness, are positively associated with important customer outcomes, such as intention to
return, intention to recommend a store to others, and perception of overall service quality.

There is a growing body of evidences that emotional labor may lead to employees’
emotional exhaustion and burnout over time, and may also reduce employee’s job satisfaction.
That is, higher degree of using emotion regulation on the job is related to higher levels of
employees’ emotional exhaustion, and lower levels of employees’ job satisfaction.

There is empirical evidence that higher levels of emotional labor demands are not
uniformly rewarded with higher wages. Rather, the reward is dependent on the level of general
cognitive demands required by the job. That is, occupations with high cognitive demands evidence
wage returns with increasing emotional labor demands; whereas occupations low in cognitive
demands evidence a wage “penalty” with increasing emotional labor demands.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Meaning and definition of emotional intelligence

Intelligence is the mental capability of a person and is determined mostly by the structure of one’s
brain

Emotional intelligence is the ability to command respect by building relationships or the ability to
get along with the people and situations

According to Peter salovey and john D.Mayer “EI is the ability to monitor one’s own and
other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to gide
one’s thinking and actions”

According to Daniel Goleman, “Emotional intellgience is the capacity for recognizing our own
feelings and those of others for motivating ourselves and for managing emotions well in ourselves
and in our relationships”

The term ‘Emotional Intelligence (EI) was used by peter Solovey of Yale University and
john Mayer of new Hamphire University for the first time to involve a set of personal and social
abilities of an individual. It was realized that there is a definitely much more success in life than
possessing a high IQ and this realization eventually brought to light the concept of EQ. That is EI
plus IQ will do wonders and was termed as EQ

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ATTITUDE

Attitude is the way in which a person intent to act.

Definition
A pre disposition or a tendency to respond positively or negatively towards a
certain idea,  object, person, or situation.
Attitude influences an individual's choice of action, and responses to challenges, incentives,
and rewards (together called stimuli).

Four major components of attitude are (1) Affective: emotions or feelings. (2) Cognitive:

belief or opinions held consciously. (3) Conative: inclination for action. (4) Evaluative: positive
or negative response to stimuli.

Introduction

Attitudes and values have significant impact on the behaviour of the people both within
the organization as well as with the society. It is a major factor, which affects the behaviour of a
person or an organization.

It manipulates the perception of objects ansd people, exposure to comprehension of information,

choice of friends, co-workers and so on.

Concept of Attitude

Attitude is defined both conceptually and operationally.

Conceptual definition

It is the tendency to respond to some social object.

Attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness organized through experience, exerting
a directive (or) dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations
with which it is related.

Operational definition

The operational definition emphasis on the evaluative nature of attitude. “ Attitude is the
persistent tendency to feel and behave in a favourable and unfavourable way towards some
object, person or ideas”.

Functions

The work situation is interpreted by the individual as per his attitudes which play an
important part. Only after the individual’s interpretation and comparison does the response

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occur. This tells that response is a result of a purely objective and rational consideration of the
work situation and its characteristics may not be the actual response of the individual.

Attitudes are of an important consideration because of their central position in the process
transforming work requirements into effort.

Attitudes have been thought as serving four functions and thereby affecting behaviour as
discussed below:

 Instrumental
 Value – orientation
 Ego – defensive
 Knowledge

Instrumental

Attitudes serve as a means of reaching a desired goal or avoiding an undesired one. Instrumental
attitudes are aroused by the activation of a need or cues that are associated with the attitude
towards an object and arouse favourable or unfavourable feelings.

Value orientation

The value orientation function tales into account attitudes that are held because they express a
person’s values or enhance his self-identity. These attitudes arise from conditions that threaten
self-concept, appeals to reassert the person’s self-image, or by cues that engage the person’s
values and make them salient to him.

Ego – defensive

The ego-defensive function of attitudes recognizes the significance of psychological thought.

Attitudes may be required and maintained to protect the person from facing threats in the
external world or from becoming aware of his own unacceptable impulses. Ego-defensive
attitudes may be aroused by internal or external threats, frustrating events,appeals, by build-up or
represent impulses and suggestions by authoritarian sources. The attitude influences his
behaviour by affecting his perception of the situation.

Knowledge

The knowledge function of attitudes is based on a person’s need to maintain a stable, organized
and meaningful structure of the world. Attitudes that provide a standard against which a person
evaluates aspects of his world serve the knowledge as well.

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE

There are three components namely,

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  Cognitive component
 Affective component
 Behavioural/conative component

Cognitive component

This represents the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. It consists of beliefs and values,
ideas, opinions and other information a person has about the attitude object. For example: the
belief that “discrimination is wrong” is a value statement. Such an opinion is the cognitive
component of an attitude.

Affective component

It is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. It involves the person’s feelings of likes and
dislikes towards the attitude object. For example: I don’t like Jon because he discriminates
against minorities.

Behavioural/conative component

An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something. The tendency of a person
to behave in; a particular manner towards the attitude object is the conative component of an
attitude. So, to continue our example, I might choose to avoid Jon because of my feeling about
him.

FORMATION OF ATTITUDES

Attitudes are not inherited. These are acquired (or) learned by the people from the environment
in which they interact. The formation of attitudes is broadly classified into two sources:

 Direct experience
 Social learning

Direct experience

One’s direct experience with an object or person serves as a powerful source for his/her attitude
formation. Attitudes are formed on the basis of one’s past experience in corcerned object or
person. For example: take your own case, for instance, How do you know that you like
Organizational Behaviour (or) dislike financial management? The answer to it is that you have
formed these attitudes from your experience in studying the two subjects. Research has shown
that attitudes derived from the direct experience are more powerful,stronger,durable and are
difficult to change than are attitudes that are formed through indirect experience. This is because
of their availability in our cognitive processes.

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Social learning

The process of deriving attitudes from family, peer groups, religious organizations and culture is
called social learning. In social learning, an individual acquires attitudes from his/her
environment in an indirect manner.

 Family : Social learning starts from early age when children derive certain attitudes from
parents. Family is the primary group where an individual belongs to. Family exerts
influence on the initial core of attitudes held by an individual. Individuals develop certain
attitudes from family members – parents, brothers, sisters etc. the family characteristics
influence the individual’s early attitude patterns.
 Peer groups and society : Attitudes are derived from peer group also. For example: If
SAXENA has been attending his duty late for some days but co-workers have always
been on-time, Saxena is likely to attend his duty on time.
 Models: Individuals acquire much of their attitudes by merely observing their models
whom they admire and respect. The observer overheads their models expressing their
opinion (or) watches them displaying a behaviour that reflects their attitude. Then the
same attitude is imbibed and displayed by the observer. So, to say, individuals shape their
attitude to align with their models.

Learning attitudes from observation involves the following four processes.

 Attention: attention must be focused on model

 Retention: What was observed from the model must be retained.
 Reproduction: Behaviour must be practiced again and again.
 Motivation: the learner must be motivated to learn from the model.

FACTORS INFLUENCING ATTITUDE FORMATION

1. Group factors
a. Reference group
b. Family
c. Social factors

2. Personality factors
a. Psychological factors
3. Organizational factors

4. Economic factors

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 5. Political factors

1. Group factors
The influence of group on the attitudes of individuals is inversely proportional to the
distance of the group from individual. From the point of view,three types of group have different
types of effect on the attitudes of a person.

a) Reference group: The level of understanding and learning of behavior alternatives is

accomplished efficiently through the influence of reference group. A reference group is any
interacting aggregation of people that influences an individual’s attitudes of behavior. This group
may include family or other types of groupings, either primary or secondary. It provide
significant inputs to an individual’s learning of attitudes and awareness of alternative behaviors
and life-style. It takes place through the process of socialization, which is a process by which a
member learns the value system, the norms and the required behavior patterns of the society,
organizations or groups in which he is entering. Though all groups with which an individual
makes contact have an influence on his attitudes, the values and norms of the primary groups
play a very important role in influencing the attitudes, opinions and beliefs of the members of the
group.

b. Family: Families have an influence on the attitudes of individuals. The family has two
important roles. First, other family members have certain personality characteristics, evaluative
criteria and attitudes and the family as a whole has certain attitudes and values, which are shared
by all other persons. Second, family mediates the influence of the larger social systems on the
individual’s attitudes, values and personality characteristics. As an individual interacts with other
family members, he simultaneously influences both the personality characteristics and attitudes
of others and in turn is influenced by others. Since a family is a primary group, the attitudes of
family memberstend to converge and are typically more homogenous than would be the case if
they were not in the family. Thus he learns from the family members who provide him with
ready-made attitudes on a variety of issues such as education, work, health, religion, politics,
economics etc.

C. Social factors: Social factors have an important impact on an individual’s attitudes. Since
they have the significant work of transmitting cultural behavior patterns to particular group and
families, they define the expectations of the society for groups of people and cultural
expectations to the individual. Thus, social factors check the behavior between individuals of
differing social classes, especially in known relationships. People have close relationships with
people of similar classes, which tends to restrict attitude formation, in a similar pattern, in other
members. This is so, because attitudes and values provide goals, which aid alternative evaluation
and give motivation for research and evaluation.

2. Personality factors

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 Personality factors are significant in attitude formation. Many personality characteristics,
themselves are determined by the group and social factors.
 Psychological factors
The psychological make-up of a person is made up of his perceptions, ideas, beliefs, values,
information etc. it has a crucial role in determining a person’s attitude.

3. Organizational factors
It should be remembered that a worker spends a major part of his life in the institution in
which he works. Thus, organizational factors such as nature of the job, factory or office layout,
fellow workers, quality of supervision play an important role in shaping the job attitudes of a
person.

4. Economic factors

A person’s attitude towards a host of issues such as pleasure, work etc is influenced by economic
factors such as his economic status in the society, rate of inflation in the economy, government’s
economic policies and the country’s economic conditions.

5. Political factors
Policies play a crucial role in the administration of a country. Therefore, political factors
such as ideologies of the political parties, political stability and the behavior of the political
leaders greatly affect the attitudes of the people.

ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT

Attitudes are subjective attributes of people. They can be regarded as constructs in the sense that
they are conceptualization of human qualities that are formed on the basis of either rational
consideration or statistical evidence. Thus, people may vary along a number of attitudinal
dimensions. The following are the classification of methods of attitude measurement:

a. Self report: usually elicited with questionnaires dealing with beliefs, feelings and
behaviours.
b. Indirect tests: such as projective techniques and disguised approaches.
c. Direct observation techniques: by observing employees directly by an observer with the
help of a questionnaire.
d. Psychological reaction technique: by testing psychological reaction of the employee
with the help of questionnaire.

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The three types of attitude scaling which are commonly used in measuring attitude.

a. Thrustone type of scale: it was developed by collecting a large number of statements

relating to the areas in which attitudes were to be measured. The statements relating to
the attitude object are both favourable and unfavourable and are placed in 11 piles with
most favourable statement placed on pile 1, to the most unfavourable one being placed in
pile 11. The scale is then presented to the respondents. Each respondent cheks the
statement with which he agrees. His attitude score is based either on the average or the
median scale of the statements that he has checked.

b. Likert scale: Likert’s attitude scale use five points. The statement relating to the
measurement of attitudes is given to the person concerned and he is asked to check one of
the five points given for every statements. These points show degree of agreement or
disagreement with the given statements.

c. Semantic differential scale: Semantic differential means the successive allocation of a

concept to a point in the multidimensional space by selection from a set of given sealed
semantic alternatives. For any given purpose it consists of several or many pairs of
opposite adjustive or phrases, with scale values in between. In using this scale, the
respondent marks the position along each scale that reflects his attitude to the object.

Scale values( often ranging from 1 to 7) are associated with the different responses and
individual’s attitude score is usually is the sum of these. Apart from these measures of attitudes,
certain other scales have also been developed. These include the Guttman technique, the error-
choice method and the sentence completion method.
VALUES

 Values that a person has are one of the major forces shaping behavior.
 Values are convictions and a framework of philosophy of an individual on the basis of which
he judges what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable, ethical or unethical.
 Rokeach has defined values as “Global beliefs that guide actions and judgements across a
variety of situations”.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VALUE

1. Part of culture: Values are elements of culture and culture is the complex of values,
ideas,attitudes and other meaningful symbols to shape human behavior in the society.
2. Learned responses: Human Behaviour represents learned phenomenon. They have to
learn almost everything about how to be human from experience. This is because human

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 beings live in a society having certain cultural characteristics which prescribe to behave
in a particular way.
3. Inculcated: Values are inculcated and are passed through generation to generation by
specific groups and institutions. Such transmission starts from the family from where the
socialistion process starts. Apart from family, educational, religious and ethnic
institutions also transmit cultural values from generation to another.
4. Social phenomenon: Values are a social phenomenon, that is cultural habits are shared
by aggregates of people living in organized society. An individual’s way of thinking and
behaving is not culture, rather group behavior constitutes culture.
5. Grafting responses: Values exist to meet the biological and other needs of the
individuals in the society. Thus, elements in the culture become extinguished when they
no longer are gratifying to members of the society.
6. Adaptive process: Culture is adaptive, either through a dialectical process or
evolutionary process. Dialectical or sharply discontinuous change occurs when the value
system of a culture becomes associated with the gratification of only one group or class
in the environment. In such a case, other classes of the society reject the logic of the
value system and replace it with a new value system, such as through revolution. In the
evolutionary process, the change occurs slowly as a gradual process, but not through
revolution.

TYPES OF VALUES
There are two basic types of values namely

( i) Terminal values
(ii) Instrumental values

 Terminal values reflect what a person is ultimately striving to achieve. ( E.g family
security, self-respect).
 Instrumental values reflect the way to achieving goals. ( E.g ) honesty, helpfulness,
forgiving nature.

1. ALLPORT’s CLASSIFICATION:
Allport and his associates have categorized values into six major types as follows:

a. Theoritical: This shows high importance on the discovery of truth through reasoning and
systematic thinking.

b. Economic: Emphasis on usefulness and practicability, including the accumulation of

wealth.
c. Aesthetic: places the top most importance on beauty, form and artistic harmony.

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 d. Social: Accords the highest value in people and human relationship.
e. Political: Assigns importance to the acquisition of power and influence.
f. Religious: Have concernwith the unity of experience and understanding of the cosmos as
a whole.

2. GRAVE’S CLASSIFICATION
Graves has classified various personal values into five categories. These are:
a. Existentialism: Orientationof behaviour congruent with existing realities.
b. Conformistic: Orientation towards achievement of material beliefs through control over
physical resources.
c. Sociocentric: Orientation with getting people.
d. Tribalastic: Orientation towards safety by submitting to power.
e. Egocentric: Orientation to survival and power.

3. ENGLAND’S CLASSIFICATION
England has classified personal values into two categories:

a. Pragmatic: A pragmatic is one who takes a pragmatic view of the situation which is
stereotyped; he opts for concepts and actions which appear to him as important and
successful irrespective of good or bad.

b. Moralist: A moralist is one who is guided by the ethical considerations of right or wrong,
honest or dishonest.

FACTORS IN VALUE FORMATION

Values of people have their roots in numerous aspects of contemporary society. These are
value – forming activities of various social institutions, values of an organization, peers and
colleagues in the organization, work and career and professionalisation and professional code of
conduct.
a. Value forming institutions: The life and development of a society are both based upon
and produce values. Therefore, there can be various institutions in the society which
inculcate values in an individual. In particular, there are four major institutions which
provide the sources of values for persons and organizations: family, school, state and
religion. The basic process of value formation by these institutions is that they prescribe
what is good or bad for an individual.
b. Organizational values: Apart from value-forming institutions of the society,
organizations, where the individuals work also shape their values though in a lesser
degree. An organization has its own values which are reflected in the form of collective

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 values of individuals who join it. Where the organizational values do not match with the
individual values, he may either leave the organization or he may adjust himself to the
values of the organization.

c. Peers and Colleagues: An individual gets clue of behaviour from his peers and
colleagues with whom he is associated. An individual in a work group tends to conform
to the group’snorms as long as he values the friendship and approval of his associates or
fears the possibility that they will cut him from rights, privileges and benefits they can
offer.

d. Work and career: work consists of the tasks or responsibilities associated with a
particular job or position in an organization. Essentially work is human energy directed at
the achievement of a desired end. In organizations, this work is organized, directed,
controlled and entrusted to individuals willing to become employees through a more or
less permanent association with the organization. Therefore, each work will have its own
values and persons performing the work will follow that values.

e. Professional codes: A code is found in company operational policies which set up guides
to action that have an ethical content. Since people belong to various professions, they are
also governed by code of conduct framed by their associations. Therefore, Professional
codes are an increasing source of ethical norms for managers in business organizations.

PERCEPTION

Perception is the process of selecting, organizing and interpreting or attaching meaning to the
events happening in the environment.

Robbins has defined perception as follows: “ Perception may be defned as a process by which
individuals organisw and interpret their sensory impressions inorder to give meaning to their
environment”.

Perceptual Process:

Perception is a process consisting of several sub-processes.

Perceptual inputs
Stimuli

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 Perceptual throughputs
Receivingselectingorganizinginterpreting

Perceptual outputs
Actions

The stimuli in the environment – subjects, events, or people can be considered as the
perceptual inputs. The actual transformation of these inputs through the perceptual mechanisms
of selection, organization and interpretation can be treated as the throughputs and the resultant
opinion, feeling, attitudes etc which ultimately influence our behaviour can be viewed as the
perceptual outputs.

Perceptual mechanism:

Perceptual mechanism involves 3 elements – selection of stimuli, organization of stimuli and

interpretation of stimuli.

I. Selection of stimuli:

After receiving the stimuli from the environment, some are selected for further processing while
others are screened out because it is not possible for a person to select all stimuli which he sees
in the environment. These are external and related to stimuli and internal related to the perceiver.

II. Organization of stimuli:

After the stimuli are received, these are organized in some form in order to make sense out of
that. The various forms of organizing stimuli are figure-ground, perceptual grouping,
simplification and closure.

a. Figure ground: this involves that in perceiving stimuli (or) phenomena, the tendency is
to keep certain phenomena in focus and other phenomena are in background.

More attention is paid to phenomena which have been kept as figure and less attention to
phenomena kept in background. For eg: while reading a book, the letters printed are
treated as figure while the page on which the letters have been printed is taken as ground.

b. Grouping: The grouping principle of perceptual organization states that there is a

tendency to group several stimuli into recognizable pattern. People generally group
various stimuli on the basis of proximity and similarity.

(i) Proximity: The proximity (or) nearness principle of grouping states that a group of
stimuli that are close together will be perceived as a whole of parts or pattern of parts

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 belonging together For example: all employees working in a particular department
may be grouped together because of physical proximity and are perceived as such.

(ii) Similarity: The principle of similarity states that the greater is the tendency to
perceive them as a common group. While proximity principle is based on the similar
features of various stimuli irrespective of nearness.

c. Simplification: Whenever people are overloaded with information, they try to simplify it
to make it more meaningful and understandable. Simplification makes the things more
understandable because the perceiver has been able to reduce the complexity by eliminating
some of the things which are less important.

d. Closure: When faced with incomplete information , people fill up the gaps themselves to
make the information meaningful. This may be done on the basis of past experience past data
(or) hunches.

III. Interpretation of stimuli:

The perceptual inputs that have been organized will have to be interpreted by the perceiver so
that he can sense and extract some meaning of what is going on in the situation. People interpret
the meaning of what they have selectively perceived and organized in terms of their own
assumptions of people, things and situations. They also become judgemental as well and tend to
interpret the things as good or bad, beautiful or ugly and so on which are quite relative terms.

IV. Perceptual outputs:

Based on perceptual mechanism which ends with interpretation of stimuli, perceptual output
emerge. These outputs may be in the form of covert action like development of attitudes,
opinions, beliefs, impression about the stimuli under consideration. These outputs along with
other factors may result in overt behavior.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION:

The following are the factors that influence the process of perception

 Characteristics of the perception

 Characteristics of the perceived

 Characteristics of the situation

I.Characteristics of the perceiver:

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1. Personality
2. Mental Set
3. Attribution
4. First impression
5. Halo effect
6. Stereotyping
7. Needs and motives
8. Self-concept
9.Beliefs
II. Characteritics of the perceived

1.Frequency
2. Status
3. Contrast
III. Characteristics of the situation:

The context in which objects or events is seen is important. Elements in the surrounding
environment influence our perception. The time at which an object or event is seen can influence
attention, as can location, light, heat and thus requiring the interaction of atleast two actual
people.

INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION:

Interpersonal perception defines how a person perceives another person. The theoretical
conceptualization of this process can be depicted in “ Johari Window”.

Known to self Not Known to self

Open area Blind area

Known to others

Hidden area Unknown area

Not known to others

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Open area: This cell includes all the factors upon which I and others have mutually shared
perceptions. (ie) people see me the way I see myself.

Unknown area: In this cell are factors that I do not see in myself nor do others see in me.

Hidden area: In this cell are factors that I see in myself but that I hide from others

Blind area: In this cell are factors that other people perceived in me but I do not see in myself.

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

Social perception is concerned with how one individual perceives other individuals. Conversely,
impression management is the process by which the general people attempt to manage or control
the perceptions that others form about them. People often tend to present themselves in such a
way so as to impress others in a socially desirable manner. Thus, impression management has
considerable' implications for activities like determining the validity of performance appraisals.
It serves as a pragmatic, political tool for someone to climb the ladder of success in
organizations.

The Process of Impression Management

As with other cognitive processes, impression management has many possible conceptual
dimensions arid has been researched in relation to aggression, attitude change; attributions and
social facilitation, among other things. Most recently, however, two separate components of
impression management have been identified - impression motivation and impression
construction. Especially in an employment situation, subordinates may be; motivated to control
how their boss perceives them. The degree of this motivation to manage impression will depend
on factors like the relevance that these impressions have on the individual's goals, the value of
these goals, the discrepancy between the image one would like others to hold and the image one
believes others already hold.

Impression construction, the other major process, is concerned with the specific type of
impression people want to make and how they create it. Although some theorists limit the type of
impression only to personal characteristics others include such things as attitudes, physical
status, interests, or values. Using this broader approach, five factors have been identified as being
especially relevant to the] kinds of impression people try to construct: the self-concept, desired
and undesired identity images, role constraints, target values and current social image. Although
there has been a considerable research done on how these five factors influence the type of
impression that people try to make, there is still little known of how they select the way to
manage others' perceptions of them.

Employee Impression Management Strategies

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There are two basic strategies of impression management that employees can use. If employees
are trying to minimize responsibility for some negative event or to stay out of trouble, they may
employ a demotion-preventative strategy. On the other hand, if they are seeking to maximize
responsibility for a positive outcome or to look better than what they really are, then they lean
use a promotion-enhancing strategy.

The demotion-preventative strategy is characterized by the following activities:

 Employees attempt to excuse or justify their actions.

 Employees apologies to the boss for some negative event.
 Employees secretly tell their boss that they fought for the right thing, but were
overruled. Employees using this approach try to disassociate themselves from the group
and from the problem.

The promotion enhancing strategies involve the following activities:

 Employees harbor a feeling that they have not been given credit for a positive outcome.
 Employees point out that they did more, but received a lesser credit.
 Employees identify cither personal or organizational obstacles they had to overcome to
accomplish an outcome and expect a higher credit.
 Employees ascertain that they are seen with the right people at the right times.

MOTIVATION

The word motivation is derived from ‘motive', which means an active form of a desire, craving
or need that must be satisfied. Motivation is the key to organizational effectiveness. The manager
in general has to get the work done through others. These 'others' are human resources who need
to be motivated to attain organizational objectives.

DEFINITION

According to George R. Terry, "Motivation is the desire within an individual that stimulates him
or her to action."

In the words of Robert Dubin, it is "the complex of forces starting and keeping a person
at work in an organization". Viteles defines motivation as "an unsatisfied need which creates a
state of tension or disequilibrium, causing the individual to move in a goal directed pattern
towards restoring a state of equilibrium, by satisfying the need."

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 According to Encyclopaedia of Management. "Motivation refers to the degree of
readiness of an organism to pursue some designated goals and implies the determination of the
nature and locus of force inducing a degree of readiness."

IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION

Motivation is an important part of managing process. A team of highly qualified and motivated
employees is necessary for achieving objectives of an organization because of the following
reasons:

 Motivated employees make optimum use of available resources for achieving objectives.
 Motivation is directly related to the level of efficiency of employees.
 Motivated employees make full use of their energy and other abilities to raise the existing
level of efficiency.
 Motivated employees make goal-directed efforts. They are more committed and
cooperative for achieving organizational objectives.
 Motivated employees are more loyal and sincere to an organization. These factors help
reduce absenteeism and labor turnover.
 Motivation is considered as a backbone of good industrial relations.
 Effectively motivated employees get more job satisfaction and possess high morale.
 Motivation also helps in improving the image of an organization.

The motivation process begins with identification of individual needs. For example, when an
employee feels underpaid then what, then he tries to fulfill his needs by asking for a raise or by
working harder to earn a raise or by seeking a new job. He then chooses to pursue one or more of
these options for instance, working harder while simultaneously looking for a job. If his hard
work resulted in a pay rise, he probably feels satisfied and will continue to work hard. But if no
raise has been provided he is likely to try another option. Since people have many different
needs, the satisfaction of one need or set of needs is likely to give rise to the identification of
other needs. Thus, the cycle of motivation is constantly repeated.

Understanding human motivation is crucial for managing people. Extensive research has
been performed to find out what makes people work and how to motivate them. This includes
managers, social scientists, behaviorists and psychologists. A number of theories have been
developed, even though there is no universally acceptable motivation theory. Understanding
these theories facilitates the managers to get a better insight into the human behavior.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION

There are various types of motivations that can influence a person. These include the following:

Primary or Basic Motivation

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This mainly pertains to motives involved with our need for self-preservation. This includes needs
such as hunger and thirst, warmth, sex, avoidance of pain and other primary motives which
influence a person's behaviour at a very basic level.

Secondary Motivation

More known in psychology as "learned" motivation, this type of "drives" differ from one person
to another. In many ways they involve a person's own sense of values and priorities in life.

Many of the behaviour derived from secondary motivation are conscious ones. That is, a person
consciously desires a particular goal or result, and behaves in a way that brings them closer to
that particular goal. What drives them to do something or to act in a particular way is the longing
for something which they currently do not have or possess.

This kind of motivation generally falls into two basic types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic motivation is likely to involve the concept of rewarded behavior. Thus, by engaging in
a particular type of activity or behaving in a particular manner, you are "rewarded" by a desired
end result.

For instance, you are motivated to save money for a vacation. Hence, you resist the urge to make
impulsive purchases and in general become more discriminating in how you spend your money.
After a time you find that you have a steadily growing amount of savings which you set aside.
When you find that you have saved enough for that trip, you utilize your savings for the intended
purpose and go on vacation. The external motivation is the vacation, which is also the reward for
your act of saving for it.

Internal Motivation

On the other hand, there are other less-visible types of motivation.

It would be a mistake to say that such behaviour does not come without its own rewards. To be
more precise, the end goal is not a visible or external thing, but more internal and psychological.
The achievement of these goals - by itself also correctly seen as a reward - is in general not
visible to other persons.

Thus, for instance, a student is motivated to get good grades (external motivation) or simply, he
desires to know more about a particular subject (intrinsic motivation). Getting good grades is the
reward visible to others. For the student, the fact that he has become an expert in a particular
subject or lesson is also a psychological reward for his intrinsic desire to learn.

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NEED-BASED THEORIES TO MOTIVATION

Need-based theories try to answer the question, "what factor(s) motivate people to choose certain
behaviors?" Some of the widely known need-based theories are as follows:

(a) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow Abraham proposed his theory in the 1940s. This theory, popularly known as the
Hierarchy of Needs assumes that people are motivated to satisfy five levels of needs:
physiological, security, belongingness, esteem and self-actualization needs. The figure 9.1 shows
Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow suggested that the five levels of needs are arranged in accordance with their
importance, starting from the bottom of the hierarchy. An individual is motivated first and
foremost to satisfy physiological needs. When these needs are satisfied, he is motivated and
'moves up' the hierarchy to satisfy security needs. This 'moving up process continues until the
individual reaches the self-actualization level.

Physiological needs represent the basic issues of survival such as food, sex, water and air.
In organizational settings, most physiological needs are satisfied by adequate wages and by the
work environment itself, which provides employees with rest rooms, adequate lighting,
comfortable temperatures and ventilation.

Security or safety needs refer to the requirements for a secure physical and emotional
environment. Examples include the desire for adequate housing and clothing, the need to be free
from worry about money and job security and the desire for safe working conditions. Security
needs are satisfied for people in the work place by job continuity, a grievance resolving system
and an adequate insurance and retirement benefit package.

Belonging or social needs are related to the, social aspect of human life. They include the
need for love and affection and the need to be accepted by one's peers. For most people these
needs are satisfied by a combination of family and community relationships and friendships on

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the job. Managers can help ensure the 'satisfaction of these important needs by allowing social
interaction and by making employees feel like part of a team or work group.

Esteem needs actually comprise of two different sets of needs:

 The need for a positive self-image and self-respect.

 The need for recognition and respect from others.

Organizations can help address esteem needs by providing a variety of external symbols of
accomplishment such as job titles and spacious offices. At a more fundamental level,
organizations can also help satisfy esteem needs by providing employees with challenging job
assignments that can induce a sense of accomplishment.

At the top of the hierarchy are those needs, which Maslow defines the self-actualization
needs. These needs involve realizing one's potential for continued: growth and individual
development. Since these needs are highly individualized and personal, self-actualization needs
are perhaps the most difficult for managers to address. Therefore, an employee should try to
meet these needs on his own end. However, an organization can help his employee by creating a
climate for fulfillment of self-actualization needs. For instance, an organization can help in
fulfillment of these needs by encouraging employee’s participation in decision-making process
and by providing them with an opportunity to learn new things about their jobs and organization.
This process of contributing to actual organizational performance helps employees experience
personal growth and development associated with self-actualizing.

Maslow's concept of the need hierarchy possesses a certain intuitive logic and has been
accepted universally by managers. But research has revealed several shortcomings of the theory
such as some research has found that five levels of needs are not always present and that the
order of the levels is not always the same as assumed by Maslow. Moreover, it is difficult for
organizations to use the need hierarchy to enhance employee motivation.

(b) ERG Theory of Motivation

Clayton Alderfer has proposed an alternative hierarchy of needs - called the ERG Theory of
Motivation. The letters E, R and G stand for Existence, Relatedness and Growth. The figure 9.2
shows ERG theory:

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 ERG Theory the need hierarchy developed by Maslow into three 9.2. The existence needs
in this theory refers to the physiological and security needs of Maslow. Relatedness needs refers
to belongingness and esteem needs. Growth needs refers to both self-esteem and self-
actualization needs.

Although ERG Theory assumes that motivated behavior follows a hierarchy in somewhat the
same fashion as suggested by Maslow, there are two important differences.
 Firstly, ERG theory suggests that more than one kind of need might motivate a person at
the same time. For example, it allows for the possibility that people can be motivated by a
desire for money (existence); friendship (relatedness), and an opportunity to learn new
skills (growth) all at the same time.
 Secondly, ERG theory has an element of frustrations-regression that is missing from
Maslow's need hierarchy. Maslow maintained that one heed must be satisfied before an
individual can progress to needs at a higher level, for example, from security needs to
belongingness. This is termed as satisfaction—progression process. Although the ERG
theory includes this process, it also suggests that if needs remain unsatisfied at some
higher level, the individual will become frustrated, regress to a lower level and will begin
to pursue low level needs again. For" example, a worker previously motivated by money
(existence needs) is awarded a pay rise to satisfy this needs. Then he attempts to establish
more friendship to satisfy relatedness needs. If for some reason an employee finds that it
is impossible to become better friends with others in the work place, he may eventually
become frustrated and regress to being motivated to earn even more money. This is
termed as ‘frustration-regression' process.

The ERG theory emphasis on the following key points regarding needs:

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 o Some needs may be more important than others.
o People may change their behavior after any particular set of needs has been
satisfied.

'X' AND ‘Y' THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Douglas McGregor observed two diametrically opposing viewpoints of managers 'about their
employees; one is negative called "Theory of X" and another is positive called "Theory of Y". I

Theory of X
Following are the assumptions of managers who believe in the "Theory of X" regarding their
employees.

 Employees dislike work.

 Employees must be coerced, controlled or threatened to do the work.
 Employees avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction.
 Most employees consider security of job, most important of all other factors in the job
and have very little ambition.
Theory of Y
Following are the assumptions of managers who believe in the "Theory of Y" regarding their
employees.

 Employees love work as play or rest.

 Employees are self-directed and self-controlled and committed to the organizational
objectives.
 Employees accept and seek responsibilities.
 Innovative spirit is not confined to managers alone, some employees also possess it.

Applicability of Theories 'X' and 'Y'

Theory 'X' in its applicability, places exclusive reliance upon external control of human behavior,
while theory 'Y', relies heavily on self-control -and self-direction.

Theory 'X' points to the traditional approach of management. Literally, this theory of
behavior is related to organizations that lay hard and rigid standards of work-behavior. Some
examples of such organizations are organizations that break down jobs into specialized elements,
establish 'norms of production, design equipment to control worker's pace of work, have rigid
rules and regulations, that are sometimes very vigorously enforced.

Theory 'Y’, on the other hand, secures the commitment of employees to organizational
objectives. This motivational theory places emphasis on satisfaction of employees. While

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applying this theory, the use of authority, as an instrument of command and control is minimal.
Employees exercise self-direction and self-control.

The concepts of 'Job' Enlargement', 'Participation' and 'Management by Objectives' are

quite consistent with theory ' Y'.

McGregor supports the applicability of motivational theory 'Y', instead of theory ‘X'.
Organization should keep in mind that once theory 'X' is employed for organizational working, it
is difficult for the management to shift to theory ' Y', all of a sudden. However, with systematic,
judicious and slow steps, shifting in the practical applicability of theory 'X' to theory ' Y' usually
can be achieved.

UNIT III

GROUP BEHAVIOUR

Organization structure:

An organizational structure consists of activities such as task allocation, coordination and

supervision, which are directed towards the achievement of organizational aims.

An organization can be structured in many different ways, depending on their objectives. The
structure of an organization will determine the modes in which it operates and
performs.Organizational structure allows the expressed allocation of responsibilities for different
functions and processes to different entities such as the branch, department, workgroup and
individual.

Organizational structure affects organizational action in two big ways. First, it provides the
foundation on which standard operating procedures and routines rest. Second, it determines
which individuals get to participate in which decision-making processes, and thus to what extent
their views shape the organization’s actions.

Types of organization structure:

Pre-bureaucratic structures:

Pre-bureaucratic (entrepreneurial) structures lack standardization of tasks. This structure is most

common in smaller organizations and is best used to solve simple tasks. The structure is totally
centralized. The strategic leader makes all key decisions and most communication is done by one
on one conversations. It is particularly useful for new (entrepreneurial) business as it enables the
founder to control growth and development.

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They are usually based on traditional domination or charismatic domination in the sense of Max
Weber's tripartite classification of authority

Bureaucratic structures:

Weber gives the analogy that “the fully developed bureaucratic mechanism compares with other
organizations exactly as does the machine compare with the non-mechanical modes of
production. Precision, speed, unambiguity, … strict subordination, reduction of friction and of
material and personal costs- these are raised to the optimum point in the strictly bureaucratic
administration.” Bureaucratic structures have a certain degree of standardization. They are better
suited for more complex or larger scale organizations, usually adopting a tall structure. The
tension between bureaucratic structures and non-bureaucratic is echoed in Burns distinction
between mechanistic and organic structures.

The Weberian characteristics of bureaucracy are:

• Clear defined roles and responsibilities

• A hierarchical structure
• Respect for merit.
Functional structure:

Employees within the functional divisions of an organization tend to perform a specialized set of
tasks, for instance the engineering department would be staffed only with software engineers.
This leads to operational efficiencies within that group. However it could also lead to a lack of
communication between the functional groups within an organization, making the organization
slow and inflexible.

As a whole, a functional organization is best suited as a producer of standardized goods and

services at large volume and low cost. Coordination and specialization of tasks are centralized in
a functional structure, which makes producing a limited amount of products or services efficient
and predictable. Moreover, efficiencies can further be realized as functional organizations
integrate their activities vertically so that products are sold and distributed quickly and at low
cost. For instance, a small business could make components used in production of its products
instead of buying them. This benefits the organization and employees faiths.

Divisional structure:

Also called a "product structure", the divisional structure groups each organizational function
into a division. Each division within a divisional structure contains all the necessary resources
and functions within it. Divisions can be categorized from different points of view. One might
make distinctions on a geographical basis (a US division and an EU division, for example) or on
product/service basis (different products for different customers: households or companies). In
another example, an automobile company with a divisional structure might have one division for

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SUVs, another division for subcompact cars, and another division for sedans.Each division may
have its own sales, engineering and marketing departments.

Matrix structure:

The matrix structure groups employees by both function and product. This structure can combine
the best of both separate structures. A matrix organization frequently uses teams of employees to
accomplish work, in order to take advantage of the strengths, as well as make up for the
weaknesses, of functional and decentralized forms. An example would be a company that
produces two products, "product a" and "product b". Using the matrix structure, this company
would organize functions within the company as follows: "product a" sales department, "product
a" customer service department, "product a" accounting, "product b" sales department, "product
b" customer service department, "product b" accounting department. Matrix structure is amongst
the purest of organizational structures, a simple lattice emulating order and regularity
demonstrated in nature.

•Weak/Functional Matrix:

A project manager with only limited authority is assigned to oversee the cross- functional aspects
of the project. The functional managers maintain control over their resources and project areas.

•Balanced/Functional Matrix:

A project manager is assigned to oversee the project. Power is shared equally between the
project manager and the functional managers. It brings the best aspects of functional and project
zed organizations. However, this is the most difficult system to maintain as the sharing power is
delicate proposition.

•Strong/Project Matrix:

A project manager is primarily responsible for the project. Functional managers provide
technical expertise and assign resources as needed.

Advantages of organization structure:

1) More easy control over the resources because with it resources can be rationed and
allocated to different units to use them to their most productive uses at micro level.

2) Clearly defined reporting lines make it easy for employees to know to whom to report.

3) Reduce redundancies by eliminating extra and unproductive processes.

4) Stream line processes by giving it more focus and adoptive nature.

5) It help to reduce costs because the controlling of various cost control centers

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6) It gives focus and direction to an organization

Formation

1) Determination of organizational goals and identification of related activities:

Organization goals must be well and clearly spelt out. Based on the goals ,all activities that are
required should be identified and broken down into smallest possible sub activities that may be
assigned as a task or a job to the worker .This is applicable to both managerial and operational
functions in the organization

2) Grouping of activities:

All identical activities should be grouped, keeping in mind formation of various departments or
division. A set of activities could be further sub divided and assigned to a particular section of a
department

3) Delegation of authority:

A person cannot perform his duties unless he has been given adequate authority to accomplish
the assigned task. He cannot be made responsible and accountable if requisite authority has not
been given. Authority, responsibility without authority. The production manager cannot be held
responsible for shortfall in production targets. It is therefore, necessary to adopt the following
process:

•Determination of course of action to meet the organization objectives

•Division of various activities into appropriate segment to be handled by individuals appropriate

to their skills

•Assignment of tasks to individuals

Coordination to ensure that resources are adequately utilized and that there is no overlap or gap
in task accomplishment.

Groups in organization

Introduction

A group may be defined as a collection of two or more people who work with one another
regularly to achieve common goals. In a group, members are mutually dependent on one another
to achieve common goals, and they interact with one another regularly to pursue those goals.
Effective groups help organizations accomplish important tasks. In particular, they offer the

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potential for synergy—the creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. When
synergy occurs, groups accomplish more than the total of their members‘individual capabilities.

Classification Of Groups

Groups can be of two types:

• Formal

• Informal

Formal groups

Formal groups come into existence for serving a specific organizational purpose. Individuals’
behaviors in this type of group are aimed at achieving organizational goals. The organization
creates such a group to perform a specific task, which typically involves the use of resources to
create a product such as a report, decision, service, or commodity (Likert, 1961). Though all
members contribute to achieve group goals a leader does exist in this type of group to oversee
and direct group members.

Formal groups may be permanent or temporary in nature. They may be full fledged departments
divisions or specific work teams created for particular projects of fairly long duration. .

Permanent work groups are officially created to perform a specific function on a regular basis.
They continue to exist until a decision is made to change or reconfigure the organization for
some reason.

Temporary work groups are task groups are specifically created to solve a problem or perform a
defined task. They may be dismantled after the assigned task has been accomplished. Examples
are the temporary committees and task forces that exist in an organization. Indeed, in today‘s
organizations the use of cross-functional teams or task forces for special problem-solving efforts
has gone up significantly.

Informal group

An informal group is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Group of

employees snacking together can be an example of such groups. Informal groups may be sub-
categorized as : Command, task, interest, or friendship groups.

1. Command groups are dictated by the formal organization. The organization hierarchy
determines a command group. It comprises of direct reports to a given manager.

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 2. Task groups—represent those working together to complete a job task. A task group‘s
boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can cross command
relationships where the same member may be reporting to two or more authorities at the same
time. All command groups are also task groups, but the reverse may not be true.

3. An interest group consists of people who affiliate to attain a specific objective with which
each is concerned.

Influence:

Group:

Two or more people who interact with and influence one another

Phenomena of collective influence:

• Social Facilitation
• Social Loafing
• Deindividuation
• Group Polarization
• Groupthink
Social Facilitation

1. Presence of other people strengthens dominant, well-learned responses

2. We are energized and aroused by the presence of others
o Evaluation Apprehension
o Distraction
Social Loafing

Tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts for a common goal than
when they are individually accountable

• Ingham et al.
• Latane, Williams, & Harking

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People loaf less when task is challenging and involving, or when group members are friends
Deindividuation

Presence of people causes arousal

Being part of a group can diffuse personal responsibility

Combination of these can diminish normal inhibitions

• Foodfights
• Vandalism
• Riots
Group Polarization

Group-produced enhancement of members’ preexisting tendencies

• Normative influence
• Informational Influence
• Risky shift
• Pluralistic ignorance
Groupthink

A tendency of a decision-making group to suppress dissent in the interests of group harmony

Occurs in groups with:

• High cohesiveness
• Relative isolation from dissenting views
• Directive leadership
Group dynamics

A group consists of a number of individuals working together for a common objective. Groups
have significant influence on an organization and are inseparable from an organization. They are
useful for the organization as they form foundation of human resources.

The study of group behavior is essential for an organization to achieve its goals. Individual and
group behaviors vary from each other. In 1920, Elton Mayo and his associates conducted the
Hawthorne experiments and came to know that the group behavior has great impact on
productivity. The importance of group behavior has been realized from time to time.

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Human behavior consists of individuals, who move in groups. The knowledge of group behavior
as well as individual behavior is necessary for a manager. He must understand group psychology
and should also understand individual behavior in the context of group behavior. The group in
which he moves influences individual work, job satisfaction and effective performance.

Definition of a group

A group is a two or more individual who interact regularly with each other to accomplish a
common purpose or goal.

According to Marvin Shaw, "a group comprises, of two or more persons who interact with one
another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person'.

The key parts of this definition are the concepts of interaction and influence, which also limit the
size of the group. It is difficult for members to interact sufficiently in a large group.

Groups or work teams are the primary tools used by managers. Managers need groups to co-
ordinate individual behavior in order to reach the organizational goals. Groups can make a
manager's job easier because by forming a group, he need not explain the task to each and every
individual. A manager can easily co¬ordinate with the work of an individual by giving the group
a task and allow them to co-ordinate with each other. But for a group to work effectively, the
interactions between its members should be productive. Therefore, managers must pay attention
to the needs of individuals.

Need for a Group

The reasons for the need, of groups are as follows:

•Management of modern organizations make mutual efforts to introduce industrial democracy at

workplace. They use project teams and work committees where workers get due recognition.
They willingly participate in decision-making.

•The tasks in modern industries are becoming more complex, tedious arid of repetitive nature.
Work committees, work groups and teams are formed to monitor the work. They also make the
environment at workplace more lively.

•Groups help in making participative management more effective.

•Groups of all kinds and types help by cooperating in all the matters related to production and
human relations to work effectively in the organization.

• An individual cannot perform each and every task. Group efforts are required for its
completion. For example, building a ship, making of a movie, construction of a fly-over, etc. All
these require coordinated and unified efforts of many individuals, working in a group.
• A group can judge in a better way as compared to an individual.

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• While accomplishing tasks, all members of a group together use their creative and
innovative ideas than a single individual.
• In a group, individuals communicate with each oilier, discuss their work performances
and take suggestions from each other to make it better.
• Group efforts affect an individual, his attitude and behavior.
• Group has the ability to satisfy the needs of its members.

Types of Groups

In an organization, there are three types of groups, which are as follows:

Functional or formal groups

Functional groups are the groups formed by the organization to accomplish different
organizational purposes. According to A L Stencombe, "a formal group is said to be any social
arrangement in which the activities of some persons are planned by others to achieve a common
purpose". These groups are permanent in nature. They have to follow rules, regulations and
policy of the organization. A formal organizational group includes departments such as the
personnel department, the advertising department, the quality control department and the public
relations department.

Task group

Tasks groups are the groups formed by an organization to accomplish a narrow range of
purposes within a specified time. These groups are temporary in nature. They also develop a
solution to a problem or complete its purpose. Informal committees, task forces and work teams
are included in task groups. The organization after specifying a group membership, assigns a
narrow set of purposes such as developing a new product, evaluating a proposed grievance
procedure, etc.

Informal group

Informal groups are the groups formed for the purposes other than the organizational goals.
Informal groups form when individuals are drawn together by friendship, by mutual interests or
both. These groups are spontaneous. According to Keith David, "the network of persons and
social relations which is not established or required form an informal organization". These are
the groups formed by the employees themselves at the workplace while working together. The
organization does not take any active interest in their formation.

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Informal groups are very effective and powerful. These groups work as an informal
communication network forming a part of the grapevine to the organizations. They are also like a
powerful force, which an organization cannot avoid. Some managers consider them to be
harmful to the interest of an organization. They suspect their integrity and consider as a virtual
threat.Some managers do not consider them as threat and seek the help of group members in
getting the organizational task accomplished.

Informal groups are of following types:

Interest group: Interest groups are the groups formed to attain a common purpose. Employees
coming together for payment of bonus, increase in salary, medical benefit and other facilities are
the examples of interest groups

Membership group: Membership groups are the groups of individuals' belonging to the same
profession and knowing each other. For example, teachers of the same faculty in a university.

Friendship group: Friendship groups are the groups of individuals belonging to same age
group, having similar views, tastes and opinions. These groups can also be formed outside the
plant or office and can be in the form of clubs and associations.

Reference group: Reference groups are the group where individuals shape their ideas, beliefs,
values etc. They want support from the group.

Group formation and development

Groups can form when individuals with similar goals and motives come, together. Groups are
formed voluntarily. The individuals of a group can join and leave the group any time and they
can also change their tasks. Hence, understanding how groups form and develop is important for
managers. There are certain motives because of which, the individuals join a group, which are as
follows:

• Organizational motives to join groups: Organizations form functional and task groups
because such groups help the organization in structuring and grouping the organizational
activities logically and efficiently.

• Personal motives to join groups: Individuals also choose to join informal or interest
groups for unimportant reasons. Since joining these groups is voluntary, various personal
motives affect membership. Some of these are shown in the figure 11.1:

• Interpersonal attraction: Individuals conic together to form informal or interest group, as

they arc also attracted to each other. The factors that contribute to interpersonal attraction are
sex, similar attitudes, personality and economic standing. The closeness of group members may
also be an important factor.

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• Interest in-group activities: Individuals may also be motivated to join an informal or
interest group because the activities of the group appeal to them. Playing tennis, discussing
current events or contemporary literature, all these are group activities that individuals enjoy.

• Support for group goals: The individuals may also be motivated goals by the other group
members to join. For example, a club, which is dedicated to environmental conservation, may
motivate individuals to join. Individuals join groups, such as these in order to donate their money
and time to attain the goals they believe in and to meet other individuals with similar values.

• Need for affiliation: Another reason for individuals to join groups is to satisfy their need
for attachment. Retired/old aged individuals join groups to enjoy the companionship of other
individuals in similar situation.

• Instrumental benefits: Group membership sometimes also helpful in providing other

benefits to an individual. For example, a manager might join a Rotary/ Lions club if he feels that
being a member of this club will lead to important and useful business contacts.

Stages of development

Members of new group are unfamiliar with one another's personalities and : hesitant in their
interactions.

Mutual Acceptance

• Making Acceptance
• Sharing Acquaintances
• Discussing Subjects
• Testing Each Other
• Being Defensive
Communication and Decision-Making

• Expressing Attitudes
• Establishing Norms
• Establishing Goals
• Openly Discussing Tasks
• Being Defensive
Motivation and Productivity

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• Cooperating
• Working Actively on Tasks
• Being Creative
Control and Organization

• Working Independently
• Assigning Tasks Based on Ability
• Being Flexible
These different stages of group development are explained as follows:

Mutual Acceptance

The very first stage of a group development is called "Mutual Acceptance". During this stage, the
members of the group get familiar with one another and check, which inter-personal behavior is
acceptable and whichunacceptable by the other members of the group. This helps all the
members of a group to know each other better and helps the group to move to the next stage
easily.

Communication and Decision-making

The second stage of group development is "Communication and Decision-making''. During this
stage, group members share their opinions and formulate the group's goals. Through
communication and decision-making, the structure becomes clear and the group moves to the
third stage.

Motivation and Productivity

The third stage is "Motivation and Productivity", which is characterized by a shared acceptance
among members of what the group is trying to do. Each person recognizes and accepts his role as
well as to accept and to understand the roles to others. Members also become more comfortable
with each other and develop a sense of group identity and unity.

Control and Organization

The fourth stage is "Control and Organization", in which the members perform the roles they
have accepted and direct their group efforts toward goal attainment. In reality, this
developmental sequence varies from group to group, depending on the time, personal
characteristics of group members and frequency of interaction.

Characteristics of mature groups

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As groups pass through the stages of development to maturity, they begin show signs of the
following four characteristics: a role structure, behavioral norms, cohesiveness and informal
leadership.

Role Structures:

A role is the part that an individual plays in a group to reach its goals. Some individuals are
leaders, some focus on the group's task; some interact with other groups and so on. Role
structure is the set of defined roles and interrelationships among those roles that the group
members define and accept. The failure in role development result in role ambiguity, role
conflict and role overload. Managers have to take steps to avoid role ambiguity, role conflict and
role overload.

Behavioral norms

Although informal groups do not have any specific goals to accomplish, but they must have
some goals over a period of time. These goals are temporary and can be changed in accordance
with the needs of the group members. The goals can be achieved effectively depending on the
following factors:

• The extent of cooperation with management.

• Maintenance of an efficient communication system.

• Satisfaction of the needs of group members.

Informal leadership

Each informal group has one or more leaders. These leaders come forward on the basis of
acceptance of all the group members. Every informal group has one primary leader apart from
the secondary: leaders. The primary leader has more influence on the group members than the
secondary leaders.

Cohesiveness

Cohesiveness is defined as the attractiveness of group members towards the group. It also
emphasizes on the group's ability to satisfy its members needs. It, therefore, helps the group
members to work more consistently and make greater contribution to the achievement of the
organizational goals. It is also psychologically more satisfying to all of its members.

According to Cartwright there are four principal consequences of cohesiveness, which are as
follows:

o Ability of a group to retain its members.

o Power of the group to influence its members.
o Degree of participation and loyalty of members.

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o Feeling of security on the part of the members.

Group norms

Norms refer to group behavior standard, beliefs, attitudes, traditions and expectations shared by
group members. According to Michael Argyle, "Group norms are rules or guidelines of accepted
behavior which are established by a group and used to monitor the behavior of its members".
They are framed to achieve objectives of the group. They can be social and fair in nature. Norms
define boundaries between acceptable and unacceptable behavior. They make the members to
identify themselves with the group. Norms play a significant role in disciplining the members of
a group to make them to work regularly and properly. This reduces absenteeism and employee
turnover. The members of the group are expected follow the norms strictly. This will make the
group more organized

Types of Group Norms

There are two types of group norms, which arc as follows:

Behavior norms: Behavior norms are rules that standardise how individuals act while working on
a day-to-day basis. Examples are. "do not come to committee meetings unless you have read the
reports to be '"discussed"', "greet every customer with a smile'', etc. These norms tend to reflect
motivation, commitment to the organization and therefore result in high level of performance.

Performance norms: Performance norms are rules that standardize employee output and
number of hours worked.

Reasons for Strong Enforcement of Norms

Groups don't have the time or energy, to regulate each and every action of the group members.
Only those behaviors that sound to-be important by group members should be brought under
control.

Groups, like individuals, try to operate in such a way that they maximize their chances of task
success and minimize (heir chances of task failure. Groups want to facilitate their performance
and overcome barriers to reach their goals. Moreover, groups want to increase morale and
prevent any interpersonal discomfort to their members. Norms that will help groups meet these
aims of performing successfully and keeping morale high are likely to be strongly enforced.

Conditions where group norms will be strongly enforced are as follows:

• If the norms facilitate group success or ensure group survival,

• If the norms simplify or predict regarding the behavior which is expected from group
members.

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• If the norms emphasize the roles of specific members within a group and

• If the norms help the group to solve the inter-personal problems themselves.

Uniqueness of Group Norms

The norms of one group cannot be easily mixed with another group. Some differences are
primarily due to the difference in structure of the groups. However, even very similar work
groups may develop different norms-. The members of one group may be friendly with their
supervisor whereas those of another group may not

Norm Conformity

Norms have the power to force a certain degree of conformity. There are several factors consist
of norm conformity, which are as follows:

• Some groups may exert more pressure for conformity than others because of the
personalities of the group members.

• The history of the group and its members also plays a part in conformity. For example, if
the group has always been successful by following certain behaviors, new group members are
also asked to follow the same. If the group was not successful in the past, a new group member
may have greater freedom to exhibit other behaviors.

Group Cohesiveness

According to Rcnsis Likert, "cohesiveness is the attractiveness of the members towards the
group or resistance of the members leaving it". It refers to the attachment of members with the
group.

According lo K. Aswalhappa, "cohesiveness is understood as the extent of liking each member

has towards others and how far everyone wants to remain as the member of the group".
Attractiveness is the key to cohesiveness. Cohesiveness is the extent to which group members
are loyal and committed lo the group and to each other. In a highly cohesive group, the members
work well together, support and trust one another and are generally effective at achieving their
chosen goals.

A group that lacks cohesiveness will not be very much coordinated. Its members will not support
one another and they may face difficulty in reaching their goals.

Managers should develop an understanding of the factors that increase and reduce group
cohesiveness.

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Advantages of Group Cohesiveness

The advantages of group cohesiveness are as follows:

• The members of cohesive groups have high morale.

• The members don't have conflicting views, which decreases the chances of in clash
among the views of group members at the workplace or elsewhere.

• Individuals of cohesive groups have no anxiety at the workplace.

• Members of cohesive groups are regular at their work.

• Cohesiveness increases productivity.

• Organizations gain from the members of cohesive group because they communicate
better they share ideologies and respect opinions of fellow employees.

The following factors can increase group cohesiveness:

• Competitiveness with other groups.

• Inter-personal attraction.

• Favorable evaluation from outsiders.

• Agreement on goals.

• Frequent interaction. The following factors decrease cohesiveness:

• Large group size.

• Disagreement on goals.

• Competitiveness within group.

• Domination by one or more members.

• Unpleasant experiences.

Emergence of informal leaders

Groups are unique and evolving entities. The individuals within the group help determine the
way the group will operate by selecting their leaders from those who the special skills or abilities
have needed by their group.An informal leader is someone within an organization or work unit

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who, by virtue of how he or she is perceived by his peers is seen as worthy of paying attention
to ,or following.

The major thing that differentiates formal leader from informal leader is that the informal leader
does not hold a position of power or formal authority over those that chosen to follow him or
her.The ability of the informal leader to influence or lead others on the ability of that person to
evoke respect, confidence, and trust in others and it is not uncommon for an informal leaders to
not intentionally try to lead.

Informal leaders can be exceedingly valuable to the organization, and to the success of formal
leaders ,or ,if informal leaders do not support the formal leaders and their agendas and vision
,they can function as barriers in the organization

However, a successful leader of one group will not necessarily be the acknowledged leader in
another. Although elected to an office ,a person may not required capabilities or be seen by
others as directing the group activities. This is true when other group members are more clearly
expressing leadership qualities. In this situation, the other individuals can be helpful or disruptive
to the established leadership.

Since the ability to perform the role of an elected officer varies from one person to another, and
since officers change relatively frequently, a group is wise to tap the capabilities of many of its
members .In addition to stipulating clearly the duties of the officers in the by-laws and
formalizing the conduct of meetings by adopting rules of parliamentary procedure, an
organization may establish a number of special offices to complement the functions of the
elected officers. Although these rules are not atandard,they can be useful to enhance the overall
group activity.

Working norms of groups

Group norms are the informal rules the groups adopt to regulate members behavior. Norms are
characterized by their evaluative nature.i.e. They refer to what should be done.

Norms represent judgment about appropriate behavior in social situations. Although they are
infrequently written down or even discussed, norms have powerful influence on group
behavior .If each individual in a group decided how to behave in each interaction, no one would
be able to predict the behavior of any group members, and chaos would reign. Norms guide
behavior and reduce ambiguity in groups.

Groups do not establish norms about every conceivable situation but only with respect to things
that are significant to the group .Norms might apply to every member of the group or to only
some members. Norms that apply to particular group members usually specify the role of those
individuals

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Norms vary in degree to which they are accepted by all members of the group-some are accepted
by almost everyone, others by some members and not others.

For example:

University faculty and students accept the faculty norm of teaching, but students infrequently
accept the norm of faculty research .Finally, norms vary in terms of the range of permissible
deviation,sanctions,either mild or extreme ,are usually applied to people for breaking norms.
Norms also differ with respect to the amount of deviation that is tolerable. Some norms require
strict adherence, but others do not

Understanding how group norms develop and why they are enforced is important to managers.
Group norms are important determinants of whether a group will be productive. A work group
with the norm that its proper role is to help management will be far more productive than one
whose norm is to be antagonistic to management.

Managers can play a part in setting and changing norms by helping to set norms that facilitate
tasks, assessing whether a groups norms are functional, and addressing counterproductive norms
with sub ordinates .Norms usually develop slowly as groups learn those behavior that will
facilitate their activities.

Most norms develop in one or more of four ways which are as follows:

1. Explicit statements by supervisors or co-workers

2. Critical events in the group history

3. Primacy, or by virtue of their introduction early in the groups history

4. Carry –over behavior form past situations

Group decision making techniques

Decision making is an act of choice wherein an individual or a group selects a particular course
of action from the available alternatives in a given situation

1) Interacting groups:

The most common form of group decision making takes place in interacting groups. In these
groups members meet face to face and rely on both verbal and non verbal interaction to
communicate with each other.Brainstroming,the nominal group techniques, and electronic
meetings have been proposed as ways to reduce many of the problems inherent in the traditional
interactive group.

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2) Brainstorming:

In a brainstorming session, a half to a dozen people sit around a table. The group leader states the
problem in a clear manner so that it is understood by all participants. Members then “freewheel”
as many alternatives as they can in a given length of time. No criticism is allowed, and all the
alternatives are recorded for later discussion and analysis. Brain stroming, however, is merely a
process for generating ideas.

Advantages:

The main advantage of this technique are broader participation ,team work and stimulated
thinking.

This technique is very effective when the problem is comparatively specific and can be
simply defined

Disadvantages:

The process is time consuming

3) Nominal group techniques:

The nominal; group techniques restricts discussion or interpersonal communication during the
decision making process, hence,the term nominal. Group members are all physically present, as
in a traditional; committee meetings, but members operate independently .Specifically, a
problem is presented and then the following steps take place:

Members meet as a group but, before any discussion takes place, each member
independently writes down his or her ideas on the problem.

After this silent period each member presents one idea to the group

The group now discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them.

Each group member silently and independently rank – orders the ideas. The idea with the
highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision.

Advantages:

This technique integrates the advantage of both individual creativity and group creativity

In many situations, it saves time

There is possibility of equal participation.

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4) Electronic meeting:

The most recent approach to group decision making blends the nominal group technique wit h
sophisticated computer technology. It is called the computer assisted group or electronic
meeting. Once the technology is in place, the concept is simple, up to 50 people sit around a
horse shoe shaped table. Issues are presented to participants and they type their responses onto
their computer screen .Individual comments, as well as aggregate votes, are displayed on a
projection screen in the room.

Advantages:

It is a quite speedy decision making techniques

This technique ensures honesty on the part of the participants, as their names are not
disclosed

The ideas are processed very fast

This technique involves very low interpersonal conflict

Disadvantages:

The main criticism lies in the high cost involved in installations of computer terminals

This technique involves very low level commitment to solutions on the part of the
participants.

5) Delphi techniques

This technique is a modification of brainstorming technique, except that it involves obtaining the
opinions of experts physically separated from r=each other and unknown to each other. The
process is more involved in predicting and assessing the impact on our society of future events in
a given area. For example, the Delphi technique may be based to understand the problems that
could be created in the event of a war and after.

Advantages:

It is simple to conduct

Can be used where quantitative data is not possible

The forecast is reliable as it is based on the opinion of people who know the product very
well

It is expensive

It takes little time

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Disadvantages:

The results are based on mere hunch of one or more persons and not on scientific analysis

The experts may be biased

Team building

Team building is a catch all term for a whole host of techniques aimed at improving the internal
functioning of work groups. Whether conducted by company trainers or outside consultants,
team building workshops strive for greater corporation, better communication and less
dysfunctional conflicts

Team building process:

• Setting goals and priorities for the team

• Analyzing how team goals and priorities are linked to those of the organization

• Analyze how the work is performed

• Analyze how team is working

• Analyzing the relationship among the members who are performing the job

Steps in team building process:

Problem solving:

At this stage generally most of the members come forward with their arguments as to what the
real problems are. The view may be quite different ranging from the organizational problem,
group problems to even personal problems. Much of the problems may be solved through
effective communication and training session.

Examining difference:

The perceptions of people on an issue differs because of their differing backgrounds, such as
their value systems, personality and attitude. The role communication is important in this context
because it will help in classifying the actual problem to the members

Giving and receiving feedback:

The feedback should be given to the members about their feelings , about the issue ,the way
people talk about an issue ,etc. Such feedback generally provides member to evaluate the values
but at the time, also provide opportunity to understand themselves. The concept of Johari
window may also be applied. This suggests that even people are fully aware of themselves.

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Developing interactive skills:

The basic objective of this process is to increase the ability among the people as to how they
should interact with others and engage in constructive and negative behavior

Constructive behavior:

Building: developing and expanding the ideas of others

Bringing in: harmonizing, encouraging others to participate

Clarifying: Resting, ensuring, understanding, seeking relevantly information

Innovating: Bringing in new relevant ideas, information, feelings etc.

Negative behavior:

Over talk: Interrupting, talking together with speaker

Attacking: criticizing person

Negative: Cooling, undermining morale

Follow up actions:

This is the final stage in team building .At this stage ,the total tem is convened to review what
has been learned and to identify what the next step should be .Follow up action also helps in
overcoming the drawback groped at the initial stage of team building.It involves deciding who
will take care of the teams responsibilities and who will be responsible for team projects in a
group.These attempts bring cooperative and supportive feelings among people involved in the
team functioning

Guidelines for team building:

Emphasize common interest and values:

Getting agreement of group members on objectives, strategies for attaining them ,and the need
for cooperative effort greatly increases the likelihood of strong identification with the group

Use ceremonies and rituals:

Ceremonies and rituals can be used to increase identification with a group and make membership
appear to be very special. Initiation rituals are used to induct new members into the group ,and
retirement rituals are used to celebrate the departure of the old members.Cermonies are used to

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celebrate special achievements or mark the anniversary of special events in the history of the
group

Use symbols to develop identification with the group:

Symbols of group identify such as a team name,slogan,logo,insignia or emblem may be

displayed on flags ,banners ,clothing, or jewelry.Even a particular type or color of clothing may
indicate group membership,as in the case of urban gangs

Encourage and facilitate social interaction:

Development of a cohesive group is more likely if the members get to know each other on a
personal basis and find it satisfying to interact socially .One way to facilitate pleasant social
interaction is to hold periodic social activites such as dinners,lunches,and parties .Various types
of outings can be used to facilitate social interaction

Tell people about group activities and achievements:

People tend to be aligned and unappreciated when they receive little information about the plans,
activities,and achievements of the team or department

Conduct process analyses sessions:

It involve frank and open discussion of interpersonal relationships and group processes in an
effort to improve them. One approach is to make each person suggest ways to make the group
more effective

Conduct alignment sessions:

The purpose of an alignment session is to increases mutual understanding among tem members.
Prior to the session ,each member is given an open ended questionnaire about
values,concerns,and personal objectives.

Interpersonal relations

Interpersonal relationships are social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or

more people.

Importance:

We can say that everything at the office depends on good relationships between employees
and the management. Interpersonal relationships at work are absolutely essential, as they help
workers to have a mutual understanding between themselves. The main benefit of having

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interpersonal relationships at work is that they work in a team. And it is a proven fact that if you
need to reach a goal or a target in your process, you necessarily have to work together in a team.

If there are healthy interpersonal relationships in the team members, they certainly tend to
work collectively towards the prescribed goal. Teamwork also contributes a lot to a healthy work
environment. Employees feel good to work if there is a favorable environment at the workplace.
If employees have a mutual understanding with each other, there are very less chances of any
kind of workplace conflicts. It is also been observed that strong interpersonal relationships at
work lead to motivation among employees. Now let us move on to using interpersonal skills at
workplace effectively.

Communication is one of the most crucial interpersonal skills to be practiced at the

workplace. Without effective interpersonal communication, there will not be a smooth and clear
flow of ideas, resulting in confusion. A true professional will always talk to other executives,
with looking directly into the eyes. Always smile when you speak with others, in a face to face
talk or even on the phone. The smile will make others comfortable and it will also be apparent in
the tone while on the phone.

While you speak, make sure your tone is humble and not authoritative, even if you are the
boss. Consider helping your colleagues a privilege, with always being happy to help. A very
effective way of maintaining healthy interpersonal relationships at work is to appreciate the
efforts in front of everyone. Honoring and considering suggestions and views of other members
in the team is a very good method of teamwork.

When communicating with other executives, it is fine if you add a bit of humor to the
scene, just to release the stress and tension involved. Make sure you do not get involved in the
blame game. Always ensure that you stick to what you said you will do. Fulfilling commitments
is one major aspect that you will have to consider in creating good business relationships. It is a
good idea to share what you recently accomplished and found out. This creates a feeling of
openness among the team.

This is a general explanation of the importance of interpersonal relationships at work. One

important point to note is that you will only be satisfied with your job if there are healthy
interpersonal relationships at work.

Communication

Communication is one of the most frequently discussed dynamics in the entire field of
organizational behavior. In practice, effective communication is a basic prerequisite for the
attainment of organizational goals. Therefore, communication is considered to be the most
important and most effective ingredient of the management process. Interpersonal
communication is fundamental to all managerial activities. All other management functions

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involve communication in some form of directions and feedback. Thus, effective management is
a function of effective communication.

Definition of communication

In modern society, the term communication is frequently and freely used by everyone,
including members of the general public, organizational behavior scholars, and management
practitioners.

Communication is the process of transmitting information from one person to another.

Broadly, it means who says what, to whom, through which channel and with what effect. It is a
way of reacting to the other person with ideas, facts, thoughts, feelings and values.
Communication experts emphasize the behavioral implications of communication by pointing
out that "the only means by which one person can influence another is by the behaviors he shows
that is, the communicative exchanges between people provide the sole method by which
influence or effects can be achieved". In other words, the behaviors that occur in an organization
are vital to the communication process. This personal and behavioral exchange view of
communication takes many forms.

It can be used to identify the major categories of communication that arc especially relevant to
the study of organizational behavior.

Communication Technology
Interpersonal Technology
Verbal Technology

Objectives of Communication

Managements depend upon communication to achieve organizational objectives. Since managers

work with and through other people, all their acts, policies, rules, orders and procedures must
pass through some kind of communication channel. Also there must be channel of
communication for feedback. Accordingly, some of the purposes of communication are:

• To discourage the spread of misinformation, ambiguity and rumors, which can cause
conflict and tension.

• To foster any attitude, that is necessary for motivation, cooperation and job satisfaction.

• To develop information and understanding among all workers. This is necessary for
group effort.

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• To prepare workers for a change in methods of environment by giving them necessary
information in advance.

• To encourage subordinates to supply ideas and suggestions for improving the product or
work environment and taking these suggestions seriously.

• To improve labor management relations by keeping the communications channels open

and accessible.

• To improve social relations among workers by encouraging inter¬communication. This

would satisfy the basic human need for a sense of belonging and friendship.

Importance of Communication

Interpersonal roles require managers to interact with supervisors, sub-ordinates, peers and others
outside the organization. Thus, for co-ordinated action, communication is necessary.
Communication transforms a group of unrelated individuals into a team that knows what its
goals are and how it will try to reach them.

Communication allows people to co-ordinate with each other by providing them with a way to
share information. The first type of information that needs to be shared is what the goals of the
organizations are. People need to know-where they are heading and why. They also need
directions for their specific tasks.

Communication is especially important for the task of decision-making. Decision-makers must

share their views on what the problem is and what the alternatives are. Once a decision has been
made, communication is necessary to implement the decision and to evaluate its results.

Changes in market or in customer preferences can lead to uncertainty about whether a product Or
a marketing strategy needs to be updated or overhauled. The uncertainty resulted from the lack of
information, can be reduced by communicating that information. Market researchers, for
example, can communicate with other groups about changes in the market place. The greater the
uncertainty about a task, the more important the communication of information becomes.

Communication also allows people to express their emotions. Communication of feelings can be
very important to employee morale and productivity. Employees who feel that they cannot vent
their anger or express their joy on the job may feel frustrated and repressed.

On any given day, a manager may communicate for all the purposes described above.
Communication goes up, down and across the levels of the hierarchy of an organization.

Communication process

In the simplest kind of communication, both the sender and the receiver perform the encoding
and decoding functions automatically.

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Source or Sender

The communication cycle begins when one person called the sender wants to transmit a fact,
idea, opinion or other information to someone else. A manager, for instance, might call the
research department to send the latest information on a particular market.

Encoding

The second step is to encode the message into a form appropriate to the situation. The encoding
might take the form of words, facial expressions, gestures, physical actions and symbols such as
numbers, pictures, graphs etc. Indeed, most communication involves a combination of these. The
encoding process is influenced by the content of the message, the familiarity of the sender and
receiver and other situational factors.

Transmission

After the message has been encoded, it is transmitted through the appropriate channel or
medium. Common channels or media in organizations include face-to-face communication using
the media of sound waves, light, letters and reports.

Decoding

The person to whom the message is sent, called the receiver interprets the meaning of the
message through the process of decoding. This process may be simple and automatic, but it can
also be quite complex. Even when you are just reading a letter, you may need to use all your
knowledge of the language, your experience with the letter-writer and so on. If the intended
message and the received message differ a great deal, there is a communication gap and
misunderstanding is likely to follow.

Receiver

The receiver can be an individual, a group, or an individual acting on behalf of a group. The
sender has generally little control over how the receiver will deal with the message. The receiver
may ignore it, decide not to try to decode, understand it or respond immediately. The
communication cycle continues when the receiver responds by the same steps back to the
original sender, which is called the feedback.

Noise

In the communication process, noise takes on a meaning slightly different from its usual one.
Noise refers to any type of disturbance that reduces the clearness of the message being
transmitted. Thus, it might be something that keeps the receiver from paying close attention such
as someone coughing, other people talking dosely, a car driving by etc. It can be a disruption

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such as disturbance in a telephone line, weak signal due to bad weather etc. It can also be internal
to the receiver such as tiredness or hunger or minor ailments, which may affect the message.

Methods of communication

There are mainly three primary methods of communication in an organization, which are written,
oral, and non-verbal. These methods of communication are often combined. Considerations that
affect the choice of method include the audience whether it is physically present, the nature of
the message, and the lost of transmission.

Typically organizations produce a great deal of written communication of many kinds. A letter is
a formal means of communication with an individual, generally someone outside the
organization. Probably the most common form of written communication in organizations is the
office memorandum, or a memo. Memos usually are addressed to a person or group inside the
organization. They tend to deal with a single topic and are more impersonal, but less formal than
letters. Other common forms of written communication include reports, manuals and forms.
Reports generally summarize the progress or results of a project and often provide information to
be used in decision-making. Manuals have various functions in organizations. Instruction
manuals tell employees how to operate machines; policy and procedure manuals inform them of
organizational rules; operations manual describe how to perform tasks and respond to work-
related problems. As such, they represent attempts to make communication more efficient and
information more accessible. A performance appraisal form is an example.

Oral communication

Oral communication, also known as face-to-face communication is the most prevalent form of
organizational communication. It may be in the form of direct talk and conversation between the
speakers and listeners when they are physically present at one place or through telephone or
intercom system conversation. Where one-way communication is required, then oral
communication may include public address system. Informal rumour mill or grapevine is also a
popular form of oral communication. It is most effective for leaders to address the followers via
public address system or audio-visual media. Oral communication is particularly powerful
because the receiver not only hears the content of the message, but also observes the physical
gestures associated with it as well as the changes in tone, pitch, speed and volume of the spoken
word. The human voice can impart the message much more forcefully and effectively than the
written words and is an effective way of changing attitudes, beliefs and feelings, since faith, trust
and sincerity can be much better judged in a face-to-face conversation rather than in written
words.

Advantages

Some of the advantages of oral communication are:

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• It is direct, simple, time saving and least expensive form of communication.

• It allows for feedback and spontaneous thinking, so that if the receiver js unsure of the
message, rapid feedback allows for early detection by the sender so that corrections can be
immediately made, if necessary.

• Because the message is conveyed instantaneously, it helps in avoiding delays, red tape
and other formalities.

• It conveys personal warmth and friendliness and it develops a sense of belonging because
of these personalized contacts.

Disadvantages

• There is no formal record of communication so that any misunderstood message cannot

be referred back to what was actually said.

• If the verbal message is passed on,the long hierarchical chain of command, then some
distortions can occur during the process. The more people the message is to pass through, the
greater is the potential distortion.

• Lengthy and distant communication cannot be conveyed verbally in an efficient way.

• The receiver may receive the message in his own perception and thus misunderstand the
intent of the message.

• Spontaneous responses may not be carefully thought about.

• The spirit of authority cannot be transmitted effectively in verbal transactions.

• Organizational Communications

• More or less or a different meaning might be conveyed by manner of speaking, tone of

voice and facial expressions.

Written communication

A written communication is put in writing and is generally in the form of instructions, letters,
memos, formal reports, rules and regulations, policy manuals, information bulletins and so on.
These areas have to be covered in writing for efficient functioning of the organization. It is most
effective when it is required to communicate information that requires action in the future arid
also in situations where communication is that of general informational nature. It also ensures
that everyone has the same information.

Advantages

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• It serves as an evidence of events and proceedings.
• It provides a permanency of record for future references. The message can be stored for
an indefinite period of time.
• It reduces the likelihood of misunderstanding and misinterpretation. The written
communications are more likely to be well considered, logical and clear. The message can be
checked for accuracy before it is transmitted.
• It can save time when many persons must be contacted at the same time.
• It is more reliable for transmitting lengthy statistical data.
• It appears formal and authoritative for action.
Disadvantages

• It can be very time-consuming, specially for lengthy reports.

• There is no immediate feedback opportunity to be sure that the receiver has understood
the message.
• Confidential written material may leak out before time, causing disruption in its
effectiveness.
• It leads to excessive formality in personal relations.

Non-verbal communication

Some of the meaningful communication is conveyed through non-verbal ways. Even some of the
verbal messages are strengthened or diluted by non-verbal expressions. These non-verbal
expressions include facial expressions and physical movement. In addition, some of the
environmental elements such as building and office space can convey a message about the
authority of the person. According to Tipkins and Mc-Carter, facial expressions can be
categorized as:

• Interest-excitement
• Enjoyment-joy
• Surprise-startle
• Distress-anguish
• Fear-terror
• Shame-humiliation
• Contempt-disgust
• Anger-rage
Physical movements or body language is known as "kinesics". A handshake is probably the most
common form of body language and tells a lot about a person's disposition. Other examples of
body language are tilting of head, folding of arms or sitting position in a chair.Our facial
expressions can show anger, frustration, arrogance, shyness, fear and other characteristics that
can never be adequately communicated through written word or through oral communication
itself. Some of the other body language symptoms are shrugging our shoulders for indifference,
wink an eye for mischief or intimacy, tap our fingers on the table for impatience and we slap our

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forehead for forgetfulness. As far as environmental elements are concerned, a large office with
luxurious carpeting and expensive furniture conveys a message of status, power and prestige
such as that of a chief operating officer. On the other hand, a small metal desk on a corner
communicates the status of a low ranking officer in the organizational setting. Accordingly non-
verbal actions have considerable impact on the quality of communication.
Communication Networks

A communication network is the pattern of information exchange used by the members of a

group.When the members of a group communicate mostly with the group leader, a wheel
network develops. When the members of a group are on different levels/of the organization's
hierarchy, a chain network is developed. Members of a task force or committee often develop a
circle network of communication with each person communicating directly to the other members
of the task- force. Informal groups that lack a formal leader often form an all-channel network
that everyone uses to communicate with everyone else.

The density of communication refers to the total quantity of communication among members.
The distance between members describes how far a message must travel to reach the receiver.
The ease with which members can communicate with others is measured by members' relative
freedom to use different paths to communicate. Members' commitment to the group's work is
defined by the centrality of the position of the members. All these provide insight into possible
communication problems. For instance, a group with high density and distance can expect a lot
of noise distortion in its communication, as messages travel a long distance to get to the
receivers.

The following factors influence the formation of communication patterns within small groups:

Organizational Communications

1. Type of Task: If the task of the group is simple, a chain or wheel network is used. For
hard tasks, all channel networks arises.
2. Environment: Environment including the group's seating arrangement and meeting place
also affects communication patterns. For instance, if members always sit around a table, then
circle network arises.
3. Group Performance Factors: The group performance factors like group's size,
composition, norms and cohesiveness also affect the' formation of communication networks. For
instance, it is much easier to have an all-channel network in a group of eight than in a group of
eighty.

Managers must make use of all these characteristics and tendencies to help groups communicate
and work most efficiently. A manager, who sees that a wheel network is forming around an
experienced, trusted employee might not interfere with the process. If an assertive but
irresponsible employee becomes the hub of such a wheel, the manager may need to take action.

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If the manager relies on a group to help make decisions, the manager may encourage silent group
members to speak in order to get the desired decisions.

Forms of organizational communication

Although interpersonal and group forms of communication pertain even at the broadest
organizational levels, they do not sufficiently describe the paths of all messages transmitted in
organizations. Individuals can send and receive messages across whole organizational levels and
departments by means of vertical communication or the informal communication network. Non-
verbal communication is also important and can be a part of interpersonal, group and
organizational communication.

Vertical Communication

Vertical communication is the communication that flows both up and down the organizational
hierarchy. This communication typically takes place between managers and their superiors or
subordinates.

Upward Communication

Upward Communication consists of messages moving up the hierarchy from sub¬ordinates to

superiors. The content of upward communication usually includes requests, suggestions or
complaints and information the sub-ordinate thinks is of importance to the superior.

Downward Communication

Downward Communication consists of messages moving down the hierarchy from superiors to
sub-ordinates. The content of downward communication often includes directives, assignments,
performance feedback and information that the superior thinks are of value to the sub-ordinate.

Transactional Communication

Wenburg and Wilmont suggest that instead of communication being "upward" or "downward"
which is inter-communication, it should be "transactional" communication, which is mutual and
reciprocal because, "all persons are engaged in sending and receiving messages simultaneously.
Each person is constantly sharing in the sending and receiving process and each person is
affecting the other". In the transactional process, the communication is not simply the flow of
information, but it develops a personal linkage between the superior and the subordinate.

Informal Communication

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Another term for informal communication network is the grapevine. Informal networks are
found in all organizations. It is in the form of gossip in which a person spreads a message to as
many other people as possible who may either keep the information to themselves or pass it on to
others. The content of gossip is likely to be personal information or the information about the
organization itself.

Managers should have some control over the informal network. For example, the grapevine in an
organization may be carrying harmful information, false information or politically motivated
information. When these kinds of rumors are being spread, managers may need to intervene.
They can hold open meetings and objectively discuss the issues that are being informally
discussed already. They may also issue a clearly worded memo or report stating the facts and
thereby help minimize the damage that the informal network can do.

Managers can also obtain valuable information from the grapevine and use it for decision-
making.

Other Form's of Communication

One that has become especially popular is informally labelled as "management by wandering
around". The basic idea is that some managers keep in touch with what is going on by wandering
around and talking with people such as sub-ordinates, customers, dealers and any one else
involved with the company in any way. This will give managers, new ideas and a better feel for
the entire company.

Barriers to communication

The communication must be interpreted and understood in the same manner as it was-meant to
be sent by the sender, otherwise it will not achieve the desired result and a communication
breakdown will occur. There are certain external roadblocks to effective communication. In
addition, there are personal factors, which affect communication.Some of the organizational
barriers and some of the interpersonal barriers to effective communication are discussed below:

Noise Barriers

Noise is any external factor, which interferes with the effectiveness of communication. The term
is derived from noise or static effects in telephone conversation or radio wave transmission. It
may cause interference in the process of communication by distraction or by blocking a part of
the message or by diluting the strength of the communication. Some of the sources contributing
towards noise factor are:

Poor Timing

A message sent on poor timing acts as a barrier. For instance, a last minute communication with
a deadline may put too much pressure on the receiver and may result in resentment. A message

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must be sent at an appropriate time to avoid these problems. Hence the manager must know
when to communicate.

Inappropriate Channel

Poor choice of channel of communication can also be contributory to the misunderstanding of

the message. The manager must decide whether the communication would be most effective if it
is in writing or by a telephone call or a face-to-face conversation or a combination of these
modes.

Improper or Inadequate Information

Information must be meaningful to the employee and should be precise or to the point. Too little
or too much information endangers effective communication. Ambiguity in use of words will
lead to different interpretations.

Physical Distractions

Any physical distractions such as telephone interruptions or walk-in visitors can interfere with
the effective face-to-face communication process.

Organizational Structure

Communication may be blocked, chaotic or distorted if the channels are not clear or if there are
bottlenecks. Hence the organization structure should be such that the chain of command and
channels of communication are clearly established and ithe responsibility and authority are
clearly assigned and are traceable.

Information Overhead

Overload occurs when individuals receive more information than they are capable of processing.
The result could be confusion or some important information may be laid aside for the purpose
of convenience.

Network Breakdown

Network breakdown may be intentional or due to information overload and time pressures under
which a communication has to be acted upon. Some factors contributing to such disruptions are:

• The managers may withhold important negative information.

• The secretary may forget to forward a memo.
• There may be professional jealousy resulting in closed channels.
Interpersonal Barriers

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There are many interpersonal barriers that disrupt the effectiveness of the communication
process and generally involve such characteristics that either the sender or the receiver can cause
communication problems. Some of these are:

Filtering

Filtering refers to intentionally withholding or deliberate manipulation of information by the

sender, either because the sender believes that the receiver does not need all the information or
that the receiver is better off not knowing all aspects of a given situation. It could also be that the
receiver is simply told what he wants to hear.

Semantic Barriers

These barriers occur due to differences in individual interpretations of words and symbols. The
words and paragraphs must be interpreted with the same meaning as was intended. The choice of
a wrong word or a comma at a wrong place in a sentence can sometimes alter the meaning of the
intended message. For example, a nightclub advertisement sign, "clean and decent dancing every
night except Sunday", could lead to two interpretations. First, that there is no dancing on
Sundays and second, that there is dancing on Sundays, but it not clean and decent.

Perception

Perception relates to the process through which we receive and interpret information from our
environment and create a meaningful word out of it. Different people may perceive the same
situation differently. Hearing what we want to hear and ignoring information that conflicts with
what we know can totally distort the intent or the content of the message. Some of the perceptual
situations that may distort a manager's assessment of people resulting in reduced effectiveness of
the communication are:

• A manager may perceive people to belong to one category or another as stereotypes,

rather than unique and distinct individuals. For example, he may perceive women to be less
efficient managers.

• A manager may make total assessment of a person based on a single trait. A pleasant
smile may make a positive first impression.

• A manager may assume that his subordinate's perception about things and situations are
similar to his own.

This perception limits the manager's ability to effectively respond to and deal with individual
differences and differing views of work situations.

Cultural Barriers

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The cultural differences can adversely affect the communication effectiveness, specially for
multi-national companies and enterprises.

Sender Credibility

When the sender of the communication has high credibility in the eyes of the receiver, the
message is taken much more seriously and accepted at face value. If the receiver has confidence,
trust and respect for the sender, then the decoding and the interpretation of the message will lead
to a meaning of the sender. Conversely, if the sender is not trusted, then the receiver will
scrutinize the message heavily and deliberately look for hidden meanings or tricks and may end
up distorting the entire message. Similarly, if the source is believed to be an expert in a particular
field then the listener may pay close attention to the message, and believe it specially if the
message is related to the field of expertise.

Emotions

The interpretation of a communication also depends upon the state of the receiver at the time
when message is received. The same message received when the receiver is angry, frustrated or
depressed may be interpreted differently than when he is happy. Extreme emotions are most
likely to hinder effective communication because rational judgments are replaced by emotional
judgments.

Multi-meaning Words

Many words in English language have different meanings when used in different situations.
Accordingly, a manager must not assume that a particular word means the same thing to all
people who use it. Hence, the managers must make sure that they use the word in the same
manner as the receiver is expected to understand it, otherwise it will create a barrier to proper
understanding of the message.

Feedback Barriers

The final source of communication barrier is the feedback or lack of it. Feedback is the only way
to ascertain as to how the message was interpreted.

Overcoming Communication Barriers

It is very important for the management to recognize and overcome barriers to effective
communication for operational optimization and this would involve diagnosing and analyzing
situations, designing proper messages, selecting appropriate channels for communicating these
messages, assisting receivers of messages in correct decoding and interpretation and providing
an efficient and effective feedback system. Some of the steps that can be taken in this respect are
as follows:

Feedback:

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 Feedback helps to reduce misunderstandings. The information is transferred more accurately
when the receiver is given the opportunity to ask for clarifications and answer to any questions
about the message. Two-way communication, even though more time-consuming, avoids distrust
and leads to trust and openness, which helps in building a healthy relationship contributing
to communication effectiveness.

Improve Listening Skills:

Good listening habits lead to better understanding and good relationships with each other. Some
guidelines for effective listening are:

• Listening requires full attention to the speaker. Do not let your mind wander or be
preoccupied with something else, otherwise you will not be able to grasp the meaning of the
message in its entirety.

• The language used tone of the voice and emotions should receive proper attention. Listen
for feelings in (he message content and respond positively to these feelings.

• Ask questions to clarify any points that you do not understand clearly and reflect back to
the speaker, your understanding of what has been said.

• Make sure that there are no outside interruptions and interference during the course of
conversation.

• Do not prejudice or value the importance of the message due to your previous dealings
and experiences with the sender or your perceptions about him, positive or negative.

• Do not jump to conclusions before the message is over and is clearly understood.

• Summarize and restate the message after it is over to make sure about the content and the
intent of the message.

Develop Writing Skills:

Clearly written messages can help avoid semantic and perception barriers. A well-written
communication eliminates the possibility of misunderstanding and misinterpretation. When
writing message it is necessary to be precise thus making the meaning as clear as possible so that
it accomplishes the desired purpose. Some helpful hints in written communication are suggested
by Robert Degise as follows:

Keep words simple: This will reduce your thoughts to essentials and the message will be easier
to understand for the receiver. The message will be lost if the words are complex and do not lend
to a clear single meaning.

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Do not be boggart down by rules of composition: While the rules of grammar and composition
must be respected, they should not take priority over the ultimate purpose of the communication.

Write concisely: Use as few words as possible. Do not be brief at the cost of completeness, but
express your thoughts, opinions and ideas in the fewest number of words possible.

Be specific: Vagueness destroys accuracy, which leads to misunderstanding of the meaning or

intent of the message. Accordingly, be specific and to the point.

Avoid Credibility Gaps:

Communication is a continuing process and the goal of the communication is complete

understanding of the message as well as the creation of trust among all members of. the
organization. Accordingly, the management must be sincere and should earn the trust of the
subordinates. Management should not only be sensitive to the needs and feelings of workers but
also its promises should be supported by actions. According to the studies conducted by J. Luft,
openness and an atmosphere of trust builds healthy relationship and closes credibility gaps, thus
contributing to communication effectiveness.

Guidelines for effective communication

These guidelines are designed to help management improve their skills in communicating so as
not only avoid any barriers to effective communication, but also to strengthen the basis for
optimum results which depend upon the clear understanding of the desired communication.

The Ideas and Messages should be Clear, Brief and Precise

The ideas to be communicated must be well planned and clearly identified. This will eliminate
ambiguity so that the message will not be subject to more than one interpretation. The message
must be clear, precise and to the point and free from distortions and noise. It should also be brief
so that only necessary and sufficients meanings are provided.

Sense of Timing

The message should not only be timely so that the decisions and actions can be taken in tie and
when necessary, but also the timing of the message and the environmental setting in which the
message is delivered and received is equally important.

Integrity

The communication must pass through the proper channels to reach the intended receiver.
The communication flow and its spread must avoid bypassing levels or people. When these
concerned levels are omitted or bypassed, it creates bickering, distrust, confusion and conflict.
Accordingly, the established channels must be used as required.

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Consult with others who are involved in Planning the Communication

If people have participated in the planning process, they would be highly motivated to give
active support to such communication. The people who are concerned must know exactly what
they need and when they need the communication.

Consider the Receiver's Interest

Take the receivers interests into account, and then the receiver will be more responsive to
the communication. The management must clarify any part of the communication that may be
necessary and must encourage comments, questions, and feedback. The management must
always be helpful in carrying out the intended message of the communication.

Mode of Delivery

While delivering the communication, avoid negative statements like, "I am not sure it will work",
but be confident and definitive. The success of the communication also depends upon the tone of
the voice if the communication is verbal, expressions and emotions exhibited, attentiveness to
the receiver and so on. The written communication should be polite and unambiguous.

Use proper Follow-up

All communications need a follow-up to ensure that these were properly understood and carried
out. The response and feedback to the communication should determine whether the action to the
communication has been prompt, appropriate and accurate.

Communication should be Comprehensive

Communication should be complete so as not only to meet the present demands. It should also
fee based on future needs of the organization as well as individuals.

Recently, the nature of managerial and organizational communication has changed dramatically,
mainly because of break through of the electronic technology and advent of computers. Now
cellular phones, E-Mail and Internet have made the communication quick and convenient. It is
now even possible for managers from different cities to meet by teleconferencing method
without leaving their offices.

Control

A group exists for a purpose. Control is the throttle on the groups engine the energy that gives it
direction. As a leader exerts control, he balances what the group is working toward and keeping
the group happy and satisfied

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Controlling group performance is a close companion of the competency setting the example. The
coordination of individual efforts for collective purpose is externally and internally controlled by
the leader and each individual herself

The leader sets the example by doing what he expects others to do:

• Doing his own job well

• Following instructions with little or no supervision
• Trying his hardest
• Behaving maturely
• Showing a positive attitude
Control is most often behaviour of the leader .There are specific actions a leader can take to exert
influence over a group. The leader in a group deploys the people in his patrol in a manner to
promote control, breaking up destructive cliques, to encourage greater participation, etc

The overt leader may not be the only individual exercising control. Group members may
encourage one another to behave according to the unwritten group code. Group members
,knowing the group purpose, may correct one another .Usually the group defers control to the
leader of the moment. This person does his best to help members retain a sense of unity while
directing the group in completing the task they are responsible for. The leader strives for a
balance; it is called a “nine –nine” leader

The “nine-nine” leader:

The leader has limited control over the environment and how it impacts the task and the group.
He may or may not be able to affect the definition of the task; he has the most control over the
group. So his primary job is management of the group ,given the environment ,to accomplish a
task. This dynamic group process is an interactive model of leadership that we call the nine-nine
model.The nine –nine models assumes that some leaders are very good at getting a job done but
not so good at keeping the people involved and motivated. Other leaders may be dynamic at
keeping everyone happy but is never successful at getting jobs done on time or to specifications.

UNIT IV

LEADERSHIP AND POWER

Meaning of Leadership

Leadership has been described as the “process of social influence in which one person can enlist
the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task". Definitions inclusive of

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nature of leadership have also emerged. Alan Keith of Genentech states that, "Leadership is
ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making something extraordinary
happen." According to Ken "SKC" Ogbonnia, "effective leadership is the ability to successfully
integrate and maximize available resources within the internal and external environment for the
attainment of organizational or societal goals."

Importance of leadership:

Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize efficiency and to

achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the importance of leadership in a
concern.

1.Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the policies and
plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts.

2.Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concern’s working. He

motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby gets the work
from the subordinates.

3.Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for the
subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way they have to perform
their work effectively and efficiently.

4.Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through

expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and giving
them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also important to hear the employees with
regards to their complaints and problems.

5.Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards their work
and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can be a morale booster by
achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of their abilities as they work to
achieve goals.

6.Builds work environment- Management is getting things done from people. An efficient work
environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human relations should be kept into
mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts with employees and should listen to their
problems and solve them. He should treat employees on humanitarian terms.

7.Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal interests with

organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through proper and effective co-
ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.

Leadership styles

Authoritarian Leadership (Autocratic)

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Authoritarian leaders provide clear expectations for what needs to be done, when it should be
done, and how it should be done. There is also a clear division between the leader and the
followers. Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently with little or no input from the
rest of the group.Researchers found that decision-making was less creative under authoritarian
leadership. Lewin also found that it is more difficult to move from an authoritarian style to a
democratic style than vice versa. Abuse of this style is usually viewed as controlling, bossy, and
dictatorial.Authoritarian leadership is best applied to situations where there is little time for
group decision-making or where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group.

Participative Leadership (Democratic)

Lewin’s study found that participative (democratic) leadership is generally the most effective
leadership style. Democratic leaders offer guidance to group members, but they also participate
in the group and allow input from other group members. In Lewin’s study, children in this group
were less productive than the members of the authoritarian group, but their contributions were of
a much higher quality.Participative leaders encourage group members to participate, but retain
the final say over the decision-making process. Group members feel engaged in the process and
are more motivated and creative.

Delegative (Laissez-Faire)

Researchers found that children under delegative (laissez-fair) leadership were the least
productive of all three groups. The children in this group also made more demands on the leader,
showed little cooperation, and were unable to work independently.Delegative leaders offer little
or no guidance to group members and leave decision-making up to group members. While this
style can be effective in situations where group members are highly qualified in an area of
expertise, it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation.

Leadership theories

Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership
theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent
theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. While many
different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types:

1. “Great Man” Theories:

Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are
born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise
to leadership when needed. The term “Great Man” was used because, at the time, leadership was
thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

2. Trait Theories:

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Similar in some ways to "Great Man" theories, trait theory assumes that people inherit certain
qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify
particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. But if particular traits are
key features of leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not
leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.

3. Contingency Theories:

Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that
might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to
this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of
variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation.

4. Situational Theories:

Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational
variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-
making.

5. Behavioral Theories:

Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born.
Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental
qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through
teaching and observation.

6. Participative Theories:

Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input
of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group
members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making
process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of
others.

7. Management Theories:

Management theories (also known as "Transactional theories") focus on the role of supervision,
organization and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and
punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful,
they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

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8. Relationship Theories:

Relationship theories (also known as "Transformational theories") focus upon the connections
formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by
helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. These leaders are
focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her
potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.

Bass' Theory of Leadership

Bass' theory of leadership states that there are three basic ways to explain how people become
leaders .The first two explain the leadership development for a small number of people. These
theories are:

o Some personality traits may lead people naturally into leadership roles. This is the Trait
Theory.

o A crisis or important event may cause a person to rise to the occasion, which brings out
extraordinary leadership qualities in an ordinary person. This is the Great Events Theory.

o People can choose to become leaders. People can learn leadership skills. This is the
Transformational or Process Leadership Theory. It is the most widely accepted theory today and
the premise on which this guide is based.

Leader vs manager:

Leadership and managership are two synonymous terms” is an incorrect statement. Leadership
doesn’t require any managerial position to act as a leader. On the other hand, a manager can be a
true manager only if he has got the traits of leader in him. By virtue of his position, manager has
to provide leadership to his group. A manager has to perform all five functions to achieve goals,
i.e., Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, and Controlling. Leadership is a part of these
functions. Leadership as a general term is not related to managership. A person can be a leader
by virtue of qualities in him. For example: leader of a club, class, welfare association, social
organization, etc. Therefore, it is true to say that, “All managers are leaders, but all leaders are
not managers.”

A leader is one who influences the behavior and work of others in group efforts towards
achievement of specified goals in a given situation. On the other hand, manager can be a true
manager only if he has got traits of leader in him. Manager at all levels are expected to be the
leaders of work groups so that subordinates willingly carry instructions and accept their
guidance. A person can be a leader by virtue of all qualities in him.

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Leaders and Managers can be compared on the following basis:

Basis Manager Leader

Origin A person becomes a manager by virtue of his position. A person becomes a leader on
basis of his personal qualities.

Formal Rights Manager has got formal rights in an organization because of his status. Rights are
not available to a leader.

Followers The subordinates are the followers of managers. The group of employees whom the
leaders leads are his followers.

Functions A manager performs all five functions of management. Leader influences people to
work willingly for group objectives.

Necessity A manager is very essential to a concern. A leader is required to create cordial relation
between person working in and for organization.

Stability It is more stable. Leadership is temporary.

Mutual Relationship All managers are leaders.All leaders are not managers.

AccountabilityManager is accountable for self and subordinates behaviour and

performance.Leaders have no well defined accountability.

Concern A manager’s concern is organizational goals.A leader’s concern is group goals and
member’s satisfaction.

Followers People follow manager by virtue of job description. People follow them on
voluntary basis.

Role continuation A manager can continue in office till he performs his duties satisfactorily in
congruence with organizational goals. A leader can maintain his position only through day to day
wishes of followers.

Sanctions Manager has command over allocation and distribution of sanctions. A leader has
command over different sanctions and related task records. These sanctions are essentially of
informal nature.

Sources of power:

Power is a force of influence and authority. Most leaders wield power, but how
power is manifested and used often differs between leaders. Where does a leader get power

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from? Or do a leader’s followers give it to them? Well it’s both. In this article, we’ll be looking
at the five different sources of power a leader can use, with some advice on when these powers
should be used, and perhaps when not.

The five sources of a leader’s power come from distinctly different sources. Here’s an overview:

Expert Power: When a leader has significant domain knowledge/skills. E.g. an expert
accountant influences how junior accountants go about their tasks

Positional Power: Comes when a leader has a legitimately held position of authority. E.g.
typically, the CEO of an organization has the highest positional power

Reward Power: Is evident when a leader can give, or take away, a reward. E.g. a leader can
influence a follower’s behavior by awarding a bonus, or taking away perks

Coercive Power: This is felt when a leader creates the perception of a threat. E.g. a leader has
coercive power if her followers believe that she will initiate disciplinary action

Personal Power: Influence gained by persuasion. E.g. a manager may have to rely on nothing
more than a friendly please and thankyou for an employee to perform a task

Expert Power:

If you’re reading this then you’re probably like most technical professionals and leaders that
potentially have expert power. It is the esoteric nature of the technical professional’s subject
matter that means most superiors or colleagues don’t possess the same applicable knowledge or
judgment as you, even if you have no formal authority on the subject. Therefore your word on
your subject carries weight and has the means to influence the outcome of decisions where it
applies. For example a programmer can influence the design of a niche application because of
their knowledge of a codebase, and a support engineer can influence how a support process
operates because they are known to be the best at supporting that function.

It is common, therefore, that followers can have more expert power than their leaders. New
leaders particularly can possess far less knowledge than their followers. This can put you in a
vulnerable position. To gain the same level of knowledge can be time-consuming and possibly
not practical, if skills are hard to acquire. You wouldn’t expect an CTO to take a Cisco course so
that they can directly influence the outcome of a network design, would you? As a leader in this
situation, you should not rely only on expert power to influence outcomes and use other sources
of power accordingly.

Therefore, by possessing expert power you have something that most others cannot easily
acquire. It is a powerful asset. But is it always used for the greater good? No. Withholding
knowledge as a means of gaining or maintaining power is all too common. Leaders who identify
this practice have a difficult challenge, but it must be avoided. One might see this where IT

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departments are in the process of being outsourced, or if an employee feels threatened by new
members of their team. As a leader in this situation you should apply other powers to resolve the
problem, such as rewarding knowledge sharing or building closer relationships with the affected
employee to persuade him out of this way of thinking.

Positional Power

Positional power is gained by a person’s role in their organization. In many organizations a

grading system is used to position an employee, or it maybe evident in an organization chart.
However your organization elevates its employees in the structure, positional power is a function
of one’s formal authority. It’s being the boss. As the boss you can decide who does what job and
who goes where. As the formal authority, you have influence because you have been given the
accountability for that department or function.

Being the boss, however, does not guarantee that you will have followers that comply of their
own free will. It does not mean you will be the leader. Using only positional power means you
make decisions without consideration of personal relationships, individual needs and personal
objectives. It could result in compliance, and only compliance. You might see that your
subordinates work to rule or union policy, and behave inflexibly. Subordinates in this sense are
wielding positional power too in order to influence an outcome. Ensuing disputes can be very
costly and disruptive, and its likely as a leader you will come out of this for the better. Using
positional power is not bad, but should be used in conjunction with other sources of power to be
most effective.

Use positional power when…

• you need something done quickly when you don’t have time to explain why

• if a political situation has grown that needs stemming

• your accountabilities are in serious jeopardy

Don’t use positional power when…

• you’re feeling impatient or frustrated

• you have purely personal reasons to influence an outcome

• your values are at odds with someone else’s

• you’ve recently entered a new post with an unfamiliar team

Reward Power

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One has reward power if you have the potential to influence the actions or behaviors of others if
you have control over desired resources, such as salary benefits, human resources or capital. In
essence, it is due to your ability to offer incentives. For example, a leader of a programming team
can increase productivity in their team by offering benefits like new programming tools or a
team outing to paintball. A common practice in many organizations with a salesforce is to offer
places at a sales conferences in exotic locations. It is sometimes as simple as a leader offering
affiliation with themselves, such as meetings over coffee or public recognition.

Having the potential to administer reward is a powerful force. It is an effective motivation

mechanism. However, it must be used carefully. One mistake that leaders often make is to
assume that the reward is worth the effort in the eyes of their followers. Another possibility is
that it could create or reinforce an entitlement culture where explicit rewards are the only
motivation, and the revocation of the rewards creates the opposite outcome. It is also possible
that followers who do not receive rewards can foster jealousy or resentment creating further
problems within the organization.

Use reward power when…

• your team needs a motivation boost

• you’re asking your followers to go above and beyond their duty

• you want to create friendly competition

Don’t use reward power when…

• resources are scarce, so that someone wins, someone loses

• you have doubts about your ability to provide the reward

• they are targeted towards individuals in situations where there are petty jealousies
exhibited in your team

Coercive Power

Coercion is a potential to influence others by sanctions or other negative action. For example, an
engineer works longer hours unpaid because their performance review is due with her leader. It
is a product of fear of loss.Coercion is not always the same as a threat, which is a direct and
deliberate action of coercion. Indirect coercion can be due to a perception by the engineer, in the
above example, that a threat is in place, even if a threat had never been expressed by their leader.

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Another example is where a designer compromises on a design to align to their leader’s personal
motives, where the leader is known to have a temper and short-fuse.

Coercion is not inherently ‘bad’. Coercive power can be instrumental in an organization if

certain standards are required or regulations upheld. For example a programmer works in an
organization where software standards must be applied to comply with contractual obligations.
To be effective, the programmer must know that there are penalties to himself (e.g. given a
warning or a black mark on their performance) and also to their employer. Another example is a
HR policy which stipulates the immediate firing of an employee who makes racist comments.

Coercion as a staple source of power rarely makes for a good leader. Ruling with an iron fist
behind your back doesn’t foster good working relationships and respect. Its also likely to result
in employee’s revolting, reflecting your coercive tactics in the form of strike action or similar.
Coercion should be used sparingly, if at all, and only to stem negative behaviors in your
followers that may be outside of behavioral policies, but only once other forms of power have
been exhausted.

Use coercive power when…

• you need to ensure standards and policies are adhered to

• there is significant risk in a situation

• you have no other option

Don’t use coercive power when…

• you have the ability to apply other power. Rather, use positional power if you must

• you won’t be around to put things right, afterwards

• you’re feeling frustrated and emotional

Personal Power

Personal power is created by strong relationships between a leader and her followers. It is the
potential influence that you have due to the quality of this bond; a product of trust and affiliation.
A business analyst will accept the influence and decision of his leader if he believes his motives
are aligned to their shared values. Personal power begins when two or more people have rapport
and build upon their relationship. The more that the follower sees good in the actions of the
leader, the more personal power the leader will possess over the follower. Personal power is
synonymous with friendship.

Personal power comes into play when a leader can influence a follower by a conversation. A
simple exchange of words in terms of a request is often enough, even if the follower does not

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necessarily understand or agree with the request or decision. Personal power can be an optimal
means of making progress, but it does come at a price. The leader must work hard at building
and maintaining these relationships.

Personal power can have a downside when discipline has to be practiced by the leader. Having a
crunchy conversation with a follower who you share a strong relationship can be awkward. It is
common for leaders to shy away from the discipline, leaving unresolved issues that can fester for
later explosion.

Power and politics

Power and politics are among the most important concepts in the study of organization behavior.
Both power and politics are dynamic concepts and are a function of the interaction between
different elements in organizations. Power has been defined as "the ability to influence and
control anything that is of value to others." It is the ability to influence the behavior of other
people in the organization and to get them to do what they otherwise would not have done.

Although the terms power, authority and influence are often used synonymously, there is a
difference between them. Power is the ability to effect a change in an individual or a group in
some way. Power may or may not be legitimate. That is, power need not correspond with a
person's organizational position. Authority, on the other hand, is legitimate. It is the power which
is sanctioned by the organization and is often the 'source' of power. Influence is a much broader
concept than both power and authority.

French and Raven, social psychologists, identified five sources of power - coercive,
reward, legitimate, expert and referent. Coercive power is based on fear and is the ability to
influence another person through threats or fear of punishment. Reward power is a positive
power which refers to the ability to get things done through others on the basis of one's power to
grant rewards. Legitimate power depends on organizational position and authority. It refers to the
power conferred by a person's organizational position. Expert power is derived from a person's
expertise or specialized knowledge of a certain subject that is perceived as important to the
organization. And referent power is based on people's identification with a certain individual and
their attempt to emulate his behavior. The person who acts as a model for reference has power
over the person who emulates his behavior.

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 Dependency is the most important concept of power. The degree of dependence of the
target determines the power exercised by the agent. Dependency is a function of importance,
scarcity and non substitutability of the resources controlled by a person.

Contingency approaches to power are also gaining importance. The contingency approach
suggests that power depends on being in the 'right place' at the right time and the influencability
of the target. The overall contingency model combines the theories of French and Raven with
those of Herbert Kelman and identifies the three main processes of power, namel
Organizational politics is often called 'power in action.' Politics may be legitimate (within
sanctioned organizational limits) or illegitimate (exceeding sanctioned organizational limits) in
nature. The degree of politicking engaged in depends on individual as well as organizational
factors. Individual politicking is a function of the person's power motive, personality factors and
background, and current work environment. Organizational politicking is a function of culture,
goal and role clarity and the attitude of top management.

Considerable importance has also been given to the ethical aspects of power and politics. It is not
always easy to develop ethical standards because of the ambiguous and subjective nature of
certain actions.

Power centers

Power center is the person who are in close vicinity to the top management and whom
management trusts and takes feedback from .It is very important to understand the the actual
people who are powerful in the company. These people may not be on very important
designation but may be the source of information for the boss. These people may not be
necessarily being part of your department. They must be other department heads, relatives or
friends of the boss.

Power centers are often defined by organizational characters or by laws .Incase of schools ,
position status, authority structure, and rules and regulations prescribed the power centers.

There are two ways to use these people:

We should use to advertise our achievements and our plan to these in a very discrete manner,
which does not disclose the full plan but gives only hints. Discuss what you are doing and we
will do in future with these people. Never ever criticize the company or the boss in front of these
people

Pass on the negative information about your competitors to these people and thus defame the
competitors. Tell them how others are giving loss to the company

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Things to remember while talking with these people:

Identify and select more than one power center:

After careful examination in a month or two ,we must identify and ear mark more than one
power center .It is beneficial if the information is passed on to boss from various sources .It is
increased the reliability of the information and we will be taken as a really worthy man

Selectively disclose the things:

Although power centers are good source of disclosing information ,these people look out more
for negative information rather than positive information as their main job is to report to boss
about the problem in the company.

Make them feel important:

Always make these people feel important by praising them once a while. Try to wish them on
regular basis and often while in public.

Never criticize the company or your boss:

As they have direct connection with the boss , never do mistake of criticizing the boss. Always
praise the efforts of the boss, even if they them self are criticizing him.

The power centers are like the power boosters in the organization .Deeper relations with these
people will result in faster growth, so we should even money on these people centers.

UNIT- V
DYNAMICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AND CLIMATE

Culture: “a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organisation from other
organisations”. (set of values and key characteristics) organisational culture is the set of assumptions,
beliefs, values, norms that are shared by an organisation‟s members. Organisational assumptions,
values, norms which are known as abstract elements of the culture. Externally oriented characteristics
like products, dresses, buildings etch, are called material element.

Organisational culture:

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A set of attributes specific to an organisation that may be inducing from the way the organisation
deals with its members. It is current situation in an organisation and linkage among individuals,
work groups and work performance.

Characteristics
Innovation
Degree to which employees are encouraged to be innovative and task risk.
Attention to details
Degree to which employee are expected to exhibit to precision analysis and attention to detail.
Outcome orientation:
Degree to which management focuses on results/ outcomes rather than on the techniques and
processes used to achieve those outcomes people orientation: the degree to which management
decisions take into consideration the effect of outcomes on people within the organisation.
Team orientation:
The degree to which work activities are organised around teams rather than individuals.
Aggressiveness:
The degree to which peoples are aggressive and competitive rather than easygoing.
Stability:
The degrees to which organisational activities are emphasize maintaining the status quo in
contrast to growth. Based on these characteristics, organisation culture should be identified.
Culture and climate
Culture Climate
Based on anthropology and sociology Study of climate base on psychology.
Culture is a means through which members learn Climate does not deal with values and
and communicate what is accepted and norms it is concerned with the current
unaccepted in an organisation on the light of its atmosphere in the organization
values and norms
Culture is more difficult to change in short Climate is subject to manipulation by
period of time managerial actions even in short-term.

Culture is a descriptive term

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Organisational culture is concerned with how employees perceive the characteristics of
organisation. It is a descriptive term, it is important because differentiate the concept of job
satisfaction. Job satisfaction seeks to measure of affective response to work environment. It
concern with how employees feel about the organisation‟s expectation, rewards, policies and
etc...
Does organisation have niform culture?
Many organisation have dominant culture and many number of sub culture.
Dominant culture:
It expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organisation‟s members. Macro
view of culture that gives an organisation its distinct personality.
Sub-culture
This is mini culture within an organisation, typically defined by department designations and
geographical separation.it includes core values of dominant culture plus additional values unique
to members or the concerned department.
Strong vs weak culture
Strong culture impact on employee behaviour and or more directly related to reduced turnover.
Primary and dominant values that are accepted throughout the organisation. It influence on the
behaviour of its members because the high degree of sharedness and intensity creates an internal
climate of high behavioural control. Builds cohesiveness loyalty and commitment less
opportunity to leave organisation.
Culture vs formalization

Cultures increase behavioural consistency. Strong culture can act as a substitute for
formalization. Formalization refers to the degree to which the organisations are standardized.
Both are two different roads but common designation strong organisational culture less
management need to concern rate on rules and regulations to guide employee‟s behaviours
Organisational culture vs national culture:
National culture is greater impact on employees than organisational culture .national culture
strongly shaped this company‟s organisational culture.
What does culture do? (or)functions of culture in organisation:
Boundary defining roles: it relates distinction between one organisations from another.
Represent a sense of identity for organisation culture: culture facilitate the generation of

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commitment of something larger than one‟s self-interest. It enhance the stability of social
system: culture is the social glue that helps the organisation together by providing appropriate
stds for what employees should say and do. Serve as sense-making and control mechanism that
guides and shapes attitude and behaviour of employees. For example: disney theme park-
attractive, clean wholesome looking with smile face. Image of disney strong culture support by
formal rules and regulations that disney theme park employees will act in uniform and
predictable way.

Culture as a liability:
Culture should match with environment. In many organisations with strong culture practice that
led to previous success can lead to failure when those practices no longer match up well with
environment needs .consistency of behaviour is an asset to an organisation.
Factors influence performance and satisfaction or
How organisation culture influence performance and satisfaction?
Objective factors
1. Innovative and risk taking

2. Attention to details

3. Outcome orientation

4. People orientation

5. Team orientation

6. Aggressiveness

7. Stability

Environment, gender, values of individual, rules and regulations of organisation, timing, level of
respect to employees, personality of individuals. These factors also can influence performance
and job satisfaction.
Creating and sustaining culture:
Origin of a culture: organisation current customs traditional and formal way of doing things.
Characteristics of founder: personality aggressive, competitive, highly discipline traits,

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personality, values, attitudes, past work experience, good bad experience from his own life,
family culture and customs, learning‟s from varies personalities and situations.
How to keep a culture active? Or
Process of creation of organisational culture
Establishing values:
Define values- value is define as what is right and what is wrong what is desirable and what is
undesirable and so on. It depends upon the founders and other key personnel‟s values. Bajaj auto
limited is an example. He is gandhi ideology. More opportunity in business he selected trading in
auto parts. Expect liquor and mill cloth. Values also determine how organisational activities will
be carried out.
Creating vision:
Vision represents imagination of future event and prepares the organisation for the same.
Visionary companies hold distinct set of values. Vision derived from values. A good vision helps
several ways to organisational members.
It inspires and exhilarates them. It helps in the creation of a common identity and a shared sense
of purpose. It creates competitiveness originality uniqueness. It fosters risk-taking and
experimentation. It fosters long term thinking.
Operational sing values & vision:-
These are not put into action. For putting values & vision in action, the organisation can unfertile
full activities. Organisation prepares a written statement containing its value & vision &
communicates these two organisation members land books. Take care should be takes while
selecting an employees, that their values match organisational values. Reward system put
enough provisions in the reward system.
Socialization of employees:-
It means process that adopts employees to the organisation cultures. For that 5 month training
programme where they learn way of doing everything. From how to speak to superiors to proper
grooming & dress. Company considered it is entered for transforming young employee‟s fresh
out of school into dedicated corporate warriors.
Socialization process:-
Pre-arrival:-

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Before join the organisation he understands what is organisation from kerning friend & family.
At the recruitment stage most of the org give job previews which help the prospective employees
to learn more about the job & the organisation.
Encounter:-
Expectation true with realities he adopt org culture quickly.
expectation & realities is different
Expectation abt the person her boss, co-workers. The new employee must undergo socialization
that will detach him from her previous assumptions & replace them with another set that org
deems desirable. A new member become totally disillusioned with the actualities (disappointed)
of her job. Proper selection should significantly reduce the probability of latter encounter or
occurrence.

Metamorphosis stage:-
New employee adjusts to his/her work groups values & norms.
Methods of socialization with organisation
Or
How employees learn culture.
Stories, rituals, material symbols, language.
Stories:-
Learning org norms & values through stories include circulation of informal & oral narration of
events abt the organisation.
Rituals:-
Rituals repetitive sequence of activities that express & re-in force the key values of the
organisation. What goal is most important who is important?
Corporation rituals.
May – kay cosmetics annual award meeting. Miss american pageants wear. This show act as a
motivator by publicly recognising outstanding sales performance. In convey to sales persons that
reaching their quote is important & that through hard work & encouragement they too can
achieve success.
Material symbols:-

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Various materials symbols used by org convey specific means high status people can be
distribution the bases of various facilities provided to him equality.
Language:-
Many organisations & units within organisation use language as a way to identify members of a
culture or sub culture by learning these language members at least to their acceptance of the
culture & in so doing help to preserve it. It acts as common denominator that unties members of
an organisational culture.
Changing the org culture:-

Predict the current culture set unique goals.

Recruit personnel with previous experience so that they are able to interact well.

Make changes from top to bottom so that consistent message is delivered.

Include employees in this process of change when making changes in rules & policies.

Stay the course of being persistent.

JOB SATISFACTION
- mental feeling of favourable. Which an individual has abt his job.
Determinants of job satisfaction.
individual factors, nature of job, situational variables.
Individual factors:-
Level of education:
Highly educated person have very big expectations from their jobs, which remain unsatisfied.
Age: starting stage is org high job satisfaction gradually reduced.

Other factor: If individual not satisfied with family & social life. He may not satisfy with org
also.
Nature of job:- Occupation level:-
High level job provide more satisfaction carry prestige status.

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Job content:- Refers to intrinsic value of the job which depends on the requirement of skills for
performing it & the degree of responsibility & growth it offers. Routine repetitive job provides
lesser satisfaction. Job satisfaction in job rotation, enlargement, enrichment.

Situational variables:-
Working condition:- Condition of work place & associated facilities for performing the job.
Type of supervision:- Employee oriented supervision production – oriented supervision.
Equitable rewards:- Job performances rewards determine reward is based on job performance
reward based on consideration.
Opportunity for promotion:- If the present job offers opportunity of promotion in future, it
provides more satisfaction.
Work group:- Either created formally or they develop on their own to seek emotional
satisfaction at work place. Such groups are cohesive, degree satisfaction is high.
Effect of job satisfaction:- Productivity, absentees, turnover, organisation citizenship
behaviour, customer satisfaction, work place.

How to improve satisfaction:-

improve level of job satisfaction.
in form go job redesigning to make the job more interesting & challenging.
improving quality of work-life.
linking rewards with performance.
improving overall organisation climate.

Stress management
Definition of stress:
“stress is an adaptive response, mediated by individual characteristics and/or psychological
processes, that is consequence of any external action, situation, or event that places special
physical and /or psychological demands upon a person”.

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Definition job stress: “job stress is a condition arising from the interaction of people and their
jobs and characterised by changes within people that force them to deviate from their normal
functioning”.
Challenge stressors: It associated with work load, pressure to complete taks and time urgency.
Hindrance stressors: Its keep you from reaching your goals (office politics, confusion, over job
responsibilities) stress is associated with demand and resources. Demands are responsibilities,
pressure, obligations and uncertainty. Resources – things within an individual‟s control that can
be used to resolve demands.
Sources of stress or causes of stress
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
There are three main uncertainties. That is economic uncertainty, political uncertainty,
technology changes.
Economic uncertainty
Changes in business cycle create economic uncertainty that people become anxious about job
security.
Political uncertainty Political threats and changes.
Technology changes New innovation can make employees skills and experience become
obsolesce in very short time period.

ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS
Task demands It related to person‟s job include design of the individual job (task variety,
degree of automation) working conditions. Physical work layout. For example cover crowded,
room visible location, noise, interruption, increase anxiety, and stress.
Role demand
Role conflict, role over load, unclear role.
Interpersonal demand
Lack of social support from peer groups. Poor interpersonal relationship creates stress.
PERSONAL FACTORS
Family
Personal relationship, marital difficulties, breaking off of a relationship, discipline troubles with
children. Economic- financial problem in family and organisation make feel stress.

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Personality – type a and introversion personality person are easy undergoing stress.
Individual differences:
Perception – laying of job security experience- voluntary retirement service, family
commitments make stress. Social support- lack of mutual understanding and relationship are
causes of stress. Personality- type a and introversion emotional people are highly feels stress.
Consequence of stress:
Physiological symptoms: heart diseases, breathing rates, high bp, headache, heart attack.
Psychological symptoms: tension, anxiety, irritability, boredom.
Behavioural symptoms: changes in productivity, absenteeism, turnover, eating habit, high
smoking and drinking, rapid speech, sleep disorders.
Manage stress
1. Individual approach
2. Organisational approach
Individual approach:
take personal responsibility for reduce stress level

strategies include time management,

techniques –physical exercise, relaxation training, expands social supports and network.

Time management-
scheduling activities according to priorities.

knowing daily cycle and handling most demand part it increases part of cycle.
be alert and productive.

making daily list of activity accomplished

prioritizing activities, importance, and urgency.

Physical exercise:
Cycling, swimming, jogging, riding bicycle.
Relaxation training
Do meditation daily 15-20 minutes. Deep relaxation it keep your mind relax and also physically
relaxed.

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Expand social support and network
Keep good relationship with family members, peers group, neighbourhood.
Organisational approach
Task and role demand can be controlled by management and it can be modify and change in
organisation
Recruitment and personnel sections:
Organisation doesn‟t give importance to experience candidate. Some candidates will be external
locus of control.
Goal setting:
Get feedback from employees it will motivate to employees.
Redesigning job
Make less dependence, more responsibility to employees, more meaningful work. It reduces
employee stress related to managerial control and power.

Organisational changes (making things different).

Change refers to alternation in the total work environment. People should adopt themselves to
the changing situations. I.e. The change towards the growing trend. Factors:
internal changes (changes in managerial personal)
external changes. (deficiency in existing organisation)

Causes of changes or forces for changes:

- stimulates changes in organisation.
Work force
The educational level of work force seems to be cause for organisational changes. Human
resource policy and practices must be changed as to concentrate in an effective work force.
Organisation spends a lot of money in development skills of the employees.
Technology: It is changing jobs and organisation speed /fast technology change.
Economic shocks: Boom, recession these two factors influence financial decision, investment
decisions, dividend decision, capital structure.

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Competition: It is changing capable of new product development rapidly and getting them to
market quickly.
Social trend We used post cards to communicate to some people but now we communicate
through internet chat room and mobiles. Baby boomers – future generation adjust organisation
product and marketing strategy to be sensitive to changing social trends.
Chain effect of change: Change touches a sequence of related and supporting changes. It is
known as domino effect.
For example: organisation is not able to face competition in the market because of old techniques
of production and competitors. New technique only alternative is to only change. If organisation
acquiring new technology change job content, it completely the recruitment new employee or
training given to existing employee. Environment constrain – job structure change, internal
relationship change.
Reactive and proactive changes:
Reactive change is undertaken when it is pressed by some factors. Either internal or external to
the organisation most of organisation believe in traditional pattern of working often go for
reactive changes. Organisation introduces certain methods or systems when they are forced for
that. For example: population control devices they did when they are forced by government.
Proactive change is brought out of the likely behaviour of the forces having impact on the
organisation. Organisation known as prospectors which constantly interact with their
environment to identify new opportunity and threats. Regularly basis changes in order to avoid
developing inertia of inflexible.
Planned changes
- Planned changes are change activities that are intentional and goal oriented. - planned
change aims to prepare the total organisation or a major portion of it to adapt to significant
changes in the organisation‟s goals and direction.
- implementation of a structural innovation a new policy or goal or a change in operating
philosophy climate or style.
 Structure
 Technology
 Task

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People first order change: said to be continuous that there will be no fundamental shift in the
assumptions regarding the improvement to be made in the functioning of the organisation.
(moderate changes/ adjustments. It can easily reversible)
Second order change/ fundamental / quantum.
It is said to be a discontinuous one that the assumptions are to be reframed by the organisation.
(completely different nature from old state )
Resistance to change:
Whenever an idea is proposed, i. E to make some changes in the organisation, there will be
resistance to adapt those changes. When there is resistance, then the merits and demerits of that
idea will be discussed and it is good for organisation. The resistance may fall under 4 types.
They are
 overt (explicit )
 implicit (covert)
 immediate
 deferred

Explicit and immediate resistance that occurs after implementation of a certain changes initiative
is rather easier to manage than implicit or deferred resistance.
- Implicit and deferred are more complicated. When resistance is not open, the
management does not even have inkling of the resistance of its actions by employees.
Causes of resistance to change:
 individual resistance
 organisational resistance
Individual resistance
It is related to human characteristics. They are
habit. The habits developed by an individual are difficult to change.

security. Individual resist change if ti is likely to decrease their income or sources of earning.

economic factors. People tend to resist change that threatens their safety and security.

fear of the unknown. People fear the unknown and uncertainty associated with it and hence
resists change.

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selective information processing. Individuals process information selectively to make it
compatible with their perceptions.

Organisational resistance:

limited focus of change.

group inertia

threat to expertise

threat to established power relationship

threat to established resource allocations.

How to overcome resistance to change?

education and communication. Employees should be educated on the logic of changes by
explaining the full facts and all doubts must be cleared in order to reduce the resistance.

participation. It becomes difficult for the individuals to resist a change decision in which they
take active participation.

facilitation and support. Change agents can offer a range of supportive efforts like counselling,
training, paid leave, etc.

use of group force. Group can exert more pressure on attitude, values and behaviour. By
identifying strong cohesive groups and making them involve and participate in the decision
making process, the resistance is reduced.

leadership for change. A strong leader /manager can use personal reasons for change without
resistance. He brings a climate for psychological support from the subordinates.
negotiation. A few powerful individual can be offered a specific reward package and
negotiated.
manipulation. Twisting information, creation of false rumours, with-holding undesirable
information are some of the tactics of manipulation to decrease the intensity of resistance to
change.
coercion. This is the application of force or direct threats of transfers, loss of promotions,
negative performance evaluation. Here the change agents‟ credibility will be zero.
Approaches:

- Lewin‟s three steps model:

Unfreezing – movement – refreezing
Unfreezing:
Employees are educated about external and internal factors that make change important.

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Movement of changes:
Employees convinced on prepared for change, the actual change process begins doing a way of
practices and adopting new methods. Job duties are redefined.
Refreezing:
It is an implemented stage. Reforming changes so that organisation does not revert to old state of
things. New skills are adopted with the help of training and management ask to demonstrate new
skills like role play.
Action research model
According to robbins, action research is “a change process based on the systematic collection of
data and then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate” . Action
research follows a scientific methodology for managing changes. There are 5 steps.
diagnosis- in this step, change agents attempts determine the underlying causes of an
organisation‟s problems.
analysis. Change agent analysis the information collected in the diagnostic stage.

feedback. Change agent shares his observations and conclusions from diagnosis and analysis
information.
action. Employees and change agents work together to implement the measures that they
consider solutions to the organisation‟s problems.
evaluation. The change agents evaluates the effectiveness of the actions taken by measuring
the outcomes of those actions.

Organisational development
Od is a unique organisational improvement strategy. Objective- is to improve performance of
individuals and groups in organisations. It deals with “people problem” such as poor morale, low
productivity, poor quality, interpersonal conflict, intergroup conflict, poor team performance,
poor customer relations, poor designed task etc.

Definition

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„a system wide application of behavioural science knowledge to the planned development and
reinforcement of organisational strategy, structure, and processes of improving an organisation‟s
effectiveness”.
Meaning for definition
Od is a system of planned change. Od takes a holistic or system wide approach to change. Od
targets organisational processes, rather than content. Od is problem oriented. Od focuses on
relationship, human, social as well as structure.
Techniques of od
It attempts to improve the fit between individual and the organisation and its environment and
among the different organisation components like strategy structure and processes. Participants
not give importance to power, control, and conflict. They give importance to collaboration,
confrontation, participation.
Sensitivity training
- It is also called t-group training - trainer is called facilitators. - to sensitize people to the
perceptions and behaviour related aspects of themselves and others. - unstructured and no proper
agenda. - give opportunity to express their opinion, belief, ideas. - facilitator take notes related to
expression, reactions of participant during interaction. - provide feedback on their behaviour. It
helps to improve listening skills, learn to talk, openly and accept individual differences.
It reduces interpersonal conflicts, and improves organisational productivity and efficiency,
interpersonal and leadership skills.

Survey feedback
Use of questionnaires to identify discrepancies among member‟s perceptions, discussion
follows, and remedies re suggested. Identity the area that need change.
Process consultation intervention:
Reason for ineffectiveness is dysfunctional interpersonal conflict. It specifies to improve a
particular process of the organisation. It includes flow of work, flow of communication, roles
and responsibility, group problem solving, decision making, co-operation, competition among
groups. Here they set agenda, present feedback on observation and give suggestions.
Team interventions:

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- high interaction among team members to increase trust and openness. To improve the
performance of work team. It covers 4 substantive areas.
1. Problem diagnosis
2. Task accomplishment
3. Maintaining team relationship
4. Improving team and organisation process

Activities consider that goal setting, development of interpersonal relations among the members,
role analysis, to clarify each member‟s, roles and responsibility and team process analysis.
Intergroup development
Again same reason for ineffectiveness is dysfunctional interpersonal conflict. Demerits of this
training program are stereotype. (take a sample for group performance)
Appreciative inquiry: ai
Problem centred identify the unique qualities and special strengths of an organisation which can
be build to improve performance. Ai agrees that problem solving approaches always ask people
to look backward at yesterday.
- Four steps
Discover: Idea is to find at what people think are the strength of the organisation.
Dreaming: From discover stage, used to speculate on possible future for the organisation
Design: Based on dream, participants focus on finding a common vision of how the organisation
will look and agree on its unique qualities.
Destiny: Participants discuss how the organisation is going to fulfil its dream. It includes the
writing of action plans and development of implementation strategies.

Organisational effectiveness
“effectiveness may be defined as the degree of which an organisation realises its goals” oe also
called as organisational success or growth. Efficiency, productivity, profitability, organisational
growth to denote organisational effectiveness. Barnard defined organisational effectiveness as it
is degree to which operative goals have been attained. While the concept of efficiency represents
the cost/benefit rate incurred in the pursuit of these goals. Effectiveness related to goals and is
externally focussed. Efficiency refers to relationship between input and output. There are 3
situations in organisation

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 organisation may be efficient, may not be effective.(efficient- low cost producing. Not
effective- fails to follow price strategy)
 organisation may be effective, may not be efficient. (effective- earn profit, efficient – not
control cost of production)
 organisation may be both effective and efficiency. ( long term survival in market)

Approches to measure effectiveness:

There are 2 reasons for measure effectiveness.
1. To know whether organisation is doing things rightly, if not additional efforts require.
2. Organisational means for satisfying the needs of people in the society and the satisfaction of
such needs is directly linked to organisation effectiveness.
Approaches
 goal approach
 behavioural approach
 system – resource approach
 strategic constituencies approach
Goal approach
Effectiveness is in terms of accomplishment of goals. It may be short term and long term.
Effectiveness of the organisation can be measured in terms of the degree to which these goals are
achieved. In goal approach, effectiveness defined profit maximisation, providing an efficient
service, high productivity, good employee morale etc. It includes quality, productivity, readiness,
efficiency, profit or return, utilisation of environment, stability, turnover or retention, accidents,
motivation etc.
Behavioural approach
It takes into account the behaviour of people in the organisation, which ultimately determines the
degree of goal achievement by an organisation. It focuses on organisational goals and individual
goals. Both goals are trying to satisfy his needs by working in the organisation. Some people
give importance to individual needs rather than organisation needs. To change this situation,
organisations have to follow some control mechanism.
System resource approach:
It derived from open system model and it is applied to formal social organisation. It focuses on
interdependence between organisation and environment. It takes the form of output- input
transaction of various kinds relating to various things. These are scared and valued resources. It
focuses of competition between organisations. A competition occurs under different social

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settings and takes different forms. It is a continuous process underlying the emergence of
universal hierarchical differentiation among social organisations such as hierarchy may be
yardstick because it reflects the bargaining position of organisation. In terms of bargaining
position reflected in the ability of the organisation in either absolute or relative terms. Bargaining
position refers to resource getting ability. Bargaining position includes ob that importation of
resource, their use, their exportation.
Strategic constituencies approach
It is similar to system resource approach. But there are 2 major differences.
1. It consider only relevant environment of the organisation under reference and takes into
account those factors which impact on the operation of the organisation.
2. It does not only consider taking input from environment but exporting its outputs to the
environment.
Effectiveness depends on the degree to which organisation able to satisfy the strategy
constituencies. It differs from different types of functions of organisation. (owner, management,
customer, suppliers, government, community)

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