Classical Mechanics
LECTURE 2:
MORE ON VECTORS
Prof. N. Harnew
University of Oxford
MT 2016
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OUTLINE : 2. MORE ON VECTORS
2.1 Scalar and vector products
2.1.1 The scalar (dot) product
2.1.2 The vector (cross) product
2.1.3 Examples of scalar & vector products in mechanics
2.2 Differentiation of vectors
2.2.1 Vector velocity
2.2.2 Vector acceleration
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2.1.1 The scalar (dot) product
Scalar (or dot) product definition:
a.b = |a|.|b| cos θ ≡ ab cos θ
(write shorthand |a| = a ).
I Scalar product is the magnitude of a
multiplied by the projection of b onto a.
I Obviously if a is perpendicular to b then
a.b = 0
I Also a.a = |a|2 (since θ =0◦ )
√
Hence a = (a.a)
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Properties of scalar product
(i) i.i = j.j = k.k = 1 and i.j = j.k = k.i = 0
(ii) This leads to a.b = (ax i + ay j + az k).(bx i + by j + bz k)
= ax bx + ay by + az bz
iii) a.b = b.a : commutative
a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c : distributive
(iv) Parentheses are important
Note (u.v) w 6= u (v.w) because one is a vector along ŵ,
the other is along û.
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2.1.2 The vector (cross) product
Vector (or cross) product of two vectors,
definition:
a × b = |a||b| sinθ n̂
where n̂ is a unit vector in a direction perpendicular to both a and b.
To get direction of a × b use right hand rule:
I i) Make a set of directions with your right
hand→ thumb & first index finger, and with
middle finger positioned perpendicular to plane
of both
I ii) Point your thumb along the first vector a a
I iii) Point your 1st index finger along b, making
the smallest possible angle to a
I iv) The direction of the middle finger gives the b
direction of a × b . c=axb
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Properties of vector product
I i×j=k ; j×k=i ; k×i=j ; i × i = 0 etc.
I (a + b) × c = (a × c) + (b × c) : distributive
I a × b = −b × a : NON-commutative
I (a × b) × c 6= a × (b × c) : NON-associative
I If m is a scalar,
m(a × b) = (ma) × b = a × (mb) = (a × b)m
I a × b = 0 if vectors are parallel (0o )
i.e a × a = 0
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Vector product in components
Cross product written out in components:
I a × b = (ax , ay , az ) × (bx , by , bz )
= (ax i + ay j + az k) × (bx i + by j + bz k)
I Since i × i = j × j = k × k = 0 and i × j = k etc.
I a × b = (ay bz − az by )i − (ax bz − az bx )j + (ax by − ay bx )k
This is much easier when we write in determinant form:
i j k
a × b = ax ay az
(1)
bx by bz
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2.1.3 Examples of scalar & vector products in mechanics
I a) Scalar product
Work done on a body by a force through
distance dr from position 1 to 2
R2
W12 = 1 F.dr
Only the component of force parallel to
the line of displacement does work.
I b) Vector product
A torque about O due to a force F
acting at B :
τ =r×F
Torque is a vector with direction
perpendicular to both r and F,
magnitude of |r||F| sin θ.
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2.2 Differentiation of vectors
Notation: a dot above the function indicates derivative wrt time.
A “dash” indicates derivative wrt a spatial coordinate.
dy dy
ẏ ≡ y0 ≡
dt dx
a(t + ∆t) − a(t) ∆a
ȧ = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
a(t) = ax (t)i + ay (t)j + az (t)k
ax (t + ∆t) − ax (t)
ȧ = lim i + ...
∆t→0 ∆t
Hence ȧ = ȧx i + ȧy j + ȧz k
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2.2.1 Vector velocity
I ∆r = r2 − r1
∆r
v = lim
∆t→0 ∆t
I Velocity at any point is
tangent to the path at that
point
dr
I v= dt = ṙ
In one dimension:
dx
Abandon vector notation and simply write v = dt = ẋ,
(+v in +x direction, −v in −x direction).
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Example - 1D motion
A body has velocity v0 = −15 ms−1 at position x0 = 20m and
has a time-dependent acceleration a(t) = 6t − 4 [ms−2 ]. Find
the value of x for which the body instantaneously comes to rest.
I a(t) = 6t − 4 [ms−2 ] ; x0 = 20 m ; v0 = −15 ms−1
v̇ = 6t − 4 → v = a(t)dt = 3t 2 − 4t + c
R
I
I At t = 0, v = −15 ms−1 → c = −15 ms−1
I v = 3t 2 − 4t − 15
I v = 0 for 3t 2 − 4t − 15 = 3(t − 3)(t + 35 ) = 0
→ t = 3s (also − 53 s)
v (t)dt = t 3 − 2t 2 − 15t + c 0 → x = 20 m at t = 0, c 0 = 20 m
R
I x=
I x(t) = 27 − 18 − 45 + 20 = −16 m
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2.2.2 Vector acceleration
I ∆v = v2 − v1
∆v
a = lim = v̇ = r̈
∆t→0 ∆t
In one dimension:
dv
Abandon vector notation and simply write a = dt = v̇ = ẍ,
(+a in +x direction, −a in −x direction).
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Example: constant acceleration - projectile motion in 2D
dv
I a= dt = constant
I r = 0 at t = 0
Rv Rt
v0 dv = 0 adt
I
dr
→ v = v0 + at → v = dt
Rr Rt
0 dr = 0 (v0 + at)dt
I
→ r = v0 t + 21 at 2
Under gravity: a = −g ŷ → ax = 0; ay = −g
I vx = v0 cos θ I x = (v0 cos θ)t
I vy = v0 sin θ − gt I y = (v0 sin θ)t − 12 gt 2
g
Trajectory: y = (tan θ)x − 2v02
(sec2 θ)x 2
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The monkey and the hunter
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