18 ‘ Z we 49-78 COMPUTER SYSTEM Overview 1.1 Introduction 1.2. Basic Computer Organization 12.1 122 123 124 125 126 Input Unit 2 Output Unit 3 The CPU (Central Processing Unit) 3 The Memory [Main Memory/Primary Memory] 4 Storage Unit 6 The System Bus 7 1.3 Mobile System Organization 14 Types of Software Ltd 142 143 System Softoare 10) Application Software 11 Software Libraries. 13 DATA REPRESENTATION 241 Introduction 22. Digital Number Systems 224 222 223 224 Decimal Number System 20 Binary Nuamber System 20 Octal Number System 21 Hexadecimal Number System 22 2.3. Number Conversions 231 232 233 234 235 23.6 237 238 23.9 23.10 Decimualto-Binary Conversion 23 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion 26 Decinal-to-Octal Conversion 27 Octal-to-Decimal Conversion 2: Octal-to-Binary Conversion 27 Binary-to-Octal Conversion 2 Decimal-to-Hex Conversion 28 Hex-to-Decimal Conversion 29 Binary-to-Hex Conversion 29 Her-to-Binary Conversion 29 24. Representing Unsigned Integers in Binary 25 Binary Addition 2.6 Character/S 261 262 263 Representation ASCII Code 35 ISCH Code 36 Unicode 37 BOOLEAN LOGIC 3.1 Development of Boolean Logic 3.2. Binary Valued Quantities ao: 2 BY ER NIKHIL SIR Contents 10 19 20 23 31 32, a4 49 50BY ER NIKHIL SIR 3.3 Logical Operations ey 33.1 Logical Function or Compound Statement 50 33.2 Logical Operators 51 33.3 Evaluation of Boolean Expressions using Truth Table 53 34 BasicLogic Gates si 34.1 Inverter (NOT Gate) 57 342 OR Gate 57 343° AND gate 58 3.5. BasicPostulates of Boolean Logic 59 36 Principle of Du: Es 37 Basie Theorems of Boolean Algebra/Logic 6 37.1 Propertis of O and 1. 60 3.72. Indempotence Law 61 3.7.3. Involution 61 3.74 Complementarity Law 61 3.75 Commutative Law 62 3.7.6 Associative Law 62 3.7.7 Distributive Law 63 3.78 Absorption Law 64 3.79 Some Other Rules of Boolean Logic Algebra 63 3.8. DeMorgan’s Theorems 65 38.1 DeMorgan’s First Theorem 65 3.8.2 DeMorgan’s Second Theorem 66 3.9. Moreabout Logic Gates 68 391 NOR Gate 68 3.92 NANDGate 68 3.9.3 XOR Gate (Exclusive OR Gate) 69 394 XNOR Gate (Exclusive NOR gate) 70 4 — Insight into PRocraM EXECUTION 79-94 4.1 Introduction 9 42. Basic Flow of Compilation 80 43. Understanding Translation Process 80 43.1 The Compilation Process 80 43.2 The Interpretation Process. 83 44 Role ofan Operating System in Running a Program a 45: Introduction to Parallel Computing 90 4.6 Cloud Computing a COMPUTATIONAL THINKING AND GETTING STARTED WITH PYTHON 5.1 Introduction 5 5.2 Computational Thinking sd 5.3 Python - Pluses 99 54 Python ~ Some Minuses (So Human Like) 100 5.5 Working in Python 101 55.1 Working in Default CPython Distribution 101 55.2 Working in Anaconda Distribution 105 553 Writing and Compiling Python Program with Command Line in Linux 111 5.6 Understanding First Program/Script uz | re6 PYTHON FUNDAMENTALS 11 158 ol 62 63 64 65 66 Introduction Python Character Set Tokens 63.1 Keywords 121 63.2 Lentfers (Names) 121 633° Literals (Values 121 634 Operators 129 635 Punctuators 130 Barebones of a Python Program Variables and Assignments 65.1 Creating a Variable 13 652 Multiple Assignments 138 653. Variable Definition 140 654 Dynamic Typing 141 Simple Input and Output 66.1 Reading Numbers 143 662 Output Through print) Statement 146 BA DATA HANDLING 1597 212 | 71 | 72 73 74 78 76 Introduction Data Types 7.21 Numbers 160 722 Strings 163 7.23 Lists and Tuples 165 724 Dictionary 166 Mutable and Immutable Types 73:1 Variable Internals 170 Operators 741 Arithmetic Operators 74.2 Relational Operators 176 743. Identity Operators. 173 74.4 Logical Operators 182 745° Bitwise Operators 186 74.6 Operator Precedence 188 Expressions 7.51 Evaluating Expressions 192 75.2 Type Casting 196 Working with Some Standard Library Modulus 7.61 Working with math Modul of Python 198 7.6.2 Using random Module 200 7.63 Using the statistics Module 202 \8- CONDITIONAL AND ITERATIVE STATEMENTS 213 270 8.1 Introduction 8.2. Types of Statements in Python 8.3 Statement Flow Control = | BY ER NIKHIL SIR 119 120 120 131 135 142 159 160 167 172 191 198 213 24 21584. Program Logic Development Tools 841 Flowcharts 217 85. Theif Statements of Python 851 TheifStotement 218 852 The if-else Statement 220 853. The if-elifStalement 854 The nested if Statement 227 86. Repetition of Tasks ANecessity 87 Therange() Function 88. Iteration/Looping Statements 881 The for Loop 236 882 The while Loop 239 $883 Loop else Statement. 243 8.84 Jump Statements ~break and continue 244 885 Loop ele Slatement 248 8.86 Nested Loops 25 9 STRING MANIPULATION 271 - 294 9.1. Introduction 92. Traversinga String 9.3 String Operators 934 Basie Operators 273 932 Membership Operators 276 | 933 Comparison Operators 277 9.4. String Slices 95. String Functions and Methods 10 | DesuccinG Procrams 295 - 310 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Whatis Debugging? 103. Errorsand Exceptions 103.1 Errors in a Program 296 1032. Exceptions 297 10.4 Howto Debuga program? 10441 Debugging Techniques 299 10.5 Using Debugger Tool 105.1 Working with Integrated Debugger Tool of Spyder IDE. 302 1052 Working with Python Debugger — pdb 306 TL UIST MANIPULATION 311-342 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Creating and Accessing Lists M21 Creating Lists 312 11.22 Accessing Lists 314 11.3. List Operations 113.1 Joining Lists 319 xii BY ER NIKHIL SIR 217 218 232 234 236 an 2 273 278 281 295 296 296 299 302 ait 312 31912 343 - 362 13 363 - 386 14 387 - 402 15 403 - 420 1132 Repeating or Replicating Lists 320 1133 Sicing the Lists 320 11.4 Working with Lists 11.5 List Functions and Methods TUPLES. 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Creating and Accessing Tuples 12.2.1 Creating Tuples 344 1222 Accessing Tuples 345 12.3. Tuple Operations 123.1 Joining Tuples 348 12.32 Slicing the Tuples 319 124 Tuple Functions and Methods DICTIONARIES Ba Introduction 132 Dictionary -Key:Value Pairs 13.2.1 Creating a Dictionary 364 13.2.2. Accessing Elements of a Dictionary 365 13.2.3. Characteristics of a Dictionary 368 13.3. Working with Dictionaries 13.3.1 Multiple Ways of Creating Dictionaries 369 13.32. Adding Elements to Dictionary 371 13.33. Updating Existing Elements in a Dictionary 372, 13.34 Deleting Elements from a Dictionary 373 1335 Checking for Existence of a Key 374 1336 Pretty Printing a Dictionary 375, 133.7 Counting Frequency of Elements in a List using Diction 376 134 Dictionary Functions and Methods UNDERSTANDING SORTING 44 Introduction 142. What isSorting? 143 144 BubbleSort Insertion Sort RELATIONAL DATABASES 151 152 153 154 155 15.6 157 Introduction Purpose of DBMS Relational Database Model ‘The Relational Model Terminology 154.1 Views 409 154.2. Structure of Relational Databases 409 Brief History of MySQL. MySQL Database System Starting MySQL BY ER NIKHIL SIR 323 325 343 343 348 353 363 363 369 377 387 388 388 393 403 404 404 407 411 412 413} 15.8 MySQLand SQL 1581 Processing Capabilities of SQL 414 1582. Data Definition Language 415 15.8.3 Classification of SOL Statements 416 16 SIMPLE QUERIES IN SQL 421 — 460 16. Introduction 16.2. Some MySQL SQL Elements 16.2.1. Literals 422 16.22 Data Types 422 1623 Null Values 425 16.24 Comments 4: 163. SQLCommand Syntax 164 Sample Database 165. Making Simple Queries 165.1 Accessing Database 429 1652. The SELECT Command 429 1653. Selecting All Colunns 430 1654 Reordering Columns in Query Results 430 1655 Eliminating Redundant Data (with keyword DISTINCT) 430 165.6 Selecting from all the Rows ~ ALL Keyword 431 165.7, Viewing Structure of Teble 431 1658 How to Perform Simple Calculations ? 432 165.9. Scalar Expressions with Selected Fields 433 165.10 Using Column Aliases 433 165.11 Handling Nulls 434 165.12 Putting Text in the Query Output 436 165,13 Selecting Specific Rows - WHERE clause 437 165.14 Relational Operators 437 165.15 Logical Operators 438 16.5.16 Condition Based on a Range 438 165.17 Condition Based on a List 439 165.18 Condition Based on Pattern Matches 440 165.19 Searching for NULL 441 165.20 Operator Precedence 442 165.21 Sorting Results - ORDER BY clause 442 16.6 MySQL Functions 166.1 String Functions 444 1662 Numeric Functions 444 16.6.3 Date and Time Functions 445 167 Aggregate Functions 17 _{) Taste CREATION AND DATA MANIPULATION COMMANDS 461 486| 174 Introduction 17.2 Databases in MySQL 1721 Creating Datibases 462 1722 Opening Databases 462 1723 Removing Datbass 462 a= BY ER NIKHIL SIR 44 421 422 425 426 428 444 448 461 461BY ER NIKHIL SIR 173. Creating Tables on 173.1 Data Integrity Trough Constraints 463 17.4 Changing Data with DML Commands ae 174.1 Inserting Data into Table 472 174.2 Modifying Data with UPDATE Commend 474 1743. Deleting Data with DELETE Command 475 175. More DDL Commands ve 175.1 ALTER TABLE Command 47 a 175.2. The DROP TABLE Command 479 18 | Basics OF NOSQL DATABASE - MONGODB 487 - 496 18.1 Introduction 487 182. What are NoSQL databases ? 487 18.2.1. Types of NoSQL Databases 488 18.2.2 Advantages and Disadeantages of NoSQL Databases 482 183, Working with MongoDB 493 183.1 MongoDB Terminology 493 183.2. Starting MongoDB Service 494 19 CYBER SAFETY 194.1 Many Ways Websites Track you 498 194.2 Private Browsing and Anonymous Browsing 500 497-510 ‘191. Intreduction 497 19.2 Whatis Cyber Safety? 497 193 Safely Browsing The Wed 498 | 19.4 Identity Protection While Using Internet 498 | 19.5 Confidentiality of Information 500 19.5.1. Practices to Ensure Confidentiality of Information 501 19.6 Cybercrime 503 19.6.1 Reporting Cybercrime 504 19.7 Common Social Networking Sites 505 198 Appropriate Usage of Social Networks 505 19.8.1 What You Should Know ? 505, 19.8.2. What You should do ~ Usage Rules 506 20 ONLINE ACCESS AND COMPUTER SECURITY | 511-522 20.1 Introduction su 20.2 Threats to Computer Security Sil 20.2.1 Computer Viruses 512 20.2.2 Spyware 512 20,23 Adware 513, 20.2.4 Spamming 513 20.25 PC Intrusion 514 20.26 Eavesdropping 514 20.2.7 Phishing and Pharming 514 20.2.8 Cookies 515203 Solutionsto Computer Security Threats 203.1 Solutions to Viruses, Adware and Spyware 516 203.2 Solutions to Spars, Eavesdropping 517 203.3. Solutions to PC Intrusion 2034. Solutions to Phishing and Pharming Attack 518 204 Firewall - An Important Solution for Computer Security APPENDICES 523 - 528 Appendix: Installing Python Appendix B: Arguments to print Function Appendix C: Formatted Output using String format( } ADDITIONAL RESOURCE 1 Computer Organization 2 4g ey Truth Table Formation 53 ft complation Process 2 Interpretation Process 83 CPU Functioning 87 Working in Python 1OLE 103 ADDITIONAL RESOURCE 2 Working in Spyder IDE 110 =e Exponent Form 127 i barebones of Fthon Progam 13 [EEVPERS| | atest Memory 27 adtuicun cues Mutabilty/Immutability 168 Selected Solutions for chapter 7.209 ADDITIONAL RESOURCE 3 if Statement 219 Program 8.1 in action 222 Statement 226 range( ) Function 234 for Loop 236 i while Loop 242 ; Program 8.14 in action 243, Nested loop 252 Selected Solutions for chapter 8 264 a= BY ER NIKHIL SIR 515, 519 523 526 527 List of QR Codes string Traversal 272 String Sices 279 Selected Solutions for chapter 9269 Working in péb_ 305 Lst storage 315 True copying (Lust) 325 F Selected Solutions for chapter 11.339 Tuples vs Lists 347 Selected Solutions for chapter 12 359 Dictionary creation 364 ‘Multiple dictionary creation ways 369 Element addition 371 | Selected Solutions for chapter 13 383 Bubble Sort 389 Calculation of no. of Operations 390 Insertion Sort 394 To calculate no. of Operations in Insertion Sort 395 Selected Solutions for chapter 14 400BY ER NIKHIL SIR Computer System Overview sais Introduction Basic Computer Organization Mobile System Organization Types of Software 1.1 INTRODUCTION ‘Computers are the machines that have revolutionised the world around us. The way weused to live around 25-30 years ago is very different from how we live today. A modem age student | cannot even imagine life, without email, Internet, print outs, playing music on computers or smartphones, photos just a click away in the form of smartphones and so on. In short, in every aspect of life around us, we see computers play a role directly ot indirectly. Computers deliver so much, diligently and efficiently, all thanks to the wonderful combination of their hardware and software. ® Hardware. The physical electronic components of a computer are called hardware, ¢.., keyboard, CPU, monitor, printer ete. Software. These are the recorded instructions and programs that govern the working of a computer. Recall that a program: is a set of instructions to carry out a specific task or a special work goal, In this chapter, we shall discuss computer's functioning in broad sense by discussing computer system organization and how various types of software aid in computer's overall performance. a3 Ee (iBY ER NIKHIL Si 2 COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON ~ x1 1.2 BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION Computer organization refers to logical structure of a computer describing how its components are connected to one another ; how they affect one another's functioning, and contribute to overall performance of the computer. Computers, as you must be knowing, follow the IPO’ principle, Input -» Process + Output(a certain input is processed to generate specific output). So, the computer organization is. also like this — these are component(s) dedicated to obtain input in different forms, component(s) dedicated to perform processing part and component(s) to produce output in different forms, {hus basic computer organization is as shown in Figure 1.1. To see the interconnections and basic working of computer (Computer Organization), scan this OR Code with SIPO app. To see = Computer Organization in-acton SEE aun Control enc & Scan QR Code ALU) Registers Figure 1.1 Basic Computer Organization, Let us talk about these functional components of a computer, [LAC nnn one by one. A computer runs on electricity ower. 1.2.1. Input Unit pa ‘The input unit is formed by the input devices attached to the computer, Examples of input devices and media are : keyboard, mouse, magnetic ink character reader (MICR), optical mark reader (OMR), optical character reader (OCR), joystick ete. The input unit is responsible for taking input and converting [oie aa itinto computer understandable form (the binary code). Since @ computer operates on electricity, it can understand only the pape ‘es language of electricity i. either ON or OFF or high voltage phere cereus or low voltage. That means a computer can understand two computer. stages ON/OFF or High/Low voltage or the binary language that uses just two symbols: 1 for ON and 0 for OFF. All the inputs consisted of data (on which the action was (the action to be taken). —_ tobe performed) as well as the instruction On the same lines, the computer input also consists of data and instructions. For example if the given input to the computer is Add 2 and 3 then data consists of 2and 3nd instruction is Add. Similarly, if the given input is Print “Hello World” then data consists of “Hello World” and instruction is Print.BY ER NIKHIL Chapter 1: COMPUTER SYSTEM OVERVIEW 3 The input unit is comprised of different input devices that take the input in different forms and pass them in digital form to CPU for processing, Some common input devices are : ( Keyboard. Keyboard is a typewriter like device which is used to type in the letters, digits and commands. (i) Mouse. Mouse is pointing device with either a roller on its base or some laser mechanism. Mouse controls movement of pointer (also called mouse pointer) on screen. (ii) Microphone (Mic). We can send sound input to computer through a special input device called microphone or mic in short. A mic converts the sound received into computer's format, which is called digitized sound or digital audio. A mic can work if your computer has a special hardware known as sound card. 1.2.2 Output Unit | | |. The output unit is formed by the output devices attached to | the computer. The output coming from the CPU isin the form Output Unit converts the | | of electronic binary signals which needs conversion in some output in binary form to form which can be easily understood by human beings ie, human readable form. j characters, graphical or audio visual form. This function of conversion is performed by output units. Some popular output devices are : (Monitors. Monitor (or “screen’) is the most common form of output from a computer. It displays information in a similar way to that shown on a television screen. The picture on a monitor is made up of thousands of tiny coloured dots called pixels. (i Printers. Printers are the devices that deliver information by means of printed characters on paper. | (iii) Speakers. Speakers receive the sound in form of electric current from the sound card and then convert it to sound format audible to user. 1.2.3 The CPU (Central Processing Unit) ‘The CPU or the Central Processing Unit is the main control centre and processing unit. Itis also called brain of the computer as it guides, directs, controls and governs the performance of a computer. The CPU has some sub-components that help in carrying out the processing ofa task. These are : (@ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) (ii) Control Unit (CU) (iif) Registers (i) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) The ALU performs all the four arithmetic (+,-,*,/) and some logical <,>, =, <=,>=,!=) operations, When two numbers are required to be added, these numbers are sent from memory. to ALU where addition takes place and the result is put back in the memory. In the same way, other arithmetic operations are performed (through ALU only). For logical operations also, the numbers to be compared are sent from memory to ALU where the comparison takes place and ALU a ee the result is retumed to the memory. The result of a logical (=-1-/) and togie operation is either TRUE or FALSE. These operations provide 2Perations. the capability of decision-making to the computer.BY ER NIKHIL Si 4 ‘COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON — xj (ii) Control Unit (CU) The CU controls and guides the interpretation, flow and manipulation of all data and information. The CU sends contol signals until the required operations are done properly by ALU and memory. Another important function of CU is the program execution i, carrying out all the instructions stored inthe program. The CU gets program instructions from memory and executes them one after the other. After getting the instructions from memory in CU, the instruction is decoded and interpreted i.e,, which operation is to be performed. Then the asked operation is carried out. GU acts as a supervisor by After the work of this instruction is completed, control unit are ae guiding sends signal to memory to send the next instruction in © operation taking place, sequence to CU, The control unit even controls the flow of data from inp tut devices to memory and from memory to output devices. (ii) Registers Registers or processor registers are small units of data holding places. The temporarily hold some important processing-information during the ti taking place. CPU may store some part data or some memory address or processor registers. CPU uses registers to ime the processing is some instruction in its 1.2.4 The Memory [Main Memory/Primary Memory] The memory of a computer is more like a predefined working place, where it temporarily keeps information and data to facilitate its performance. Each memory location has a unique memory address. When the task is performed, it clears its memory and memory space is then available for the next task to be performed. When the power is switched off, everything stored in the memory gets erased and cannot be recalled. The memory of a computer can be thought of as ‘cells’. Each of these cells is further broken down into smaller parts known as bits (se Fig. 1.2). A bit means a binary digit ie, either Oor A number of bits together are used to store data instructions by their combination, vn ae IiRrO rE Mars ad CellO The memory of computer Is ‘often called main memory of Figure 1.2 Memory celts. Das ‘A group of 8 bits is called 2 byte and a group of 4 bits is called a] nibble. One byte is the smallest unit which can represent a data item or a character. Other units of memory are KB, MB, GB, TB. A bit is an elementary unit of the memory. Eight bits together form a byte. Every higher memory unit is equal to 2" of its lower unit.BY ER NIKHI Chopter 1: COMPUTER SYSTEM OVERVIEW 5) Following Table 1.1 lists various memory units used. rable 1.1 Units of Computer Memory Measurements Unit [shore Name | _ Full Name Unit ‘Short Name | Full Name 1 Bit Bit Binary Digit 2" ie, 1024 GB 17B Terra Byte 8 Bits 1 Byte Byte 2° ie,, 1024 TB 1PB Peta Byte 2" ie., 1024 Bytes 1KB Kilo Byte 2" ie, 1024 PB 1EB Exa Byte 2" ie, 1024 KB 1MB Mega Byte 2!° ie, 1024 EB 1ZB Zeta Byte 2! ie, 1024MB_ | _1GB Giga Byte : Since computer's main memory (primary memory) is temporary, secondary memory space is needed to store data and information permanently for later use. Some most common secondary storage media are the hard disk, CD-RWs, pen drive etc. The secondary memory devices are also known as storage devices. 1.2.44 Paris of Main Memory/Primary Memory In the random-access memory (RAM), the memory cells can be accessed for information transfer from any desired random location. That is, the process of locating a word in memory is the same and requires an equal amount of memory, thus the name “random access”. ‘The main drawback of RAM memory is that it is a volatile memory. That is, when the power goes off, the contents of RAM get erased. ‘The RAM chips in a computer can be of Hoo basic types : () Dynamic RAM (DRAM). These are made up of transistors and capacitors. The amount of time taken to produce data required from memory, from the start of access until the evailability of data is called memory access time. Today’s DRAM chips have access times ranging from below 20 to 70 nanoseconds. (i) Static RAM. These are made up of flip-lops' and offer". "smount of time taken to faster access times (about 10 nanoseconds) than Froguce data required from DRAMs. memory, from the start of Static RAMS are thus used in specialized applications _—_accessuntil the avaiablty of data, is called Memory Access while dynamic RAMS are used in the primary storage rime. sections of most computers. Read Only Memory (ROM) ‘As the name implies, a read-only memory (ROM) is a memory unit that performs the read operation only; it does not have a write capability. This implies that the binary information stored in a ROM is made permanent during the hardware production of the unit and cannot be altered by writing different words into it (hence non-volatile). Whereas 2 RAM is a general- purpose device whose contents can be altered during the computational process, a ROM is Pevbicted to reading words that are permanently stored within the unit: ROMs are used for applications in which itis known that the information never needs 0 be altered, for example, a monitor program controlling a machine. These, however, are slower than RAM. 1, A flip-flop is a binary cell capable of storing one bit of information.BY ER NIKHIL SIR s COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON — ‘There are various types of ROM which are given below : (PROM (programmable ROM). Also called OTP (One Time Programmable). PROM is user-programmable memory in which information is burnt using special equipment called a ROM burner. G EPROM (erasable programmable ROM). In EPROM, one can program the memory chip (through various mechanisms e.., UV radiation) and erase it many times < needed. The UV-EPROM can take up to 20 minutes for erasing EPROM contents, (i) EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM). In EEPROM, the EPROM ig erased electrically which is faster. Also, with EEPROM, selective bytes can be erased unlike UV-EPROM which erases fully. (jv) Flash EEPROM. It is like EEPROM but is very fast comparatively (the erasure of the entire contents takes less than a second). Also, it erases fully and not selectively. (2) Mask ROM. Mask ROM refers to a kind of ROM in which the contents are programmed by the IC manufacturer. It is not a user-programmable ROM. 1.2.5 The Storage Unit Computers need to store and retrieve data for processing. Since primary memory has a limited storage capacity and is not permanent, secondary storage devices are used to store large amount of data permanently. There are various types of secondary devices available these days. To specify the storage capacity of storage devices, same units of memory are used, which are used for measuring F Bata primary memory. That is, we can represent the storage % Hard disks “| Magnet capacity of storage devices in terms of kilo bytes (KBs), mega Media bytes (MBs), giga bytes (GBs) and tera bytes (TBs) as we do for + CD ROMs Optical main memory. + DVDs Media Let us now talk about some most common storage devices. Penidrive Flash memory 1. Hard Disks ‘ : The hard disk memories store information on one or more circular platters (or disks) which are continually spinning. These rotating disks are coated with a magnetic material and stacked with space between them. Information is recorded on the surface of rotating disks by magnetic heads as tiny magnetic spots. The hard disks of today have storage capacity measured in giga bytes upto tera bytes. 2. Compact Disks (CDs) ‘The compact disks or CDs are optical media. The CDs are relatively cheap and have a storage capacity of upto 700 Mb. There are tliree main types of CDs : () CD-ROM (Compact Disk-Read Only Memory). This is used only to store information and cannot be used to store data. It is mainly used for CD distribution e.g., encyclopedias, software, games, e-books etc. (i) CD-R (Compact Disk-Recordable). It is mainly used for CD-R and can be written on only once and disk can’t be erased. (ii) CD-RW (Compact Disk-Rewritable). CD-RW is an erasable disk you can write on multiple times.Chopter 1 COMPUTER SYSTEM OvERvieW 3. DVDs DVD is an optical storage device that looks the same as a compact disc but is able to hold about 15 times as much information and transfer it to the computer about 20 times as fast as a CD-ROM. A DVD, also called a Super Density disk (SD), can hold upto 17 gigabytes of data or four hours of movies on a side. DVDs also come in three varieties. () DVD-ROM. This is read only DVDs iv. BY ER NIKH| once recorded initially, you cannot write on it. (i) DVD-R (DVD-Recordable). DVD-R similar to CD-R’s allow users to write on the disc once but read it many times. (ii), DVD-RW (DVD-Rewritable). Most writable DVD drives are DVD-RW You can erase and read many times on them. 4, Flash Memory A flash drive is a small, ultra-portable storage device with a ‘solid state’ memory ie, it has no moving parts unlike magnetic storage devices, nor does it make use of lasers — unlike optical drives. Instead, it works in a similar way to RAM. The key difference is that data is retained in Flash memory even when the power is switched off. They are now fairly inexpensive, costing from % 250/- upwards. Typical sizes range from 256 Mbytes up to 128 GB and beyond. oe ih ( Storage of 1 KB means the following number of bytes : (@) 1000 (b) 964 (©) 1024 (@) 1086 (ii) One Megabyte is equivalent to (a) 210 bytes (b) 220 bytes (€) 230 bytes (d) none of the above What are the functional components of 2 digital computer ? What are the components of CPU ? What is its role ? What is the function ‘of control unit of CPU? What role does the input unit play in a computer ? What is the function of ALU ? What role does the output unit play in a computer ? What isthe function of main memory ? ‘What ae the measuring urits of memory ? What are different types of ROM ? Name some fast storage devices. Which storage device is considered a portable device 2 5. Blu Ray Disk Blu-ray Disc (also known as Blu-ray or BD) is an optical disc storage media format. Its main uses are high-definition video and data storage. The disc has the same dimensions as a standard DVD or CD. While current optical disc techno- logies such as DVD, DVD + R, DVD * RW, and DVD-RAM rely on a red laser to read and write data, the new format uses a blue-violet laser instead, hence the name Blu-ray. The benefit of using a blue-violet laser (405 nm) is that ithas a shorter wavelength than a red laser (650 nm), which makes it possible to focus the laser spot with even greater precision, ‘This allows data to be packed more tightly and stored in less space, so it’s possible to fit more data on the disc even though it’s the same size as a CD/DVD. Blu Ray disks of today are capable of storing upto 128 GB of data. 1.2.6 The System Bus The system bus (or the bus) is an electronic pathway composed of connecting cables and that connects the major components of a computer system. Through system bus, data and instructions are passed among the computer system components. ‘© The data carrying part of system bus is called data bus. © The control instruction carrying part of system bus is called control bus. © The memory address carrying part of system bus is called Address bus. © A separate type of bus called I/O Bus connects the Input, Output and other external devices to the system.BY ER NIKHIL SIR 8 COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON ~ y 1.3 MOBILE SYSTEM ORGANIZATION Modern mobile system are tiny computers in your hand. Although they have less computing power compared to their bigger versions, they handle diverse type of applications such as making calls through radio signals, offering camera utilities, handling touch sensitive screen, display audio/video/graphical content but having little battery based power etc. Display Subsystem ‘Camera Unit ((mage Signal |] Processor) Mic Speaker Figure 1.3 Mobile System Organization Thus, the system organization of a mobile system has components to handle all these. The block diagram of a mobile system is as shown here. Let us talk about these functional components of a mobile system one by one. A mobile system's CPU handles diverse types of applications but has a little power compared to computers as mobile systems run on battery power. 1. Mobile Processor (Mobile CPU} This is the brain of a smartphone. The CPU receives commands, makes instant calculations, plays audio/video, stores information and sends signals throughout the device. The CPU of a mobile system has majorly fwvo sub-processor” type: (#) Communications Processing Unit (ii) Applications Processing Unit (APU) 2. Infact, major subsystems are like processors in themselves eg, Radio Signal Management system can be termed as Fado signal processor. Nad.BY ER Nik} 9 CChopter 1: COMPUTER SYSTEM OVERVIEW () Communications Processing Unit. [Mobile System I/O Unit] This subsystem is responsible for making and receiving phone calls on a mobile handset. It has a digital signal processor that helps it work with RF Transceiver and the Audio subsystem. © Radio Signal Management Unit is responsible for connecting SIM (which provides a type of modem) to the base stations through radio these days major components signals. (SG/LTE/4G based cellular networks). of a mobile system are (ii) Applications Processing Unit (APU). This subsystem ene cae ee is responsible for governing, controlling all types of chips consume less power operations taking place on a mobile system by running compared to other alternatives. various types of mobile applications (apps). 2. Display Subsystem ‘This subsystem is responsible for providing display facilities, touch sensitive interface and touch sensitive keyboards. 3. Camera Subsystem This subunit is designed to deliver a tightly bound image processing package and enable an improved overall picture and video experience. It has an integrated Image Signal Processor ensures things like instant image capture, high-resolution support, image stabilization, and other image enhancements. 4, Mobile System Memory Like its other counterparts, a mobile system also needs memory to work. A mobile system's memory is comprised of following 200 types of memories : ( RAM (Random Access Memory). It is the work memory of your mobile system. The installed mobile apps, when run, are first loaded in the RAM and then executed. These apps remain in the RAM after you are no longer using them and then they are shifted to background. ‘The more RAM you have on a smartphone, the better the performance and faster the phone will generally be, RAM does not store information once the device is turned off. (ii) ROM (Read Only memory). The ROM or Read Only a Memary is a part of mobile system's internal storage and it orn. is not accessible for users to write on and is thus referred to 12 as Read Only Memory. The ROM is basically Flash memory or technically EEPROM (electrically erasable and program- mable read only memory). ‘This ROM part of a mobile system internal storage is where 1, What are major functional components of a mobile system ? 2, What is the role of Communication processor of a mobile system ? operating system resides. It also has some preinstalled apps 4: How does a mobile system manage and _ in this memory sections which cannot be deleted on users’ draw power? end either. This is the reason why you don’t get full internal 4. Whatis the role of display management memory as advertised on the unit of a mobile system ? Box, because a part of it has. 5. How does memory of mobile function? _been. used to house operating _ RAM memory is volatile, it loses 6 How does the CPU of a mobile system system and other pre-_Hscontents ‘when you switch off work ? installed apps. peelsBY ER NIKHIL Si 10 COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON 5. Storage The external storage of a mobile system is also called expandable storage. It comes inthe form of SD cards, or micro SD cards etc. tis the storage which can be removed easily by you and can be used for storing pictures, musi, videos and the likes. To an extent, even the cioud storage can also be categorized as external storage. 6. Power Management Subsystem (Battery) This subsystem is responsible for providing power to a mobile system. The mobile systems work on limited power provided through an attached battery unit. This subsystem has a battery management system that works with a battery charger and a battery unit, and provides power to the mobile system in required form. 1.4 TYPES OF SOFTWARE A computer system consists of hardware and software for its proper functioning. ‘Hordare represents the physical and tangible components of the computer ie., the components that can be seen and touched. Input devices, output devices, CPU, hard disk, printer etc. are examples of computer hardware. Software represents the set of programs that gover the operation of a computer system and make the hardware run. Software can be classified broadly into liv categories. 1. System Software 2. Application Software Following sections discuss system software and application software in details, 1.4.1 System Software A computer is mere a machine that knows nothing of itself. Rather it requires instructions for each and everything it performs. These instructions are provided to it through software, The software that controls internal computer operations (viz. reading data from input devices, transmitting processed information to the output devices, checking system components, converting data/instructions to computer understandable form etc.) is known as system software. The system software can further be classified into wo my categories : The software that controls L ting S . . internal computer operations is ee 2 Tangusge Processor, called System Software. Let us discuss each one of these individually. 1.4.1 Operating System The primary goal of an operating system is thus to make the computer system convenient to use and secondary goal is to use computer hardware in an efficient manner. An operating system is an important component of a computer system which controls all other components of the ‘computer system. Major components of a computer system are : 1. The Hardware 2. The Operating System An. Operating System is 2 ai whic “ 3. The Application program routines (compiler, linkers, Prosfam which acts as ap database management systems, utility programs) the hardware (ey ol computa 4, The Humanware (users) resources)BY ER Nik} Chopler 1+ COMPUTER. SYSTEM OVERVIEW 11 where hardwvare provides the basic computing resources, the application program routines define the ways in which these resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users and the Operating System controls and coordinates the use of the hardware among the various application programs for the various users. ‘An operating system's major role is to execute a program. How an operating system executes a program, is covered in chapter 4, There are different types of operating systems available today to cater to varied type of requirements. These are : Single user OS, Multiuser OS, Time sharing OS, Real time OS, ‘Multiprocessing OS, Distributed OS ete. We are not discussing these operating systems types here as it is beyond the scope of the syllabus. 1.4.1B Language Processors A language processor is a special type of a computer software that can translate the source code into an object code or machine code. Here you should know the meaning of the terms source code or object code. ‘© A source code refers to the program-code written by a programmer in a high level programming language (HLL) such as in C, Java, C+ ete, © An object code refers to a code usually in machine language or binary code, a language that computer can understand easily and run on hardware. So, you can safely say that language processors are software that convert source codes into object codes. There are three types of language processors : assembler, compiler and interpreter. (i) Assembler. This language processor converts the program written in assembly language into machine language. (ii) Interpreter. An interpreter is a type of system software that translates and executes instructions written in a computer program line-by-line, unit by unit etc. (ii) Compiler. A Compiler is another type of system software that translates and executes | instructions written in a computer program in one go. Chapter 4 (section 4.3) discusses the working of compilers and interpreters in details. 1.4.2 Application Software This type of software pertains to one specific application. For instance, a software that can perform railway reservation functions cannot prepare result for a school. | ‘These are the programs written by programmers to enable computer to perform a specific task such as processing words, inventory control, handling calculations and figures, medical accounting, financial accounting, result preparation, railway reservation, billing etc. Application software can further be subdivided into four categories : ‘An Application Software is the 1. Packages 2. Utilities set of programs necessary to : : carry out operations for a 3. Customised Software 4. Developer Tools aaaBY ER NIKHIL Si COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON . 12 1.4.24 Packages Only system software does not suffice for efficient use of computers because the system software exists mostly for the benefit of the computer. Other programs ie,, the application software are required to make the computer useful for people. Application software has been written to do almost every task imaginable, from word processing to selecting a college to attend. As applications may be numerous (from thousands to millions of them), i software for each one of them. Rather some general software are designed that may be used by individual users in the manner it suits their needs and requirements. Such general-application software are known as packages. Some major and most common categories of general application software (packages) are : (Word Processing Software (iii) Database Management Systems (2) Graphics, multimedia, and presentation applications. is not feasible to design (i Spreadsheets (jv) Desktop Publishing Software 1.4.2B Utilities Utilities are those helpful programs that ensure the smooth functioning of the computer. Utility programs or simply Utilities are meant to assist your computer.Some _tilties_are_ those application, ly programs that asistthe computer by utilities help you backup data, some help remove Propane Mit sll tu comple! by outdated files or recover data that has been accidentally ike backing up dlsk or scanning / cleaning viruses or arranging erased. Some make it easier to find and arrange the information etc. information you need. And some help you avoid virus attacks or clean viruses, if any. In other words, the utility programs perform house-keeping functions. Itis an established truth that everything comes with certain pros and cons. Software also are not an exception to it. Utilities bridge the gaps by helping to solve the problems and maximize your computer's potential. ‘Some important utilities are being discussed below. 1. Text Editor. This utility program is used for creating, editing text files. 2, Backup Utility. This utility program facilitates the backing-up of disk. Back-up means duplicating the disk information so that in case of any damage or data-loss, this backed up data may be used. 3. Compression Utility. This utility program facilitates compression of files. Large files can be compressed so that they take less storage area. 4, Disk Defragmentor. A file is fragmented when it becomes too large for your computer to store in a single location on a disk. When this happens, your computer splits the file up and stores it in pieces. You can use fragmented files, but it takes your computer longer to access them. Disk Defragmentor utility program speeds up disk access by rearranging the files and free space on your computer, so that files are stored in contiguous units and free space is consolidated in one contiguous block.CChopter 1 : COMPUTER SYSTEM OVERVIEW BY ER NIKHI 13 5. Antivirus Software. This utility program ensures virus-free work environment. A computer virus is a malicious computer program that disrupts normal functioning of a computer. An antivirus software scans your disk for viruses and removes them, if any virus is found. Moreover, some antivirus software remains present in memory all the time so that they can detect the viruses (as soon as they occur) and counterattack them. Application Software Word processors ‘Spreadsheots ‘System Software Databases Hardware Operating ves Presentation ‘System PU, disks, mouse, _— software printer, te Language Device procassors ‘vers Figure 1.4 Working hierarchy in a computer. 1.4.2C Business Software Ne ‘This type of software is specifically created software according to « business requirements. This type of software is developed to meet the general requirements of a business. For instance, a company wants to computerize its ‘Accounts’ department and gets a software that can serve its needs, Such a software is business software. There are many readymade business software. ‘These can cater to a variety of business needs. Examples of these software are Inventory Management System (for managing inventory details of a company), Payroll system (for handling payroll of a company’s employees), Financial Accounting, Hotel Management and Reservation System etc. Although there are standard business software available in market, yet some companies prefer getting customized (tailor-made) software as per their specific sequirements, However, such softwares cannot be directly installed at any other user’s workplace as the requirements 3. of the second user may differ from the first and the software may not fit in the requirements of the new user. ms How can computer software be classified ? What are two categories of system software ? What is an operating system ? What is its role ? ‘What is application software ? What are the three categories of application software ? Differentiate between a compil interpreter. What is uauty software ? What are software Ubraries? How are they useful to programmers ? and 1.4.3. Software Libraries When programmers develop software and programs, they have a prewritten set of code/functions, classes, scripts etc. available to do a variety of tasks, which they can use directly in their code. These predefined sets of codes are called software libraries. A software library is a predefined and available to use, suite of data and programming code in the form of prewritten code/ functions/scripts/classes ete. that can-be- used in the development of new software programs and applications.BY ER NIKHIL SIR 14 ‘COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON - Xi The software libraries combine codes/ functions / scripts / classes etc. on the basis of their ‘common domain. In order to use the rewritten functionality, a programmer needs to add that libraries to its code. For instance, if your software requires some heavy mathematical work then you need not write the functions/code ete. for complex mathematical functions. Rather what you — need to do is that to include/import an available SE Oe Oe Pecan. eel ee available to use, suite of i math based software library in your program. Then programming code in the form of prewriten you can use all the available functions and features code / functions / serots / classes etc. that of this library in your code without having to can be used in the development of new rewrite them. You can use a software library in a lsahtware progremasand applications variety of projects. For example, Python comes equipped with many software libraries. Some of these are : | 1, NumPy (Numerical Python). It provides an abundance of useful features and functions for operations on numeric arrays and matrices in Python. 2. SciPy (Scientific Python). SciPy contains modules for linear algebra, optimization, integration, and statistics. | 3. Panda Library. Pandas is a Python package designed to do work with “labeled” and “relational” data. It is designed for quick and easy data manipulation, aggregation, and | visualization. With this we have come to the end of this chapter. Let us quickly revise what we have learnt so far. Let Us REVISE Computers can deliver performance because of an efficient combination of hardware and software. % While hardware refers (0 physical electronic components of a computer, software represent the recorded instructions/software that govern its operation. % Computer organization refers to logical structure of a computer describing their interconnections and work dependency. The functional components of @ computer include : input unit, CPU, Memory, Storage Unit, Output Unit “The Input unit is responsible for obtaining input from user and converting it to digital form. & The CPU (Central Processing Unit) processes the receiver input as per a set of instructions and produces output. % The CPU has these sub-components : ALU, Control Unit and Registers. ‘The ALU (Arithmetic of Logic Unit) is responsible for carrying out arithmetic operations and logic operations (e9., comparing two values). | The Control Unit controls or supervises the processing taking place. % Registers are small data holding areas within CPU that hold data, instructions and memory address during the Processing. %& The main memory or memory holds the data and programs for the processing. “% Main memory can either be ROM or RAM. % ROM ts read only memory that stores some prewritten instructions.BY ER NIKHI Chopter 1: COMPUTER SYSTEM OVERVIEW 15 RAM is Random access memory that can be read and written and is used for manipulating data during processing. The primary memory (RAM) is volatile in nature as all contents are erased as soon as power goes off. The storage unit stores the contents permanently Major storage devices are hard disks, CD, DVD, flash drive and Blue-Ray discs. ‘A mobile system handles comple types of operations including input, ouput and processing. Major functional components of a mobile system are Radio Signal Management subsystem, Display subsystem, power management subsystem, CPU, Memory and storage subsystems. Software represents the set of programs that govern the operation of a computer system and make the hardware run. The software that controls internal computer operations is called system software. ‘An operating system is a program which acts as an interface between the user and the hardware. Thiove ure diferent types of OSs available —single program OS, multiprogram OS, time-sharing OS, real-time OS, multiprocessing GS ctr A language processor converts a program written in high level language to machine language. Tere ave thive language processors: @ assembler which converts assembly language code to machine code, (ii) compiler ‘and (ii) interpreter which convert high level language code to machine code. Application software is a set of programs necessary to carry out operations fora specified application. There are threw categories of application software : @) packages (i) utilities and (ti) customused software. Utiliy programs assist the computer in maintaining its performance. Some of the utilities are : text editors, backup utilities, compression utilities, disk defragmentors, and antivirus software, Customised software is tailor made software according to user's requirements, Software libraries are sets of prewritten code/functions/classes etc, available to programmers for use in the development of new code. Solved Problems State the basic units of the computer. Name the subunits that make up the CPU, and give the function of each of the units. Solution. The basic units of a computer ar 1, Input unit 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) 3. Output Unit 4. Memory. ‘The CPU has two subunits : the control unit (CU) and the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The control unit controls the entire operation being carried out. ‘The ALU performs the arithmetic and logical operations. What is the function of memory ? What are its measuring units ? Solution. The memory temporarily holds the data and information during processing. ‘The smallest unit of memory is a byte (8 bits). A byte can store one character in binary form. Other measuring units are kilobyte (KB) equal to 1024 (2"°) bytes, Megabyte (MB) equal to 1024 KB, Gigabyte (GB) equal to 1024 MB and Terabyte (TB) equal to 1024 GB Give examples for each of system software and application software. Explain the function of each type. Solution. examples of system software are : () Operating system (ii) Language Processor _(iii) Application SoftwareBY ER NIKHIL SIR COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON - xi Examples of Operation System are : Single user OS, multiuser OS, batch processing OS, multiprocessing OS ete. As the names suggest, single user OS supports single user whereas multiuser OS can support multiple users. The batch processing OS processes the batches (groups) of jobs (processes given to it) and ‘multiprocessing OS is capable of handling multiple CPUs at the same time. The examples of language processors are : (i) Interpreter (ii) Compiler (ii) Assembler An interpreter converts and executes an HLL program into object program line by line whereas a compiler converts an HLL program into object program in one go and orce the program is error free, it can be executed later. An assembler converts an assembly language program into object program. Examples of application software are : (i) Customised Software (ii) General software. The customised software pertains to the requirements of a specific user for whom the software has been developed. General software is developed keeping in mind general specifications of a problem. Why is primary memory termed as ‘destructive write’ memory but ‘non-destructive read” memory ? Solution. When a memory location is read from in the primary memory, the contents of the memory word remain the same ; they are not altered. Therefore, a primary memory is termed as ‘non- destructive read’ memory since the read operation does not destruct the contents of a memory word, When a write operation takes place, the previous contents of the memory word are overwritten. Thus, the primary memory is termed as ‘destructive write’ memory as the write operation destructs the contents of a memory word. What is the difference between RAM and ROM ? Solution. RAM refers to random access memory where both read and write operations can take place. But the RAM is a volatile memory ; its contents are lost when power is tured off. ROM refers to read only memory where only read operation can take place. The ROM is a non-volatile memory. Both RAM and ROM are parts of the primary memory. What is the role of CPU of a mobile system ? Solution. A mobile system has to cater to a variety of operations and applications and its CPU has to. manage all these. Thus the CPU of a mobile system has many sub-processors that help it control and manage diverse applications. The CPU of a mobile manages all these types of applications and operations: © Manages communications while connecting to radio transceivers and SIM. © Manages audio through ADC (analog to digital converter) and DAC (digital to analog converter). © Manages display and touch sensitive sensors and interface. © Works in tandem with memory and storage. What are various categories of software ? * Solution. There are broadly two categories of software : 1. System Software. This type of software controls internal computer operations. The system software can further be classified in fa categories : () Operating System. An operating system isa program which acts as an interface between a user and the hardware. (i) Language Processor. This program is responsible for converting an HLL code (High Level Language code) into machine understandable code. 2. Application Software. An application software is the set of programs necessary to carry out operations for a specified application.BY ER NIKHIL Copter 1: COMPUTER SYSTEM OVERVIEW 17 8. What is the difference between an interpreter and a compiler ? Solution, An interpreter converts an HLL program into machine language line by line and simultaneously executes the converted line, Also, an interpreter must always be present in the memory along with the program for its execution. If an error occurs in a line, the line is displayed and interpreter does not proceed unless the error is rectified. A compiler converts an HLL program in machine language in one go. If there are errors in the program, it gives the error list along with the line numbers. Once the errors are removed, error-free object code is made available and after this compiler is no more needed in the memory. 9, What is application software ? Why is it required ? Solution, Application software is a software that pertains to one application. Application software is required because system software cannot carry out the routine jobs performed by the user which application software can easily do. To perform various kinds of activities, the application software comes in various categories (Packages (i) Utilities (ii) Business Software (iv) Developer Tools. 10. Five statements about interpreters and compilers are given below. Study each statement and determine which of them hold true for a compiler or for an interpreter. (A) takes one statement at a time and executes it. (ii)_generates an error report at the end of translation of the tohole program. i) stops the translation process as soon as the first error is encountered. (iv) slows speed of execution of program loops. (2) translates the entire program in one go. Solution, Interpreter : (i), (ii), (iv); Compiler : (i), (0) GLOSSARY —— Bit A binory digit. oye A group of eight bits. aw ‘Aithmetic Logic Unit that corries out arithmetic and logical operations. Aeplication Software pertaining to the operations of o specified application. Software Complier Progrom that converts HLL program info machine language in one go ond repors all the errors along with their line numbers. Operating System Program which acts os an interface between a user and the hardware. ou Central Processing Unit thot corries out the given process and supervises the entire operution. ‘Memory ‘An organized collection of cells used to store data and programs in a computer. ‘PROM Erasable programmable read-only memory, @ device that is ultroviclet-erasable and electrically reprogrammable. PROM Programmable read-only memory. With o PROM programmer, you can bum in your own programs ond data. BBY ER NIKHIL SIR COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON — y, Rondom-occess memory, Itis also called @ read-write memory because you can read the contents ram ‘of a memory location or write new contents into it. Rom Read-only memory, (ROM Rymes with Mery) This device provides non-volatile storage of progroms cond data. You can access any memory location by supplying its address. Softwore ‘Set of programs that govern the operation of a computer system, Language Processor Software that converts a high level language code into machine understandable form, System Software Software that controls intemal computer operations. Utity Software A schware that oss the computer by performing housekeeping functions. Assignments M4 15. 16. 17. 18, 19. 20. 21, 23, 24, Briefly explain the basic architecture of a computer. What do you understand by input unit ? What is its significance ? What does computer input consist of ? What is the function of CPU in a computer system ? What are its subunits ? What functions are performed by the control unit ? Can we call it the control centre of computer system ? Why ? What functions are performed by the ALU ? Is it an independent unit ? If not, which unit does ALU work in coordination with ? Distinguish between CPU and ALU. What is the function of output unit in a computer system ? Give examples of some output devices. What role does memory play in the functioning of computer system ? Define each of the following : (a) byte (b) kilobyte (c) megabyte (d) gigabyte (¢) terabyte. What is the meaning of the term volatile primary memory ? What can be done to overcome the problems of volatility ? Distinguish between internal and external memory ‘What is the role of memory in a computer functioning ? What types of memory does the computer work with ? ‘What are RAM and ROM ? How are they alike ? How are they different ? What are EEROM, PROM and EPROM ? What are major functional components of a mobile system ? Draw a block diagram depicting organization of a mobile system. What is the role of power management unit in a mobile system ? What does the communication processor do ? ‘What is the role of application processing unit in a mobile system ? How does display subsystem of a mobile system work ? What is system software ? What role does it play in the functioning of the computer ? Discuss the role of utility software in the context of computer performance. What is the importance of an OS ? How are software libraries useful ? Name some software libraries of Python. What is the utility of these software ? () disk fragmentor (ii) backup software.BY ER NIKHIL SIR Data Representation In Wis Charter 2.4 Introduction 2.4 Representing Unsigned Integers in Binary 2.2 Digital Number Systems 25 Binary Addition 2.3 Number Conversions. 2.6 Character/String Representation 2.1 INTRODUCTION Digital techniques have found their way into innumerable areas of technology, but the area of automatic digital computers is by far the most notable and most extensive. As you know, a computer is a system of hardware that performs arithmetic operations, manipulates data, and makes decisions. In science, technology, business, and, in fact, most other fields of endeavour, we are constantly dealing with quantities; so are computers. Quantities are measured, monitored, recorded, manipulated arithmetically, observed, or in some other way utilized in most physical systems. In digital systems like computers, the quantities are represented by symbols called digits. Many number systems are in use in digital technology that represent the digits in various forms, The ‘most common are the decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems. This chapter discusses these number systems and the physical representation of digits in computers.ox BY ER NIKHIL Sif COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON - xi DIGITAL NUMBER SYSTEMS In digital representation, various number systems are used. The most common number systems used are decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems. Let us discuss these number systems briefly. 2.2.1 Decimal Number System 2.2.2 The decimal system is composed of 10 numerals or symbols (Deca means 10, that is why this system is called decimal system). These 10 symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ; using these symbols as digits of a number, we can express any quantity. The decimal system, also called the base-10 system because it has 10 digits, has evolved naturally as a result of the fact that man has 10 fingers. The decimal system is a positional-nalue system in which the value of a digit depends on its position. For example, consider the decimal number 729. We know that the digit 7 actually Tepresents 7 iti/cis, the 2 represents 2 (cis, and the 9 represents 9 1i!s. In essence, the 7 carries the most weight of three digits; itis referred to as the most significant digit (MSD). The 9 carries the least weight and is called the least significant digit (LSD). Consider another example, 25.12. This number is actually equal to (2 tens plus 5 units plus 1 tenths plus 2 hundredths) ie., 2x10+5x1+ ik +2x2 75 The decimal point is used to separate the integer and fractional parts of the number. More rigorously, the various positions relative to the decimal point carry weights that can be expressed as powers of 10. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.1 where the number 2512.1971 is represented. The decimal point separates the positive powers of 10 from the negative powers. ‘The number 2512.1971 is thus equal to 2107 +5x1 1x10! 210° 41x10 49x10 7x10 +1x10~* In general, any number is simply the sum of the products of each digit value and its positional value. The squence of decimal — Positional numbers goes 280, 12,3 4, values—> 10° 10? 10! =10° 107 107 10° 10 is) 5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14 “MM » yy 4 4 iy uiy 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21.... See 2 5 1 2 q 7 9 7 E i after 9, each successive number is a combination of T t t Msp decimal isc two (or more) (unique) nt symbols of this system. Figure 2.1 Positional values in decimal numbers. Binary Number System Unfortunately, the decimal number system does not lend itself to convenient implementation in digital systems. For example, itis very difficult to design electronic equipment so that it can work with 10 different voltage levels (each one representing one decimal character, 0 through 9). On the other hand, itis very easy to design simple, accurate electronic circuits that operate with only two voltage levels. For this reason, almost every digital system uses the binary number system (base 2) as tie basic number system of its operations, although other systems are often used in conjunction with binary.BY ER NIKHI Chapter 2 : DATA REPRESENTATION, 21 In the binary system there are only two symbols or possible digit values, 0 and 1. Even so, this base-2 system can be used to represent any quantity that can be represented in decimal or other number systems. The binary system is also a positional-value system, wherein each binary digit has its own value or weight expressed as a power of 2. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.2. Here, placestotheleftofthe Posional 23 929! gt? gt binary point (counterpartof MS Py yy tg the decimal point) are posi- I tive powers of 2 and places LE NOP rh : 7 t to 7 night ae negative Me binary LsB pow » The number (wast significant i) ait (Coast Sionitcant Bt) 1010.0101 is shown repre- sented in the figure. Figure 2.2 Positional values in binary numbers. To find the decimal equivalent of above shown binary number, we simply take the sum of the products of each digit value (0 or 1) and its positional value : 10100101, =(1 x 23) + (0x 22) +(1 x 2!) #(0« 2°) +(0x 2“) + (1x27) +(0x2 9) +(x 24) 8+0+2+0+0+0.25+0+0.0625 =10.3125 9 Notice in the preceding operation that subscripts (2 and 10) were used to indicate the base in which the particular number is expressed. This convention is used to avoid confusion whenever more than one number system is being employed. In the binary system, the term Binary digit is often abbreviated to the term bit, which we'll use henceforth. As you see in Fig. 2.2, there are 4 bits to the left of the binary point, representing the integer part of the number, and 4 bits to the right of the binary point, representing the fractional part. The leftmost bit carries the largest weight and hence, is called the most significant bit (MSB). The rightmost bit carries the smallest weight, and hence called least significant bit (LSB). The sequence of binary numbers goes as 00, 01, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, - - -- - -. The binary counting sequence has an important characteristic. The unit's bit (LSB) changes either from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0 with each count. The second bit (two's (2) position) stays at 0 for two counts, then at 1 for two counts, then at 0 for two counts, and so on. The third bit (four’s (2) position) stays at 0 for four counts, then at 1 for four counts, and so on. The fourth bit (cight’s (2°) position) stays at 0 for eight counts, then at 1 for eight counts. [f we wanted to count farther we would add more places, and this pattern would continue with 0s and 1s alternating, in groups of 2"~", 2.2.3. Octal Number System ‘The octal number system is very important in digital computer work, The octal number system. has a base of eight, meaning that it has eight unique symbols :0, 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, and 7. Thus, each digit of an octal number can have any value from 0 to 7. The octal system is also a posi- Positional tional value system, whercin values» g> gs? s' 8”! 8 8B cach octal digit has its own eM) yy oy oy dL value or weight expressed asia Jee power of 8 (See Fig. 2.3). The : places to the left of the octal Octal point Figure 2.3. Positional values in Octal numbers.BY ER NIKHIL SIR 2 COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON — x1 it i id places to point (counter-part of decimal point and binary point) are postive powers se 8 andpl nent the Fight are negative powers of 8. The number 3721.2406 is shown rePr® 7 1 number, simply take the sum of products To find the decimal equivalent of above shown octal of each digit value and its positional value : -1) (4x87) 4(0x2*) + (6x8) 3721.2406, = (3% 8°) + (7 x 82) +(2x8!) +(1x 8°) +(2%8 Ju S124 7x 64 42x 8-1 x1 + 2x 0.125 +4 x 0.015625 + 0+ 6x 0.000244 71536 4 448 + 16-41 + 0.25 + 0.0625 +-0-+ 0.001464 = 2001.313964 19 6,7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 2: two or more unique symbols of octal ‘The sequence of octal numbers goes as 0, 1,2, 3, 4,5, See each successive number after 7 is a combination of system. ‘The hexadecimal system uses base 16, Thus, it has 16 possible digit symbols. It uses the digits 0 through 9 plus the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F as the 16 digit symbols. Just like above discussed systems, hexadecimal system is also a positionalvalue system, wherein ‘each hexadecimal digit has its own value or weight expressed as a power ‘of 16, (See Fig. 2.4). The digit positions in a hexa- decimal number have weights ‘as shown in Fig. 2.4. igh vcr] 1? 16? | 16! | 16° | 167 | 167 | 16° | 16+ Following table 2.1 shows the feds relationships between hexa- rae a octal, decimal and Figure 2.4 Positional values in hexadecimal numbers. Table 2.1 Relationship between Various Number Systems Hexadecimal Octal Decimal Binary 0 0 0 0000 1 1 1 0001 a 2 2 0010 3 3 3 0011 4 4 4 0100 5 5 5 0101 6 6 6 0110 7 7 7 oul 8 10 8 1000 * ob 9 1001 A BR w 1010 Note that each hexadecimal digit B 3 0 1011 represents a group of four binary c 4 2 1100 digits. It is important to remember D 18 B 01 that hex (abbreviation for E 6 “ 1110 hexadecimal) digits A through F are equivalent to the decimal 17 15, 111 E values 10 through 15. thChapter 2 : DATA REPRESENTATION 23 SReES es Aree NUMBER CONVERSIONS BY ER NIIKH| 23 The binary number system is the most important one in digital systems as it is very easy to implement in circuitry. The decimal system is important because it is universally used to outside a digital system. represent quanti In addition to binary and decimal, octal and hexadecimal number systems find widespread application in digital systems. These number systems (octal and hexadecimal) provide an efficient means for representing large binary numbers. As we shall see, both these number systems have the advantage that they can be easily converted to and from binary. Table2.2 Powers of 2 33 o 134 536 17 294 179 79 554 108 27 435 870 741 483 967 ase Bees 476 2 16 128 256 512 024 048 096 192 768 536 on ua 288 576 Bees 216 432 864 728 456 912 624 648 296 26 RReBReSs 2 10 05, 025 025] 0.082 031 0015 007 0.003 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0,000 0.000 10,000 0.000 0.000 6.000 6.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0,000 0.000 0,000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Bitior 812 906 953 976 488 24 12 061 030 015 07 003 oor ‘000 000 000 Egggegegeg2zee¢s g22288 562 281 40 035, 517 258 os 814 953, 476 238 19 089 029 ou 2288 000 Bua 312 578 789 394 348, 674 837 418 604 901 450 m5 862 931 465 232 16 058, 029 ons. 125 062 531 265 632, 316 158 579 289 ou 3 161 580 290 a5 661 830 a5, 103 551 Bua 812 & 203 101 Beige 596 298 149 574 287 32 88 915 Ina digital system, three or four of these number systems may be in use at the same time, so that an understanding of the system operation requires the ability to convert from one number system to another. This section discusses how to perform these conversions. So, let us discuss them one by one. 2.3.1 Decimal There are fwo procedures for converting (integers) from decimal to binary. -Binary Conversion The first method requires a table of powers of 2 (table 2.2). Because of this restriction, it is more useful for small numbers where these powers have been memorized. Starting with the decimal number to be evaluated, obtain the largest power of 2 from the table without exceeding the original number. Record 5 this. Then subtract the table obtained 2) number from the original number. aze Repeat the process for the remainder, te, and continue until the remainder is zero. wey eas|__ Finally, add the binary numbers son gia 7g] obtained from the table. The result is the B47 656 25] answer. 923 828 125| 461 914 0625 230-957 031 25 615 478 515 625 307 739 257 812.5) 653 869 628 906 25 826 934 814 453.125 913 487 407 226 562 5) 456 733 703 613 281 25) 228 366 851 806 640 625 [aBY ER NIKHIL SIR COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON 9 EXAMPLE 21 Convert 43g to binary. Solution. From table 2.2, 32 is the largest number without exceeding 43. 32 =100000 (2% =32 i, put 1 at (5+1) th position and 0, at all other positions. Thus 32; =100000,) 43-32-11 From the table, 8 (2%) is the largest number without exceeding 11. 8=1000 2 =8iie, put 1 at 3+1)" position and 0, at all other positions. Thus 81) = 1000.) 1-8-3 From the table, 2 is the largest number without exceeding 3. 2=10 (2? =2, thus 2y9 =10,) 3-2-1 t 1 is the largest number without exceeding 1 q=1 Add all the binary numbers obtained ie, Thus 434) =101011, EXAMPLE 2.2 Convert 2009 to binary. Solution. First largest number is 128. Longest number 128=10000000 200-128=72 64= 1000000 8= 1000 001000 ~ t Therefore, 200; = 11001000, The second method of converting decimal to binary is repeated-division method, In this method, the number is successively divided by 2 and its remainders recorded. The final binary result is obtained by assembling all the remainders, with the last remainder being the most significant bit (MSB).BY ER NIKH| CChopter 2 : DATA REPRESENTATION 25 EXAMPLE 2.3. Convert 43,9 to binary using repeated division method. Solution. Repeated Division Remainders 2 43 2 21 1 1sB 2 10 1 2 5 0 | wet in tis 2 7 1 order 2 1 0 | 0 1 MsB Reading the remainders from the bottom to the top, 43,9 =101011, (compare with result of example 2.1) EXAMPLE 2.4 Convert 200,o to binary using repeated division method. Solution. Remainders. 2|__20 2100 0 188 2% 0 2 | 35 0 22 1 2[ 6 o 2[ 3 0 3f 4 1 0 1 MSB Reading the remainders from the bottom to the top, the result is: 200; =11001000, On paper you may even compute the 85/2 . Senwereion jas _depicied_,ftiroueh a "4. Least significant bit (LSB) following example. (As you can see a pe that this is just another way of v = representing the repeated division.) pare EXAMPLE 2.5 Convert 8549 to binary using repeated division method. Solution. (See on the right) fe Q- Quotient and zk R- Remainder YN Az 8510 1010101, YN 1: BY ER NIKHIL Sil 26 COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON — 2.3.2 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion The binary number system is a positional syste weight based on its position relative to the LSI decimal equivalent simply by summing together binary number which contain a 1. To illustrate, consi sm where each binary digit (bit) carries a certain B. Any binary number can be converted to its the weights of the various positions in the ider a binary number 11011, 1] 1| o] 1] 1 | (inary) ‘Add positional weights foral1S > 244294042) +29=16+8+241 = 27 49 (decimal) Let's try another example with a greater number of bits i¢., 10110101 1] of 1] 1] of 1} 0] 2 Adding positional weights of all's, > 27 £0425 +24 40427 +0429 =18lig Note that the procedure is to find the weights (ie, powers of 2) for each bit position that contains a 1, and then to add them up. Also note that the MSB has a weight of 2” even though itis the eighth bit; this is because the LSB is the first bit and has a weight of 2°. The above method will always provide the correct decimal representation of a binary number. There is a second method, called the dibble-dobble method, that will also provide the solution. To use this method, start with the left-hand bit. Multiply this value by 2, and add the next bit to the right. Multiply the result value by 2, and add the next bit to the right. Stop when the binary point is reached. To illustrate, 11011, (binary) Copy down the leftmost bit : 1 Multiply by 2, add next bit (2x1) +1 =3 Multiply by 2, add next bit (2x3) + 0 =6 Multiply by 2, add next bit (2x6) +1 =13, Multiply by 2, add next bit (2x13) #1=27 2 MOM, =27 Let us try another example, 110100, ‘The leftmost bit : 1 Multiply by 2, add next bit (2x1) +1 =3 Multiply by 2, add next bit (2x3) +0 =6 Multiply by 2, add next bit (2x6) +1 =13 |! Multiply by 2, add next bit (2x13) + 0 =26 Multiply by 2, add next bit (2x26) + 0 =52 4 110100; = 5249BY ER NIKHI Chapter 2 : DATA REPRESENTATION, 27 2.3.3 Decimal-to-Octal Conversion A decimal integer can be converted to octal by using the same repeated-division method that we used in the decimal-to-binary conversion, but with a division factor of 8 instead of 2. An example is shown below : Remainders | __266___ { 33 2 0 4 Reading up, 26649 = 4125 Note that the first remainder becomes the least significant digit (LSD) of the octal number, and the last remainder becomes the most significant digit (MSD). 2.3.4 Octal-to-Decimal Conversion An octal number, then, can be easily converted to its decimal equivalent by multiplying each octal digit by its positional weight. For example, 372, =3x (87) +7 x (8!) +2x (8 =3x64+7x842x1 = 2509 Another example : 24.65 = 2x (81) +4 x (8°) +6x(8“) = 20.7549 2.3.5 Octal-to-Binary Conversion The primary advantage of the octal number system is the ease with which conversion can be made between binary and octal numbers. The conversion from octal to binary is performed by converting each octal digit to its 3-bit binary equivalent. The eight possible digits are converted as indicated in table 2.3. Table 23. Binary Equivalents of Octal Digits Octal Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Binary Equivalent | 000 0011001001010 Using these conversions, any octal number is converted to binary by individually converting each digit. For example, we can convert 472, to binary using 3 bits for each octal digit as follows : 4 7 i L L 100 m1 010 Hence, octal 472 is equivalent to binary 100111010. As another example, consider converting, 5431 to binary : ss 4 B--a 4 ououoe 101 100 o11 001 Thus, 5431, = 101100011001.BY ER NIKHIL Sif COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON ~ x The same process applies equally on fractions. For example, ae 3.01 The octal to binary conversion ai,.- L takes place using 3bit sub. oe on OOl stitution for each octal character, pom By = 011.001, 2.3.6 Binary-to-Octal Conversion the forego Converting from binary integers to octal integers is simply the reverse of the loreg0ing process. The bits of the binary ieee grouped into groups of three bits starting at the LSB. Then each group is converted to its octal equivalent (table 2.3). To illustrate, consider the conversion of 1001110102 to octal. 100 111 o10 t t + 4 7 25 ‘Sometimes the binary number will not have even groups of 3 bits. For those cases, we can add ‘one or two 0s to the left of MSB of the binary number to fill out the last group. This is illustrated below for the binary number 11010110. 110 011 010 dinidetinmsomia ZO £ ¥ L it group of 3 bits oe Note that a 0 was placed to the left of the MSB in order to produce complete groups of 3. ‘The same process applies on fractions. But after the binary point, zeros are added to the right. - For example x 101100101, = 010 110, 010, 100 2 6 2 « 2 zeros aed hore 0 10110.0101 = 26.245 make ta group of 38s Note that, after the binary point, the groups of 3 bits are made starting from left-to-right. Thatis why, we added two zeros to make a group of three bits as the last group had only 1. 2.3.7 Decimal-to Hex Conversion Recall that we did decimal-to-binary conversion using repeated division by 2, and decimal-to-octal using repeated division by 8. Likewise, decimal-to-hex conversion can be done using repeated division by 16. For example, y To convert 423; to hex, Similarly, to convert 214 jg to hex, Remainders Remainders 16] 423 16 | 214 6|_% 7 wl 3 6 16 [1 A | €0=Ac eB ? 1 to Ae) 0 D — 30= De) 1} Reading up, 42319 =147 1g Reading up, 2144 = D6 4, Note that any remainders that are greater than 9 are represented by letters A through F-BY ER NIKHI CChopter 2 : DATA REPRESENTATION 29 9.3.8 Hex-to-Decimal Conversion A hex number can be converted to its decimal equivalent by using the fact that each hex digit position has a weight that is a power of 16. The LSD has a weight of 16° =1, the next higher digit, has a weight of 16'=16, the next higher digit has a weight of 16* =256, and so on. The conversion process is demonstrated in the examples below : 3561, =3x 16? +5x 16! +6x16° =768 +80+6 = 85449 2x16? +10x 16! +15x 16° 512+160+15 = 68749 Note that in the second example the value 10 was substituted for A and the value 16 for Fin the conversion to decimal. To convert a fractional number, 56.0814 =5% 16! +6x16° +0167! +8x16~* 0 +6 +048 / 256 = 86 + 0.03125 = 86.03125,9 2AR, 2.3.9 Binary-to-Hex Conversion Binary numbers can be easily converted to hexadecimal by grouping in groups of four starting at the binary point. EXAMPLE 2.6 Convert 1010111010, to hexadecimal. Solution. Group in fours 10,1011,1010 Convert each number 2 BA Thus, the solution is 2 BA. EXAMPLE 2.7 Convert 10101110.0101112 to hexadecimal. Solution. Groups in fours (inserting zeros before MSB or in the end, wherever required) 1010, 1110 . 0101, 1100 A E..5 € 10101119.010111, = AESC ys 2.3.10 Hex to Binary Conversion Like the octal number system, the hexadecimal number system is used primarily as a “shorthand” method for representing binary numbers. Itis a relatively simple matter to convert a hex number to binary. Each hex digits converted to its 4-bit binary equivalent (table 21). This is illustrated below for 9F2,¢. Pore ad 9 F 2 9F 245 = + ‘ + Hex to binary conversion takes lace using &-bit substitution for 1001 1111 0010 Ke Oca =100111110010, SERRE ESBY ER NIKHIL Si COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON ~ , 30 Similarly, 3A6,6 = 3 A c eee + + 4 The hexadecimal and octal oon —1010—=S«0110 codes are used as shorthany _ means of expressing large bin = 001110100110, airs ta Consider another example BBFSC\y= 3 B F e c 1 4 L + L ool 1011 m1 101 1100 = 001110111111.01011100, Converting from Any Base to Any OTHER Base ‘As demonstrated in earlier examples and the table below, there is a direct correspondence between the number systems : with three binary digits corresponding to one octal digit; four binary digits corresponding to one hexadecimal digit, which you can use to convert from one number system to another. Table 2.5 Correspondence of Binary, Octal and Table 2.4 Correspondence of Binary and Hexadecimal Number Systems Octal Number Systems BIN ocr DEC BIN HEX ocr DEC. 000 0 o 0000 0 00 o 001 1 1 001 1 1 1 oo10 2 02 2 o10 2 2 oot 3 a 3 on 3 3 100 4 a _ 300 4 4 o1o1 5 05 5 101 5 5 ono 6 06 ‘ 0 6 6 on 7 7 7 8 m1 7 7 1000 8 10 1001 9 u 9 | 1010 A 2 10 For conversion from base 2 on i 3 ii to base 8, we use groups of ; three bits and vice-versa. 1100 c “4 i no. D 15 B amo E 16 4 m1 F wv B J For conversion from base 2 } to base 16, we use groups of four bits and vice-vers* Ey ONTOS ibd eens eaeBY ER NIKH ‘Chopter 2 + DATA REPRESENTATION 31 Let us consider some more examples regarding the same, ie,, converting from any number system to another. EXAMPLE 2.8 Convert 1948.B6,, to Binary and Octal equivalents. Solution. Hexadecimal 1 9 4 8 . B 6 Binary 0001 1001 0100 1000 1011 0110 (By converting each individual Hex digit to equivalent 4 digit binary from above table 2.5) “ 1948.B6 y¢ = 0001100101001000.10110110 > New Octal number can be generated from above Binary equivalent i.., as follows : Binary 0 001 100 101 001 000 . 101 101 100 Octal 145 10.5 5 4 (By creating groups of 3 binary digits and converting them into equivalent octal no.) 1948.B6,, = 14510.554. EXAMPLE 2.9 Convert 75643.5704, to hexadecimal and binary numbers. Solution, We shall convert it in following way : () From octal to binary — by representing each octal digit to 3 digit binary number. (i) From the complete binary number, we shall create groups of 4 binary digits around the decimal point. (iii) Convert each 4-digit-binary group to equivalent hex digit. Octal 7 5 6 4 3 . 5 7 0 4 Binary 111 101 110 100 O11 . 101 111 000 100 75643.5704, = 111101110100011.101111000100 Binary 0111 1011 1010" OoIL « 1011 1100 O10 Hexadecimal 7 B.A, De BLS 75643,5704, = 7BA3.BC4 1g After learning about various digital number systems, one must know how the data is represented in computers. 2.4 REPRESENTING UNSIGNED INTEGERS IN BINARY An unsigned integer can be either a positive integer or zero but never a negative integer. Before we discuss how unsigned numbers are represented, consider a single digit decimal number : © Inasingle decimal digit, you can write a number between 0 and 9 (maximum number is 9). © In two decimal digits, you can write a number between 0 and 99 (maximum number is 99). ‘© In three decimal digits, you can write a number between 0 and 999 (maximum number is 999), and so on.“Table 2.6 Ranges of Unsigned integers Represented through n-bits 25 BY ER NIKHIL SIR COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON Since 9 is equivalent to 10! —1 ; 99 is equivalent to10* -1 999 is equivalent to 10° ~1¢4¢, in 1 decimal digits, you can write a number between 0 and 10" —1. Analogously, in the binary number system, an unsigned integer containing n bits can have a value between 0 and 2” — 1 (ie out of 2” different values). This fact is one of the most important and useful things to know about computers. An mbit pattem can represent 2” distinct integers. An bit unsigned integer can represent integers from 0 to 2" -1, as tabulated below : n (bits) | Minimum value ‘Maximum Value 8 0 28-1 (=255) 16 0 2'* 1 (=65,535) 32 0 2% _1 (= 4294,967295) (9+ digits) 64 0 2 1 (= 18,446,744,073,709,551615) (19+ digits) ‘Thus the unsigned integers are represented by storing their equivalent binary code through n bits, where n can be 8 or 16 or 32 or 64. BINARY ADDITION ALUs don’t directly work upon decimal numbers ; rather they process binary numbers as a computer can understand only binary numbers. There are five basic cases for binary addition that must be understood before going on. These are : Case 1: 0+0=0 ie., addition of two binary 0's (zero) results into a binary 0 (zero). Case 2: O+1=1 ie, addition of a binary 0 (zero) and a binary 1 (one) results into binary 1 (one). Case 3: 140-1 ie, addition of a binary 1 (one) and a binary 0 (zero) results into binary 1 (one). Case4: — 141=10 ie., Binary 1 + Binary 1 equals Binary 10. Or we can say that in binary numbers, one plus one equals zero (0), carry one (1). Case5: 1+141=11 ie, Binary 1 + Binary 1 + Binary 1 equals Binary 1, carry Binary 1. Let us summarize these rules 0+0=0 O+1=1 14+0=1 1+1= 10 {0 with carry!) 14141= 11 [1 with carry 1]BY ER NIKHIL SIR CChopler 2 : DATA REPRESENTATION 33 Decimal Addition Let us now perform binary addition on bigger binary numbers. The binary numbers are also added column-by-column just like decimal numbers. Also, the way results larger than largest decimal digit are carried-over, in binary addition, results larger than 1 are also carried over. For example, This is carried over as $+7 = 12iwhich is more than 9, 1 hence carried over. 15 a2 Similarly, Binary Addition will be Ae aiid 1111 (Equivalent of 1559) 11011 Equivalent of 279) 101010 (Equivalent of 42,5) Let us perform another addition, step-by-step for 11100 +11010 Start with the least significant column i,, the right most column to get 11100 11010 0 In all examples, 0+ 0 gives 0. Next, add the bits of the second column (second from right) as follows : 11100 #11010 1111 10 This time, 0+1 gives ‘The addition in third column gives 11100 #11010 710 In this case, 1+0 results in 11100 +11010 (carry 1) 0110 feanya}34 As you see, 1 +1 produces 10 i.e, Finally, the last column gives 0 with a carry of 1. 1 + Caries 11100 +11010 110110 Here, 1+1+1 (previously generated carry) results in 11, recorded as 1 with a carry to the next higher column, S21 1. What are the bases of decimal, octal, binary and hexadecimal systems ? 2 What is the common property of ecimal, octal, binary and hexadecimal number systems ? 3. Complete the sequence of following binary numbers : 100, 101, 110, 4. Complete the sequence of following octal numbers : 525, 526, 527, 5. Complete the sequence of following hexadecimal numbers : 17, 18, 19, Convert the following binary numbers to decimal and hexadecimal : (@) 1010) 111010 (¢) r01011111 (@ 1200 (¢) 10010101 (11011100 7. Convert the following decimal numbers 6 to binary and octal : (@) 23 (&) 100 (@) 145 @19 (e121) 161 8. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to binary : (2.6 © (6) Ao? (@) TABS (BE) BO) BC 9. Convert the following binary numbers to hexadecimal and octal (@) 10013011101 (@) as12011101011011 (6) 1010131010111 (a) 1010110110111 (© 1020111011011 (p 1111101110101 BY ER NIKHIL Si COMPUTER SCIENCE WITH PYTHON - ~s Exampte 2.10 Add the binary numbers 01010111 and 00110101. Solution, If you add the bits column by column as earlier explained you will get 144 14 + Carries O1010141 +00110101 100 10001 EXAMPLE 2.11 Add the bi Solution. 17 1011 + 110 10001 jinary numbers 1011 and 110. <— Caries . Exampte 2.12 Add binary numbers 11110 and 11. Solution. 414 — Canes 11110 1 10000 1 7 ExamPLe 2.13 Add binary numbers 11.01 and 101.11, Solution. 144 1 Carries 11.01 101.11 1001.00 2.6 CHARACTER/STRING REPRESENTATION In addition to numerical data, a computer must be able to handle numerical information. In other words, a computer should recognize codes that represent letters of the alphabet, punctuation marks, and other special characters as well as numbers. These codes are called alphanumeric codes. A complete alph: ‘anumeric code would include the 26 lowercase letters, 26 uppercase letters, 10 numeric digits, 7 punctuation marks, and anywhere from 20 to 40 other characters, such as 4, /, , %, *, and so on, We can say that an alphanumeric code represents all of the various characters and functions that are found on a standard typewriter (or computer) keyboard,