Studies in Tectonic Culture:

The Poetics of Construction in Nineteenth

and Twentieth Century Architecture

Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts

Chicago, Illinois

The MIT Press

Cambridge, Massachusetts

London, England
Second printing, 1996

© 1995 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any
form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying,
recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in
writing from the publisher.

Publication of this book has been supported by a grant from the

Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts.

This book was set in Helvetica Neue by Graphic Composition, Inc.•

and was printed and bound in the United States of America.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Frampton, Kenneth.
Studies in tectonic culture: the poetics of construction in
nineteenth and twentieth century architecture / Kenneth Frampton;
edited by John Cava.
p. em.
"Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts, Chi-
cago, Illinois."
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-262-06173-2 (hc)
1. Signs and symbols in architecture. 2. Architecture.
Modern-19th century. 3. Architecture, Modern-20th century.
I. Cava, John. II. Title.
NA642.F72 1995
724' .5-dc20 95-9812
CIP

.... ,.-,-,.-",,-, -------~

1 Introduction:
Reflections on the Scope of the Tectonic

The history of contemporary architecture is inevitably multiple, multifarious even; a history

of the structures that form the human environment independently of architecture itself; a
history of the attempts to control and direct those structures; a history of the intellectuals
who have sought to devise policies and methods for those attempts; a history of new lan-
guages which, having abandoned all hope of arriving at absolute and definitive words,
have striven to delimit the area of their particular contribution.

Obviously the intersection of all those manifold histories will never end up in unity. The
realm of history is, by nature, dialectical. It is that dialectic that we have tried fa pin down,
and we have done what we could not to smooth over conflicts which are cropping up
again today in the form of worrisome questions as to what role architecture itself should
or can have. It is useless to try to reply to such questions. What needs to be done, instead,
is to trace the entire course of modern architecture with an eye to whatever cracks and
gaps break up its compactness, and then fo make a fresh start, without, however, elevat-
ing to the status of myth either the continuity of history or those separate discontinuities.
Manfredo Taturi and Francesco Oaf Co, L'architettura contemporanea, 1976

The great French archItectural theorist Eugene-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc would

compile his magnum opus of 1872, his Entretiens sur I'architecture, without
once using the term space in a modern sense. 1 Twenty years later nothing could
be further from the structuralism of Viollet-Ie-Duc's thought than the primacy
given to space as an end in itself in August Schmarsow's Das Wesen der archi-
tektonischen Schopfung (The Essence of Architectural Creation), first published
in 1894.2 Like many other theorists before him, Schmarsow would advance the
primitive hut as the primordial shelter, only this time he would see it as a spatial
matrix, or what he would call the Raumgestalten'n, the creatress of space. 3

To a greater extent perhaps than any other late nineteenth-century theorist, in-
cluding the sculptor Adolf von Hildebrand, who gave primacy to kinetic Vision,
and Gottfried Semper, from whom Schmarsow derived his thesis, Schmarsow
came to see the evolution of architecture as the progressive unfolding of man's
feeling for space, what he called RaumgeftJhl. Between 1893 and 1914 Schmar-
sow's identification of space as the driving principle behind all architectural form
coincides with the evolving space-time models of the universe as these were
successively adduced by Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, Georg Riemann, and
Albert Einstein. As we know, such paradigms would come to be deployed early
in this century to rationalize in various ways the appearance of dynamic spatial
form in the field of avant-gardist art.4 This conjunction was reinforced through
the experience of speed and the actual transformation of space-time in an every-
day sense, due to the mechanical inventions of the last half of the century: the
familiar Futurist technology of the train, the transatlantic liner, the car, and the
plane.

Space has since become such an integral part of our thinking about architecture
that we are practically incapable of thinking about it at all without putting our
main emphasis on the spatial displacement of the subject In time. This quintes-
sentially modern viewpoint has clearly underlain innumerable texts treating the
intrinsic nature of modern architecture, ranging from Sigfried Giedion's Space,
Time and Architecture of 1941 to Cornelis van de Ven's Space in Architecture of
1978. As van de Ven shows, the idea of space established a new concept that
not only overcame eclecticism through a relativizing of style, but also gave prior-
ity to the spatia-plastic unity of interior and exterior space and to the nonhierar-
chical assimilation of all instrumental forms, Irrespective of their scale or mode
of address, into one continuous space-time experience.

Without wishing to deny the volumetric character of architectural form, this

study seeks to mediate and enrich the priority given to space by a reconsidera-
tion of the constructional and structural modes by which, of necessity, it has to
be achieved. Needless to say, I am not alluding to the mere revelation of con-
structional technique but rather to its expressive potential. Inasmuch as the tec-
tonic amounts to a poetics of construction it is art, but in this respect the artistic
dimension is neither figurative nor abstract. It is my contention that the unavoid-
ably earthbound nature of building is as tectonic and tactile in character as it is
scenographic and visual, although none of these attributes deny its spatiality.
Nevertheless we may assert that the built is first and foremost a construction
and only Jater an abstract discourse based on surface, volume, and plan. to cite
the "Three Reminders to Architects" in Le Corbusier's Vers une architecture of
1923. s One may also add that building, unlike fine art, is as much an everyday
experience as it is a representation and that the built is a thing rather than a
sign, even if, as Umberto Eco once remarked, as soon as one has an object of
"use" one necessarily has a sign that is indicative of this use.

From this point of view, we may claim that type form-the received "what" de-
posited by the lifeworld-is as much a precondition for building as craft tech-
nique, however much it may remain open to inflection at different levels. Thus
we may claim that the built invariably comes into existence out of the constantly
evolVing interplay of three converging vectors, the topos, the typos, and the tec-
tonic. And while the tectonic does not necessarily favor any particular style. it
does, in conjunction with site and type. serve to counter the present tendency
for architecture to derive its legitImacy from some other discourse.

This reassertion of the tectonic derives in part from Giorgio Grassi's critical po-
lemic as this was advanced in his essay "Avant Garde and Continuity" of 1980,
in which he wrote:

As far as the architectural vanguards of the Modern Movement are concerned,

they invariably follow in the wake of the figurative arts.... Cubism, Suprema-
tism, Neo-plasticism, etc., are all forms of investigation born and developed in
the realm of the figurative arts, and only as a second thought carried over into
architecture as well. It is actually pathetic to see the architects of that "heroic"
period, and the best among them, trying with difficulty to accommodate them-
selves to these "isms"; experimenting in a perplexed manner because of their
fascination with the new doctrines, measuring them, only later to realize their
ineffectuality. 6

Despite the retardataire implications of this Lukacsian critique, Grassi's observa-

tion nonetheless challenges the prestige that still seems to attach itself to the
figurative in architecture. This challenge comes at a time when architecture ap-
pears to oscillate uneasily between a deconstructive aestheticization of its tradi-
tional modus operandi and a reassertion of its liberative capacity as a critical
form. It is perhaps a measure of Grassi's professional alienation that his work re-
mains somewhat hermetic and indeed paradoxically removed, when built, from
the poetics of craft construction. This is all the more inexplicable given the care

2
 that he takes in developing the constructional details of his work (fig. 1.1). No
one perhaps has made a more judicious assessment of the contradictory as-
pects of Grassi's architecture than the Catalan critic Ignas! de Sola Morales:

Architecture is posited as a craft, that is to say, as the practical application of es-

tablished knowledge through rules of the different levels of intervention. Thus, no
notion of architecture as problem-solving, as innovation, or as invention ex novo,
is present in showing the permanent, the evident, and the given character of
knowledge in the making of architecture.

. . . The work of Grassi is born of a reflection upon the essential resources of dis-
cipline, and it focuses upon specific media which determine not only aesthetic
choices but also the ethical content of its cultural contribution. Through these
channels of ethical and political will, the concern of the Enlightenment ... be-
comes enriched in its most critical tone. It is not solely the superiority of reason
and the analysis of form which are indicated, but rathet; the critical role (in the
Kantian sense of the term), that is, the judgement of values, the very lack of
which is felt in society today ... In the sense that his architecture is a meta-
language, a reflection on the contradictions of his own practice, his work ac-
quires the appeal of something that is both frustrating and noble. 7

Etymology

Greek in origin, the term tectonic derives from the word tekton, signifying car-
penter or builder. The corresponding verb is tektainomai. This in turn is related
to the Sanskrit taksan, referring to the craft of carpentry and to the use of the
axe. Remnants of a similar term can be found in Vedic poetry, where it again re-
1.1
Giorgio Grassi, restoration and reconstruction
fers to carpentry. In Greek it appears in Homer, where it alludes to the art of con-
of the Roman theater of Sagunto, Valencia, struction in general. The poetic connotation of the term first appears in Sappho,
1985. Cross section. where the tekton, the carpenter, assumes the role of the poet. In general, the

3
 term refers to an artisan working in all hard materials except metal. In the fifth
century B.C. this meaning undergoes further evolution, from something specific
and physical, such as carpentry, to a more generic notion of making, involving
the idea of poes/s. In Aristophanes it would seem that the notion is even associ-
ated with machination and the creation of false things, a transformation that
would appear to correspond to the passage from pre-Socratic philosophy to Hel-
lenism. Needless to say, the role of the tekton leads eventually to the emer-
gence of the master builder or architekton. 8 That the term would eventually
1.2
aspire to an aesthetic rather than a technological category has been remarked
Auguste Choisy, the derivation of the Doric or-
on by Adolf Heinrich Borbein in his 1982 philological study:
der from timber construction, from Histoire de
I'architecture, 1899.
Tectonic becomes the art ofjoinings. "Art" here is to be understood as encom-
passing tekne, and therefore indicates tectonic as assemblage not only of build-
ing parts but also of objects, indeed of artworks in a narrower sense. With regard
to the ancient understanding of the word, tectonic tends toward the construction
or making of an artisanal or artistic product. ... It depends much more upon the
correct or incorrect applications of the artisanal rules, or the degree to which its
usefulness has been achieved. Only to this extent does tectonic also involve judg-
ment over art production. Here, however, lies the point of departure for the ex-
panded clarification and application of the idea in more recent art history: as
soon as an aesthetic perspective-and not a goal of utility-is defined that speci-
fies the work and production of the tekton, then the analysis consigns the term
"t~ctonic" to an aesthetic judgement. 9

The first architectural use of the term in German dates from its appearance in
Karl Ottried Muller's Handbuch der Archaologie der Kunst (Handbook of the Ar-
chaeology of Art), pUblished in 1830, wherein he defines tektonische as applying,
to a series of art forms "such as utensils, vases, dwellings and meeting places
of men, which surely form and develop on the one hand due to their application
and on the other due to their conformity to sentiments and notions of art. We
call this string of mixed activities tectonic; their peak is architecture, which
mostly through necessity rises high and can be a powerful representation of the
deepest feelings." In the third edition of his study MOiler remarks on the specifi-
cally junctional or "dry" jointing implications of the term. "\ did not fail to notice
that the ancient term tektones, In specialized usage, refers to people in construc-
tion or cabinet makers, not however, to clay and metal workers; therefore, at the
same time, it takes into account the general meaning, which lies in the etymol-
ogy of the word." 10

In his highly influential Die Tektonik der Hellenen (The Tectonic of the Hellenes),
published in three volumes between 1843 and 1852, Karl Botticher would make
the seminal contribution of distinguishing between the Kemform and the Kunst-
form; between the core form of the timber rafters in a Greek temple and the
artistic representation of the same elements as petrified beam ends in the tri-
glyphs and metopes of the classical entablature (fig. 1.2). 86tticher interpreted
the term tectonic as signifying a complete system binding all the parts of the
Greek temple into a single whole, including the framed presence of relief sculp-
ture in all its multifarious forms.

Influenced by MuHer, Gottfried Semper would endow the term with equally eth-
nographic connotations in his epoch-making theoretical departure from the Vl-
truvian triad of utilitas, fermifas, and venustas. Semper's Die vier Elemente der

4
.."

Baukunst (Four Elements of Architecture), published in 1851, indirectly chal-

lenged the neoclassic primitive hut as posited by the Abbe Laugier in his Essai
sur I'architecture of 1753.11 Based in part on an actual Caribbean hut that he
saw in the Great Exhibition of 1851, Semper's primordial dwelling was divided
into four basic elements: (1) the earthwork, (2) the hearth, (3) the framework!
roof, and (4) the lightweight enclosing membrane. On the basis of this taxonomy
Semper would classify the bUildIng crafts into two fundamental procedures: the
tectonics of the frame, in which lightweight, linear components are assembled
so as to encompass a spatial matrix, and the stereotomics of the earthwork,
wherein mass and volume are conjointly formed through the repetitious piling up
of heavyweight elements. That this last depends upon load-bearing masonry,
whether stone or mud brick, is suggested by the Greek etymology of 5tereot-
omy, from stereos, solid, and tomia, to cut. This tectonic/stereotomic distinction
was reinforced in German by that language's differentiation between two
classes of wall; between die Wand, indicating a screenlike partition such as we
find in wattle and daub infiIJ construction, and die Mauer, signifying massive forti-
fication. 12 This distinction will find a certain correspondence in Karl Gruber's
1937 reconstruction of a typical German medieval city, which illustrates the
difference between heavyweight battlements built of masonry and lightweight
residential fabric framed in wood and filled with wattle and daub (Fachwerkbau)
(fig. 1.3).13

This distinction between light and heavy reflects a more general differentiation in
terms of material production, wood construction displaying an affinity for its ten-
sile equivalent in terms of basketwork and textiles, and stonework tending to-
ward its substitution as a compressive material by brickwork or pise (rammed
earth) and later by reinforced concrete. As Semper was to point out in his Stoff-
wechse/theorie, the history of culture manifests occasional transpositions in
which the architectonic attributes of one mode are expressed in another for the

1.3
Karl Gruber, reconstruction of a typical medI-
eval city, 1937.

~ I

!L 5
 sake of retaining traditional symbolic value, as in the case of the Greek temple,
where stone is cut and laid in such a way as to reinterpret the form of the arche-
typal timber frame. In this regard we need to note that masonry, when it does
not assume the form of a conglomerate as in pise construction, that is to say
when it is, bonded into coursework, is also a form of weaving, to Which all the
various traditional masonry bonds bear testimony (fig. 1.4).14 The woven overlap-
ping thin tiles or b6veda of traditional Catalan vaulting point to the same end
(fjg. 1.5).

The general validity of Semper's Four Elements is borne out by vernacular build-
ing throughout the world, even if there are cultures where the woven vertical
screen wall does not exist or where the woven wall is absorbed, as it were, into
the roof and frame, as in, say, the North American Mandan house (fig. 1.6). In Af-
1.4
rican tribal cultures the enclosing vertical screen covers a wide range of expres-
Methods of Roman brick bonding.
sion, from primitive infill walls, plastered on the inside only, as in the Gogo
houses of Tanzania (fig. 1.7), to precisely woven wall mats that line the exterior
1.5
Antoni Gaudi, brick and Catalan vaUlting in
of the chief's hut. as we find in Kuba culture. Moreover according to climate,
the Casa Vicens, Barcelona. 1878-1880. custom, and available material the respective roles played by tectonic and ste-
reotomic form vary considerably, so that the primal dwelling passes from a con-
1.6 dition in which the earthwork is reduced to point foundations, as in the boulder
Mandan house, American Indian, section. footings of the traditional Japanese house (fig. 1.8). to a situation in which ste-
,,-.

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CROSS·SECTION A-B
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1.7 reotomic walls are extended horizontally to become floors and roofs, made up
Gogo houses of Tanzania, detail of infill walls. of the same material although reinforced with brushwood or basketwork (fig.
1.9). Alternatively the basic cell is covered by a vault of the same material, both
1.8 techniques being equally prevalent in North AfrIcan, Cycladic, and Middle East-
Traditional Japanese one-story house.
ern cultures.

It is characteristic of our secular age that we should overlook the cosmic associ-
ations evoked by these dialogically opposed modes of construction; that is to
say the affinity of the frame for the immateriallty of sky and the propensity of
mass form not only to gravitate toward the earth but also to dissolve in its sub-
stance. As the Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy was to point out, this is never
more evident than in mud brick construction, where the walls tend to fuse with
the earth once they fall into ruin and disuse. However, untreated wood is equally
r;;;:
o
15:J
1::l
e
.5 _ _I
I
_
7
 ephemeral when exposed to the elements, as opposed to a well-bedded stone
foundation that tends to endure across time and thus to mark the ground in
perpetuity. 15

Topography

No one has argued more persuasively as to the cosmogonic implications of the

earthwork than the Italian architect Vittorio Gregotti, who in 1983 wrote:

The worst enemy of modem architecture is the idea of space considered solely
in terms of its economic and technical eXigencies indifferent to the ideas of
the site.

. . . Through the concept of the site and the principle of settlement, the environ-
ment becomes [on the contrary] the essence of architectural production. From
this vantage point, new principles and methods can be seen for design. Prin-
ciples and methods that give precedence to the siting in a specific area. This is
an act of knowledge of the context that comes out of its architectural modifica-
tion. The origin of architecture is not in the primitive hut, or the cave or the mythi-
cal "Adam's House in Paradise. "

Before transforming a support into a column, a roof into a tympanum, before

placing stone on stone, man placed the stone on the ground to recognize a site
in the inidst of an unknown universe: in order to take account of it and modify it.
As with every act of assessment this one required radical moves and apparent
simplicity. From this point of view, there are only two important attitudes to the
context. The tools of the first are mimesis, organic imitation and the display of
1.9
complexity. The tools of the second are the assessment of physical relations, for-
Traditional construction from the towns of
mal definition and interiorization of complexity. 16
Mzab in Algeria:
1. masonry foundation walls
It is difficult to find a more didactic modern example of this last than the ac-
2. mud brick
knowledged masterwork of the Greek architect Dimitris Pikionis. I have in mind
3. timchent rendering
4. smooth rendering his Philopapou hillside park, laid in place during the second half of the 19505 on
5. palmwood lintel a site adjacent to the Acropolis in Athens (fig. 1.10). In this work, as Alexander
6. clay gargoyle Tzonis and Liane Lefaivre have remarked, Pikionis created a topographic contin-
7. timchent roof finish uum that was removed from any kind of technological exhibitionism. This ser-
8. small stone vaults
pentine causeway, passing across an undulating rock-strewn site, constituted,
9. timchent rendering
10. palm branch beams
in essence, a stone tapestry, bonded into the ground through irregularly coursed
11. stone arch pavers, furnished with occasional seats, and studded here and there with iconic
12. palm nervures centering signs. 17 Collaged rather than designed, it reinterprets the genius loci as a mythic

7 8 9 1
I
.

1.10
Dimitris Pikionis, detail of park paving, Philo-
papou Hill, Athens, 1951-1957.

narrative, part Byzantine, part pre-Socratic, a promenade to be experienced as

much by the body as by the eyes. That this was always central to Pikionis's sen-
sibility is evident from a 1933 essay entitled "A Sentimental Topography":

We rejoice in the progress of our body across the uneven surface of the earth
and our spirit is gladdened by the endless interplay of the three dimensions that
we encounter with every step. ... Here the ground is hard, stony, precipitous,
and the soil is brittle and dry. There the ground is level; water surges out of
mossy patches. Further on, the breeze, the altitude and the configuration of the
ground announce the vicinity of the sea. 18

Pikionis's work testifies to the fact that the earthwork tends to transcend our re-
ceived perceptions about both aesthetics and function, for here the surface of
the ground is kinetically experienced through the gait, that is to say through the
locomotion of the body al1d the sensuous impact of this movement on the ner-
vous system as a whole. There is moreover, as Pikionis reminds us, the "acousti-
cal" resonance of the site as the body negotiates its surface. One recalls at this
juncture Steen Eiler Rasmussen's Experiencing Architecture and the remarkable
chapter entitled "Hearing Architecture," where he notes the all but imperceptible
acoustical character of built form. 19 Rasmussen reminds us that the spatial re-
flection or absorption of sound immediately affects our psychological response
to a given volume, so that we may find it warm or cold according to its particu-
lar resonance rather than its appearance. Similar psycho~acoustical effects have
been remarked on by Ulrich Conrads and Bernhard Leitner in a 1985 essay in
which they comment on the spiritual aura evoked by the reverberation time of
the Taj Mahal and, rather coincidentally, on the way in which Mediterranean ver-
nacular forms appear to be suited to the articulation of certain diphthongs and
vowels and not others, with the result that such dwellings prove unsuitable as
vacation homes for people speaking northern languages. 2o That even formal in-
tegrity may depend in part on acoustical effect IS confirmed by Luis Barragan's
San Cristobal horse farm realized in the suburbs of Mexico City in 1967, wherein
the central reflecting pool and the sound of its water fountain jointly assure the
c unity of the whole.
o
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"Ee
, 9
----
Corporeal Metaphor

The capacity of the being to experience the environment bodily recalls the no-
tion of the corporeal imagination as advanced by the Neapolitan philosopher
Giambattista Vico in his Scienza nuova of 1730. Against the rationalism of Des-
cartes, Vico argued that language, myth, and custom are the metaphorical leg-
acy of the species brought into being through the self-realization of its history,
from the first intuitions deriving from man's primordial experience of nature to
the long haul of cultural development running across generations. In his 1985
study Michael Mooney had this to say about Vico's conception of this metaphori-
cal process:

In a moment of stirring oratory, Vico held, when the beauty of a conceit over-
whelms the spirit as its truth impresses the mind, both speaker and listener are
caught up in a rush of ingenuity, each making connections that were not made
before, their spirits fused by the freshness of the language, their minds and fi-
nally their wills made one. So here, too, analogously to be sure, the first dim
seeing of Jove is an event in which body through language becomes conscious,
the poetry of a thundering sky evoking in response the poetry of giants made
men, struck dumb with awe.

What occurs is an exchange in metaphor, the image of providence in a thunder-

ing heaven passing into the bodies of awestruck men. The physical universe of
deus artifex, itself a poem, everywhere written in conceits, becomes in the bod-
ies of clustered men a poet, henceforth a maker of self; the passive ingenuity of
the universe comes to life in the mind (however unrefined it yet is) and the spirit
(however passionate and violent it may be) of man, and man, now standing
erect, becomes the artifex of his own existence. 21

Vico's concept of the enactment and reenactment of man through history is not
only metaphorical and mythical but also corporeal, in that the body reconsti-
tutes the world through its tactile appropriation of reality. This much [s sug-
gested by the psycho-physical impact of form upon our being and by our
tendency to engage form through touch as we feel our way through architec-
tonic space. This propensity has been remarked on by Adrian Stokes, in dis-
cussing the impact of time and touch on the weathering of stone.

Hand-finish is the most vivid testimony of sculpture. People touch things ac-
cording to their shape. A single shape is made magnificent by perennial touch-
ing. For the hand explores, all unconsciously to reveal, to magnify an existent
form. Perfect sculpture needs your hand to communicate some pulse and
warmth, to reveal subtleties unnoticed by the eye, needs your hand to enhance
them. Used, carved stone, exposed to the weather, records on its concrete
shape in spatial, immediate, simultaneous form, not only the winding passages
of days and nights, the opening and shutting skies of warmth and wet, but also
the sensitiveness, the vitality even, that each successive touching has
communicated. 22

That such a purview stands in total opposition to all our more recent attempts to
impose upon cultural experience a consciously distanced and exclusively semi-
otic character has been remarked on by Scott Gartner.

The philosophical alienation of the body from the mind has resulted in the
absence of embodied experience from almost all contemporary theories of

10
..........--

meaning in architecture. The overemphasis on signification and reference in ar-

chitectural theory has led to a construal of meaning as an entirely conceptual
phenomenon. Experience, as it relates to understanding, seems reduced to a
matter of the visual registration of coded messages-a function of the eye which
might well rely on the printed page and dispense with the physical presence of
architecture altogether. The body, if it figures into architectural theory at all, is of-
ten reduced to an aggregate of needs and constraints which are to be accommo-
dated by methods of design grounded in behavioral and ergonomic analysis.
Within this framework of thought, the body and its experience do not participate
in the constitution and realization of architectural meaning. 23

Metaphor, rather than being solely a linguistic or rhetorical trope, constitutes a

human process by which we understand and structure one domain of experi-
ence in terms of another of a different kind. 24 This concept surely lies behind Ta-
dao Ando's characterization of the Shintai as a sentient being that realizes itself
through lived-in space.

Man articulates the world through his body. Man is not a dualistic being in whom
spirit and the flesh are essentially distinct, but a living corporeal being active in
the world. The "here and now" in which this distinct body is placed is what is
first taken as granted, and subsequently a "there" appears. Through a perception
of that distance, or rather the living of that distance, the surrounding space be-
comes manifest as a thing endowed with various meanings and values. Since
man has an asymmetrical physical structure with a top and a bottom, a left and a
right, and a front and a back, the articulated world, in fum, naturally becomes a
heterogeneous space. The world that appears to man's senses and the state of
man's body become in this way interdependent. The world articulated by the
1.11
Alvar Aalto, Saynatsalo Town Hall, 1949- body is a vivid, lived-in space.
1952. Plan, section through council chamber,
The body articulates the world. At the same time, the body is articulated by the
and longitudinal section.
world. When "I" perceive the concrete to be something cold and hard, "/" recog-
nize the body as something warm and soft. In this way the body in its dynamic re-
lationship with the world becomes the shintaL/t is only the shintai in this sense
that builds or understands architecture. The shintai is a sentient being that re-
sponds to the world. 25

This concept parallels similar arguments advanced by Schmarsow and later by

Merleau-Ponty,26 particularly Schmarsow's thesis that our concept of space is
determined by the frontalized progression of the body through space in depth.
Similar spatio-corporeal connotations are evident in Adolphe Appia's disquisi-
tion on the interplay between body and form on the stage, in his L'Oeuvre d'art
vivant of 1921. 27 A similar phenomenological awareness is also evident in Alvar

11
1.12
Alvar Aalto, Saynatsalo Town Hall, stair to the
council chamber.

1.13
Ogre's Night at the turn of the year, Kyushu.
Ritual raising and burning of the hashira.

Aalto's Saynatsalo Town Hall (1952) where, from entry to council chamber, the
subject encounters a sequence of contrasting tactile experiences (fig. 1.11).
Thus, from the stereotomic mass and relative darkness of the entry stair (fig.
1.12), where the feeling of enclosure is augmented by the tactility of the brick
treads, one enters into the bright light of the council chamber, the timber-lined
roof of which is carried on fanlike, wooden trusses that splay upward to support
concealed rafters above a boarded ceiling. The sense of arrival occasioned by
this tectonic display is reinforced by various nonretinal sensations, from the
smell of polished wood to the floor flexing under one's weight together with the
general destabilization of the body as one enters onto a highly polished surface.

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