UNIT

1 Matter, Chemical Trends,

and Chemical Bonding

T
he healing properties of silver particles have long been
• Every element has predictable chemical known, even before bacterial or fungal infections
and physical properties determined by
its structure. were understood. The ancient Greeks and Romans
used silver to treat burns and wounds. Modern
• The type of chemical bond in a
compound determines the physical and scientists have a deeper understanding of infectious agents
chemical properties of that compound. such as bacteria. They have also learned how silver can interact
• It is important to use chemicals properly with bacteria and destroy them. Today, silver is used to treat
to minimize the risks to human health hard-to-heal wounds. The large photograph shows a cross
and the environment. section of a dressing with a layer of activated charcoal and a
layer that is impregnated with tiny silver particles. The inset
Overall Expectations shows an example of this type of dressing. When the dressing is
In this unit you will… applied to the wound, silver ions penetrate into the wound and
• analyze the properties of commonly destroy the bacteria. The activated charcoal, consisting mostly
used chemical substances and their of carbon, absorbs the bacterial toxins and also the compounds
effects on human health and the that cause a wound to have a bad odour. Understanding the
environment, and propose ways to
lessen their impact
properties of elements such as silver and carbon is essential
to designing medical treatments. In this unit, you will also
• investigate physical and chemical learn how understanding the properties of elements and
properties of elements and compounds,
and use various methods to visually compounds is important in reducing risks to human health and
represent them the environment.
• demonstrate an understanding of As you study this unit, look ahead to the Unit 1 Project on
periodic trends in the periodic table and pages 94 to 95, which gives you an opportunity to demonstrate
how elements combine to form chemical and apply your new knowledge and skill. Keep a planning
bonds folder so you can complete the project in stages as you progress
through the unit.
Unit 1 Contents
Chapter 1
Elements and the Periodic Table
How does the structure of atoms change
with an increase in the atomic number
and how does the structure of an
atom determine its properties?

Chapter 2
Chemical Bonding
How do bonds form between atoms
and how do the bonds influence the
properties of compounds?

2
3
UNIT
1 Preparation
Safety in the Laboratory

• Always wear protective clothing, such as safety eyewear • If you get something in your eyes, do not touch
and a lab coat or apron, when using materials that them. Use the eyewash station to flush your eyes with
could splash or shatter. water for 15 min, and make sure that someone tells
• Know which safety equipment, such as a fire blanket, a your teacher.
fire extinguisher, and an eyewash station, are available • Follow all instructions for proper disposal of broken
and where they are located in your classroom. glass and chemicals to prevent injury.
• Know the proper procedures for using the available • WHMIS (Workplace Hazardous Materials Information
safety equipment. For example, if your clothing catches System) symbols are used in Canadian schools and
fire, smother the fire with the fire blanket. workplaces to identify dangerous materials.

1. Which safety equipment should you use if a chemical 5. An investigation involves testing how well common
has splashed into your eyes? kitchen chemicals dissolve in water. Your lab partner
a. lab apron d. safety eyewear thinks that safety eyewear and a lab apron are not
b. protective gloves e. eyewash station necessary. Write an explanation you could use to
c. fire blanket persuade your lab partner of the necessity of wearing
these two pieces of protective clothing.
2. Which list of safety equipment includes only
equipment that is used after an accident occurs?
a. a lab apron and protective gloves
b. protective gloves and a fire blanket
c. a fire extinguisher and a lab apron
d. safety eyewear and an eyewash station
e. an eyewash station and a fire extinguisher
3. Draw a safety map of your classroom. Include a key that
identifies the locations of lab aprons, safety eyewear, a
fire blanket, a fire extinguisher, and an eyewash station.
6. Why is a special container for the disposal of broken
glass important?
7. Examine the following WHMIS symbols. Describe the
hazard that each symbol represents.
a. c.

b. d.

8. Describe what you can do to reduce your risk of injury

when working with the type of material represented by
each WHMIS symbol in question 7.
9. Name the WHMIS symbol that would be used for each
4. Examine the fire extinguisher that is available in your of the following chemicals.
classroom. Write a script for a short video that explains a. carbon monoxide c. hydrochloric acid
the steps needed to use the fire extinguisher. b. gasoline d. helium

4 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

 Chemical Symbols

• Every element has a unique chemical symbol that is • Only the first letter of a chemical symbol is upper case.
universally recognized. • The names and symbols for the first 20 elements appear
• The chemical symbol for an element is composed of frequently and should be memorized to make learning
one or two letters if the element has been officially new information in chemistry easier.
named, or three letters if the official name has not yet
been selected.

10. Which of the following models a correctly written 15. For a quiz on the first 20 elements, a student wrote
chemical symbol? the incorrect chemical symbols that are listed in the
a. t following table. Copy and complete the table. Analyze
b. Tt each symbol to identify the element that the student
c. tt intended, and write the correct symbol for this element.
d. tT Prefixes Used in Naming Molecular Compounds
e. TT Incorrect Element Correct
11. Identify the chemical symbol for each element. Symbol Intended Symbol
a. helium Bo
b. carbon Fl
c. calcium Po
d. sodium be
e. sulfur Ch
f. oxygen Hy
g. argon Ma
h. fluorine HE
12. State the name of the element that is represented by Ni
each symbol. s
a. P Ox
b. Al Sil
c. N
d. Be 16. A compound is composed of two or more elements.
e. K Examine each chemical formula, and identify the
f. Li elements that make up the compound.
g. H a. CO
h. Ne b. H2O
13. When learning chemical symbols, it is helpful to c. LiF
identify how the symbols relate to the names of the d. NCl3
elements. Examine the chemical symbols and names e. Mg(NO3)2
of the first 20 elements in the periodic table. Identify f. Al2(SO4)3
four categories that describe how the chemical symbols g. CaS
relate to the names of the elements. Provide an 17. Why is it important to have universally recognized
example for each category. symbols for the elements?
14. Why is it important to use correct capitalization when 18. A student wrote the formula CaO2 for carbon dioxide.
writing chemical symbols? Analyze the formula to determine the error.

Unit 1 Preparation • MHR 5

 Evidence of a Chemical Change

• During a chemical reaction, a new substance is • If the reaction of two aqueous solutions produces a
produced. The composition and properties of the new new substance that is an insoluble solid, or precipitate,
substance are different from the composition and evidence of its formation often includes a change in
properties of the starting materials. the colour of the reacting solutions or cloudiness of the
• If the new substance is a gas, bubbling or fizzing of solution.
the reaction mixture or a change in odour can provide • Evidence of a chemical change often includes the
evidence of its formation. release or absorption of energy, such as a change in
temperature or the production of light.

19. Which of the following is a chemical change? 23. Give an example of a chemical change that releases
a. An ice cube melts and forms a puddle of water. energy in the form of heat and light.
b. The onions in a salad are removed before the salad 24. How can your sense of touch allow you to determine
is eaten. whether energy is absorbed or released during a
c. A wooden log in a fireplace burns to ash. chemical change?
d. Red paint and blue paint are mixed, and a new 25. Boiling is a physical change that might be mistaken
colour forms. for a chemical change. What might cause a person to
e. Drops of water form on the outside of a cool glass. conclude, incorrectly, that boiling is a chemical change?
20. Which of the following is a chemical change? 26. Is it possible for a chemical change to occur with no
a. An iron nail rusts. visible evidence? Explain your reasoning.
b. A model of a molecule is built by a group of students. 27. Some chemicals are stored in opaque bottles. For
c. Sugar dissolves in hot tea. example, hydrogen peroxide solution is stored and sold
d. A pencil is sharpened. in brown plastic bottles.
e. Water evaporates from a lake. a. Why might it be important for a chemical not to be
21. During an investigation, you observe bubbling in a test exposed to light?
tube after mixing two substances. Which procedure b. Hydrogen peroxide begins to break down into water
would you use to check for an odour? and oxygen gas when it is exposed to light. What
a. Hold the test tube under your lab partner’s nose, happens to the effectiveness of hydrogen peroxide, as
and have your lab partner describe the odour. a disinfectant, if it is exposed to light for a long time?
b. Hold the test tube under your nose, and waft fumes 28. Limewater is a clear, colourless solution. The photograph
away from your nose with your hand. shows a student blowing gently into limewater.
c. Hold the test tube under your nose, and inhale with
a short, shallow breath.
d. Hold the test tube away from your face, and waft
fumes toward your nose with your hand.
e. Hold the test tube below your chin, and inhale deeply.
22. Identify the evidence of a chemical change in each
photograph below.
a. b.

When doing an experiment like this, never

share the straw. Always use a new one.
a. What evidence of a chemical change does the
photograph show?
b. What chemical in the student’s breath might be
causing the chemical change?

6 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

 Writing Formulas and Naming Compounds

• An ionic compound forms when one or more electrons • When writing the chemical formula for an ionic
are transferred from a metal atom to a non-metal atom. compound, you need to use subscripts to make the sum
• An atom that loses an electron becomes an ion with a of the charges of the ions equal to zero.
positive charge (cation). An atom that gains an electron • A molecular compound forms when electrons are
becomes an ion with a negative charge (anion). shared between non-metal atoms.
• Ionic compounds can be composed of polyatomic • The name of a molecular compound contains prefixes
ions, such as nitrate, sulfate, hydroxide, carbonate, and that identify the numbers of atoms of the different
phosphate ions. A polyatomic ion is a group of atoms elements. You can use these prefixes to help you write
that act as a single unit and have a charge. the chemical formula for the compound. For example,
• The name of an ionic compound is made up of the based on the prefixes in the name diphosphorus
name of the positive ion followed by the name of the tetraiodide, the chemical formula is P2I4.
negative ion.

29. Which formula represents an ionic compound? 35. What types of elements form an ionic compound?
a. H2O 36. Identify each compound as ionic or molecular.
b. SO2 a. sodium chloride
c. CH4 b. carbon monoxide
d. NaBr c. Ca(NO3)2
e. NCl3 d. SF6
30. Which formula represents a molecular compound? 37. Identify each compound as ionic or molecular. Then
a. CCl4 write the chemical formula for the compound.
b. CaCl2 a. potassium fluoride
c. MgF2 b. phosphorus tribromide
d. NaCl c. dintrogen monoxide
e. K2CO3 d. aluminum nitrate
31. Which combination of elements would likely form a 38. What happens to electrons when atoms join to form
molecular compound? an ionic compound and when atoms join to form a
a. Ca and F molecular compound? Compare the two processes.
b. C and Cl 39. Examine the periodic table shown.
c. Li and O
d. Ca and Cl
e. K and S
32. Describe the charge that is associated with each type of
particle.
a. proton c. anion
b. electron d. cation
33. Explain why gaining electrons causes an atom to
become a negatively charged ion.
34. Name each polyatomic ion.
a. NO3- a. What type of element is shaded?
b. SO42- b. What type of ion will atoms of the shaded elements
c. OH- form?
d. CO32- 40. Explain how you can recognize ionic compounds and
molecular compounds using only their names.

Unit 1 Preparation • MHR 7

 CHAPTER Elements and the Periodic Table
1
Specific Expectations
In this chapter, you will learn how to . . .
• B1.2 evaluate the risks and benefits to
human health of some commonly used
chemical substances (1.1, 1.3)

• B2.1 use appropriate terminology

related to chemical trends (1.3)

• B2.2 analyze data related to the

properties of elements within a period to
identify general trends in the periodic
table (1.3)

• B2.3 use an inquiry process to

investigate the chemical reactions of
elements with other substances and
produce an activity series using the
resulting data (1.2)

• B3.1 explain the relationship between

the atomic number and the mass
number of an element, and the
difference between isotopes and
radioisotopes of an element (1.1)

• B3.2 explain the relationship between

the isotopic abundance of an element’s
isotopes and the relative atomic mass of
the element (1.1)

• B3.3 state the periodic law, and

explain how patterns in the electron
arrangement and forces in atoms result in
periodic trends in the periodic table (1.3)

I mages such as the one shown here are the best possible “pictures” of
atoms that scientists can currently obtain. This image was produced by
a scanning tunnelling microscope (STM). The corral shape is created
by 48 iron atoms placed on a copper surface.
The STM does not use light. Instead, it scans the surface of a sample
with a tiny electric current to detect its shape. The image, including the
colour, is then computer generated. Prior to the invention of STMs in
1981, no one had ever seen an image of an atom. Scientists could not
have invented the STM, however, without a thorough understanding of
the properties of atoms. Now, the STM has not only enabled scientists
to learn more about atoms, but it has also made nanotechnology
possible. Using nanotechnology, engineers might soon be able to build
tiny electronic circuits, one atom at a time, and thus make smaller
computers that use less energy than modern computers use.

8 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

 Launch Activity

Organization Reveals Trends

How might you go about organizing different pieces of small hardware,
such as nails, bolts, and screws, in a tool chest or cabinet with drawers? You
might be surprised to learn that your method of organization can highlight
trends (patterns) in the characteristics of the different pieces of hardware.
In this activity, you will arrange nails, bolts, and screws and make labels
to identify the type of object in each column and row of drawers. You will
then look for trends that arise. When your organization is complete, you
will compare it with the organization of elements in the periodic table.

Materials
• notebook paper
• pencil
• nails, bolts, and screws of different sizes (4 of each)
• ruler
• balance

Procedure
1. On a piece of notebook paper, draw a grid with three columns and
four rows, creating 12 rectangles. Make the rectangles large enough to
fit the largest nail, bolt, or screw. These rectangles represent labels for
the drawers in a tool chest or cabinet.
2. Arrange the nails, bolts, and screws in the rectangles so they make a
pattern that provides a way to easily find what you want. When you
are satisfied that the items will be easy to find, write the name of the
item (nail, bolt, or screw) in each rectangle.
3. Using the balance, measure the mass of each item and record the mass
in its rectangle. Then put the item back in its rectangle.
4. Using the ruler, measure the length of each item and record the length
in its rectangle. Then put the item back in its rectangle.

Questions
1. Describe any trends that you observe going down each column.
2. Describe any trends that you observe going across each row.
3. Describe any trends that you observe going diagonally from one
corner to the opposite corner.
4. How is your table of labels similar to a periodic table of the elements?

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 9

 SECTION
The Nature of Atoms
1.1
Key Terms For thousands of years, people have discovered and used matter without understanding
the fundamental nature of that matter. For example, elements such as copper, gold, iron,
valence electrons
sulfur, and carbon were known to and used by people between 4000 and 11 000 years
Lewis diagram
ago. Before the science of chemistry as we know it today was established, alchemists such
electron pairs as the people shown in Figure 1.1 added to the known elements. Relying on their keen
unpaired electrons observation skills, as well as equipment that they often invented, alchemists in the Middle
isotopes East and Europe discovered arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and phosphorus. And still, the
radioisotopes nature of the matter of which these elements are made remained unknown.
atomic mass unit
isotopic abundance

Figure 1.1 Between

about 500 and 1700 C.E.,
alchemists such as these
combined practical
chemistry with an interest
in philosophy and
mysticism. Some of the
great scientists of history,
including Robert Boyle
and Sir Isaac Newton,
either practised alchemy
or viewed it favourably.

Imagining the Atom

The first people to ask questions and record their ideas about the nature of matter were
philosophers who lived and taught in the region of the ancient Mediterranean and
northern Africa. About 2500 years ago, some of these professional thinkers imagined the
idea of a fundamental building-block of matter. They reasoned that if you cut an object in
half, and kept doing so, you would reach a point at which the object could no longer be
cut. This speck of object was called atomos, meaning “uncuttable.”
The idea of atomos—atoms—persisted among some thinkers. However, one of the
most influential thinkers of ancient Greece, Aristotle, argued against it. His rejection
of atoms was based on philosophical arguments. Neither he nor most other Greek
philosophers conducted experiments to demonstrate their ideas. However, Aristotle’s
ideas were greatly respected by people of authority both in and outside of Greece. As
a result, few people thought about atoms or the building-blocks of matter in a way we
recognize as scientific for another 2000 years.

Modelling the Atom

The first practical model of the atom was developed in the early 1800s by John Dalton.
While studying the properties of atmospheric gases, Dalton inferred that they consisted
of tiny particles or atoms. Chemists continued to develop the concept of atoms. They
performed numerous experiments and gathered an abundance of data, and they modified
the model of the atom to include new discoveries. Table 1.1 summarizes the most
important models of the atom and characteristics of the atom that the models describe.
Notice how each model is built on the foundation of the models that came before it.

10 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

Table 1.1 Models of the Atom
Model Development of Model
In 1803, English chemist John Dalton (1766−1844) proposed that
all matter consisted of tiny particles called atoms. He proposed
that atoms of each element were unique and unlike atoms of any
other element. These concepts, illustrated by his model of the
Dalton’s model, or the billiard ball model, of the atom was a atom, are still accepted today. However, Dalton also proposed
solid sphere. Atoms of different elements differed from one that atoms were indivisible, or unbreakable. J.J. Thomson was the
another, as implied by the different sizes and colours of these first person to show that this idea is incorrect.
two “atoms.”

In 1897, English physicist Joseph J. Thomson (1856‒1940) used

matter containing
cathode ray tubes to demonstrate that atoms could be broken
evenly distributed
electrons down into smaller particles. He showed that negatively charged
positive charge
particles, later called electrons, could be ejected from atoms,
leaving the atom positively charged. His “plum pudding” model
of the atom was consistent with all of the characteristics of the
atom that were known at the time.
Thomson’s model of the atom is called the “plum pudding”
model. It consisted of a positively charged sphere, with negatively
charged particles, later called electrons, embedded in it.

e-
In 1911, New Zealand physicist and chemist Ernest Rutherford
e-
(1871−1937) directed highly energetic, positively charged
e-
e-
alpha particles at a very thin gold foil. He traced the paths of
e-
e-
the alpha particles after they collided with the gold foil. Using
e- mathematical calculations, he showed that the only configuration
e- e- of the atom that could explain the paths of the alpha particles
was a configuration that had all of the positive charge and nearly
e-
all of the mass located in a tiny space at the centre. He inferred
Rutherford’s model of the atom is sometimes called the that the negatively charged electrons orbited the small nucleus.
planetary model. Planet-like electrons orbited a positively His experimental data focussed on the nucleus and did not show
charged nucleus, which was analogous to the Sun. The where the electrons were located, nor how they were moving.
nucleus contained most of the mass of the atom.

electron orbits
In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885−1962) refined
Rutherford’s model of the atom. Bohr analyzed the pattern of
colours of light emitted from heated hydrogen atoms. Using
those patterns of light and mathematical calculations, Bohr
e- e- electron realized that the light was emitted when electrons dropped from
a “higher orbit” to a “lower orbit.” He showed that electrons can
exist only in specific energy levels. He calculated orbital radii that
nucleus correspond to these energy levels. Although Bohr’s calculations
apply to only hydrogen, the general concepts can be applied
Bohr’s model of the atom was similar to Rutherford’s model.
to all atoms.
However, Bohr found that electrons can have only specific
amounts of energy. His energy levels are sometimes called
electron shells.

In 1926, Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1887−1961)

published a mathematical equation, called the Schrödinger wave
equation, that describes the atom in terms of energy. Solutions
to this equation show that electrons do not travel in precise
orbits but instead exist in defined regions of space. Electrons
in each energy level are confined to specific regions, which are
represented as electron clouds. This model is usually called the
electron cloud model of the atom.
Schrödinger’s wave equation, along with contributions by
Schrödinger showed that electrons move in a region of space, Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976), Paul Dirac (1902–1984),
which is often represented visually as a cloud. Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958), Friedrich Hund (1896–1997), and
others, are explored in advanced chemistry courses.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 11

 The Electrons of the Atom
Why was it so important for scientists to develop a detailed model of the atom? An
accurate model, or representation, of the atom makes chemistry concepts easier to
understand, communicate, and study. In fact, to gain the best understanding of the atom, it
is often necessary to rely on more than one model. As shown in Table 1.1, the current, most
accurate representation of the atom is the electron cloud model, shown in Figure 1.2. This
model shows the atom as a very small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by clouds
of negatively charged electrons. However, this model does not provide any obvious visual
information about energy levels. Therefore, chemists often use the model shown in Figure
1.3 to show energy levels. Because Bohr and Rutherford both contributed to this model,
it is often called the Bohr-Rutherford model. Each circle in the Bohr-Rutherford model
represents a different energy level, or electron shell. When using this model, it is important
to keep in mind that the circles represent energy levels, not actual electron orbits.
Figure 1.2 (A) In the
electron cloud model of A B
the atom, electron clouds
have different shapes.
(B) Even when these electron
clouds are superimposed to
represent a complete atom,
their appearance does not
give any information about
their energy levels. The Bohr-Rutherford model and the electron cloud model look very different. To
develop his model, Bohr used the concept of forces of attraction between positive and
negative charges. This method allowed him to calculate the radius of the electron shells
around the nucleus of a hydrogen atom. Schrödinger, on the other hand, used the
energy of electrons to calculate the shape of the electron clouds around the nucleus.
While the electron cloud model of the atom does not show any easily visible energy
levels, Schrödinger’s equation did allow him to find the average distance of electrons
++ ++ from the nucleus. You can think of this as the distance from the nucleus at which
++
+ ++++
+
+ ++ +
+ +++ electrons spend most of their time. Schrödinger’s average distance for an electron
in hydrogen is the same as the radius of the electron shell that Bohr calculated,
demonstrating how closely their models are related. While the Bohr-Rutherford model
Figure 1.3 The Bohr-
provides useful visual information, Schrödinger’s equation provides more detailed
Rutherford model of the information about the atom.
atom visually depicts
energy levels by showing The Number of Electrons in Each Energy Level
the number of electrons Bohr’s work provided information about the energy levels at which electrons can exist.
in each electron shell.
The shell closest to the
However, further mathematical analysis was required to determine how many electrons
nucleus is the lowest can exist in each energy level. Consider the partial periodic table in Figure 1.4. The
energy level. maximum number of electrons that can occupy a shell can be calculated by using 2n2,
where n is the number of the shell. For example, the number of electrons allowed in the
first shell is two (2 × 12 = 2 × 1 = 2), in the second shell is eight (2 × 22 = 2 × 4 = 8),
in the third shell is 18 (2 × 32 = 2 × 9 = 18), and so on. When a shell contains the
maximum number of electrons, it is said to be filled.
You might expect that the third row of the periodic table would have 18 elements,
valence electrons
electrons in the with 18 electrons in the third shell. Although it is possible for the third shell to contain
outermost shell of 18 electrons, elements in the third row do not have more than eight electrons in the
an atom outer shell, for reasons that will be explained in advanced chemistry courses. Electrons
in the outer shell of an atom are called valence electrons and the shell is called the
valence shell. Note that valence electrons are the only electrons that are involved in the
formation of chemical bonds between atoms.

12 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

 1 18
1 2

1 H column He
2 13 14 15 16 17
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
row

2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Figure 1.4 This partial periodic table shows Bohr-Rutherford diagrams of the first 18 elements.

Lewis Diagrams and Electrons

To understand the structures of chemical compounds and how electrons are involved
Lewis diagram a model
in the formation of chemical compounds, it is convenient to use simplified models to of an atom that has the
represent individual atoms. These models are called Lewis diagrams, or sometimes chemical symbol for the
electron dot diagrams. Instead of having plus signs to represent positive charges in element surrounded by
the nucleus of an atom, a Lewis diagram has the chemical symbol for the element. dots to represent the
valence electrons of the
As shown in Figure 1.5, dots are placed around the chemical symbol to represent the element
electrons in the valence shell. Only the valence electrons are depicted, since they are
the only electrons involved in the formation of bonds between atoms. Lewis diagrams
become too complex and are no longer useful, however, if atoms have more than eight
electrons in their valence shell. Therefore, Lewis diagrams are used mainly for the
electron
elements in columns 1, 2, and 13 through 18 of the periodic table. pairs

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Figure 1.5 Lewis diagrams are quick and easy to use, and they provide important information
about the chemical nature of elements.
Ar
unparied
electrons
S
Figure 1.6 This Lewis
When drawing the first four dots (electrons) around the symbol for the element in a diagram of sulfur shows
Lewis diagram, you usually place the first dot at the top of the symbol. You then go that atoms of sulfur have
clockwise to add the other three dots, spacing the dots equal distances apart. For atoms two electron pairs and two
unpaired electrons in the
with five to eight electrons in the valence shell, you place the fifth dot beside the first valence shell.
dot. Additional dots are placed beside the other three dots that are already in place,
as shown in Figure 1.5.
Pairing dots when drawing a Lewis diagram for an atom with more than four
electron pairs two
valence electrons is not simply a convenient way to draw the Lewis diagram—it has electrons that are
significance. The first four electrons, being negatively charged, repel one another and interacting in a unique
remain as far apart as possible in the atom. However, when more than four electrons way, allowing them to
occupy the same shell, electrons form pairs that interact in a unique way that allows be situated close to
each other
them to be situated closer together. These electron pairs, as they are called, are less
unpaired electrons
likely to participate in chemical bond formation than the unpaired electrons are electrons in an unfilled
(see Figure 1.6). outer shell that are not
part of a pair and are,
therefore, more likely
to participate in bonds
with other atoms

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 13

 Learning Check

1. Describe two significant differences between the 4. Models are used in many areas of science. Why do
Thomson model of the atom and the Rutherford you think that models are a very important tool for
model. studying the atom?
2. Draw Lewis diagrams of lithium, carbon, and 5. Describe one feature of Dalton’s model, the
fluorine. Thomson model, and the Bohr model that correctly
3. What information shows that the Bohr model of the describes one or more properties of the atom.
atom and the electron cloud model are related? 6. How many electrons could the eighth shell in an
atom contain?

The Nucleus of the Atom

Rutherford not only discovered that the nucleus of an atom occupies a very tiny volume
at the centre of the atom. He also discovered many important characteristics of the
components that make up the nucleus. The results of his research are discussed below.

Protons and Neutrons

After Thomson discovered the electron, chemists and physicists realized that an atom
had to contain enough positive charge to balance the number of electrons in the atom.
However, they did not know the nature of the matter that carried the positive charge.
When Rutherford was doing experiments with alpha particles, one of the atoms that
he bombarded was nitrogen. During one experiment, nitrogen nuclei emitted positively
charged particles. Rutherford concluded that the nucleus consisted of individual
particles, each with a single positive charge that is equal in strength to the negative
charge of an electron. Since hydrogen is the smallest atom, and thus has the smallest
nucleus, Rutherford proposed that the positively charged particles in all nuclei are nearly
identical to the nucleus of a hydrogen atom. He called these positively charged particles
protons. He then calculated the total mass of the number of protons that an atom should
have in order to balance the negative charge of the electrons. He discovered that this
mass could account for only about half of the actual mass of a typical nucleus.
Rutherford first suggested that a nucleus was composed of enough protons to make
up the mass of the nucleus and enough electrons to neutralize the excess protons. As he
continued his research, however, he realized that there was no evidence to show that there
were electrons in the nucleus. He proposed that the excess mass in the nucleus was due to
a new particle, which he called a neutron. He proposed that a neutron had the same mass
as a proton but no charge. About 10 years later, Rutherford’s assistant, James Chadwick
(1891−1974), performed experiments that established the existence of the neutron. The
current theory of the atom supports Rutherford’s proposal that the nucleus of an atom
consists of protons and neutrons. Figure 1.7 shows how a nucleus is often illustrated.

proton +
+
neutron
+
+
+

Figure 1.7 Nuclei of atoms are often depicted as a cluster of spheres in different colours,
with one colour representing protons and the other representing neutrons.

14 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

Neutrons and Isotopes
The chemical nature of an element depends on its atomic number: the number of
isotopes atoms that
protons in the nucleus. The atomic number also provides the number of electrons in a have the same number
neutral atom—an atom in which the positive and negative charges are balanced. Unlike of protons but different
the number of protons, the number of neutrons in the nucleus of atoms of the same numbers of neutrons
element can vary. For example, a hydrogen atom can have zero, one, or two neutrons.
Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.

Isotope Notation with Mass Number and Atomic Number

The isotope notation in Figure 1.8 indicates not only the chemical symbol of the element,
but also the isotope of the element. In this notation, the following symbols are used:
• the symbol Z for atomic number, which represents the number of protons in the atom
• the symbol A for mass number, which represents the sum of the number of protons
and the number of neutrons

To find the number of neutrons, N, subtract the atomic number from the mass
number: N = A − Z.

X
mass number A
chemical symbol

atomic number Z

Figure 1.8 The symbol A represents the mass number of the atom, which is the sum of the
number of neutrons and the number of protons. The symbol Z is the atomic number, which is
the number of protons. In this figure, X represents any chemical symbol.

Using the isotope notation, you can distinguish among the different isotopes of an
element. For example, the isotope of hydrogen with no neutrons is represented as 11H.
Similarly, the isotope of hydrogen with one neutron is represented as 21H, whereas
the isotope with one proton and two neutrons is represented as 31H. The isotope 21H
is sometimes called deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, and the isotope 31H is sometimes
called tritium. Isotopes of elements other than hydrogen do not have special names,
like deuterium and tritium.
The example in Figure 1.9 (A) is read as “cobalt-60.” Cobalt-60 has 27 protons and
60 − 27 = 33 neutrons. The example in Figure 1.9 (B) is read as “iodine-131.” It has
53 protons and 131 - 53 = 78 neutrons.

Co I
A B

60 131

27 53

Figure 1.9 (A) Cobalt-60 and (B) iodine-131 are radioactive isotopes that are often used
in medicine. Cobalt-60 is used in radiation therapy for cancer, and iodine-131 is sometimes
used to treat an overactive thyroid.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 15

 The Ratio of Neutrons to Protons
Neutrons play an important role in the nucleus. While this role is not immediately
obvious, studying examples of known isotopes of different elements, shown in Table 1.2,
can offer some clues.
Table 1.2 Various Elements and Their Isotopes
A Z N
Element (protons + neutrons) (protons) (neutrons)
hydrogen 1 1 0
2 1 1
3 1 2
chlorine 35 17 18
36 17 19
37 17 20
molybdenum 95 42 53
96 42 54
97 42 55
neodymium 142 60 82
143 60 83
145 60 85
146 60 86
mercury 199 80 119
200 80 120
201 80 121
202 80 122

Notice that atoms of the smaller elements in Table 1.2 have similar numbers of protons
and neutrons. As the atomic number of the element gets larger, the number of neutrons
exceeds the number of protons by an increasing amount. For instance, molybdenum
has roughly 10 more neutrons than protons, neodymium has over 20 more neutrons
than protons, and mercury has about 30 more neutrons than protons.

Radioisotopes and Unbalanced Forces in the Nucleus

Many positively charged protons are packed very closely together in the nucleus.
The repulsive electric force among the protons is tremendous. As the number of
protons increases, however, the number of neutrons increases more rapidly. This
has a stabilizing effect, which can be explained by the fact that protons and neutrons
also attract one another. The attractive force among protons and neutrons, called the
strong nuclear force, is approximately 40 times stronger than the repulsive electric force
among the positively charged protons. However, it acts over only very short distances.
As neutrons are added to the nucleus, they add to the attractive nuclear force but not
to the repulsive electric force. A correct balance between protons and neutrons thus
stabilizes the nucleus.
When the neutrons and protons are not properly balanced, the nucleus is unstable
radioisotopes isotopes
with unstable nuclei that and decays into a nucleus that is more stable. Atoms with unstable nuclei are said
decay into different, to be radioactive. They are called radioisotopes. For example, cobalt-60 ( 60 27Co) is
often stable, isotopes a radioisotope, but cobalt-59 ( 5927 Co) is stable. Cobalt-60 emits a negatively charged
particle, called a beta particle, from its nucleus. Although electrons cannot exist in the
nucleus, a neutron in the nucleus can decay into an electron and a proton. The newly
formed electron is immediately ejected from the nucleus as a beta particle. As a result,
the decayed nucleus has one more proton and one less neutron. For example, cobalt-60
becomes nickel-60, as shown below:
60
27Co → e- + 60
28Ni

16 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

Average Atomic Mass
In a periodic table, the atomic mass of an element is usually given in atomic mass
atomic mass unit one
units (u). The atomic mass unit is based on the mass of an atom of carbon-12 and is twelfth of the mass of a
defined as one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Because the masses of all other carbon-12 atom
atoms are compared to the mass of carbon-12, these masses are often called relative
atomic masses. Some time after the atomic mass unit was defined, scientists were able to
determine the actual mass of an atom, in grams. One atomic mass unit is now known
to be equal to 1.66 × 10-24 g, or 1 u = 1.66 × 10-24 g.
Many elements have two or more naturally occurring stable isotopes. In order to
determine the atomic mass of an element that has more than one isotope, each having
a different mass, you must find the average atomic mass. Recall how to find the average
of several values, by adding the values and dividing the sum by the number of values.
If you want to find the average mass of several items, the process becomes slightly
more complicated. For example, assume that you want to find the average mass of
10 marbles. Five marbles have a mass of 4.0 g, three marbles have a mass of 3.0 g, and
two marbles have a mass of 2.5 g. You would not simply take the average of 4.0, 3.0, and
2.5, because you must account for the number of marbles with each mass. Instead, you
would find the average by using one of the four methods below.

Methods for Calculating Averages

Method 1: Add all the masses, and divide the sum by the total number of marbles.

average mass = __
sum of the masses
number of marbles
4.0 g + 4.0 g + 4.0 g + 4.0 g + 4.0 g + 3.0 g + 3.0 g + 3.0 g + 2.5 g + 2.5 g
= ______
10
34 g
_
= = 3.4 g
10
Method 2: Group the masses by size, and divide the sum by the total number of marbles.
(5 × 4.0 g) + (3 × 3.0 g) + (2 × 2.5 g) 20 g + 9 g + 5 g
average mass = ___ = __
34 g 10 10
= _ = 3.4 g
10
Method 3: Use a weighted average. You know that five tenths, or one half, of the
marbles have a mass of 4.0 g. Similarly, three tenths of the marbles
have a mass of 3.0 g, and two tenths, or one fifth, have a mass of 2.5 g.
You could multiply each mass by the fraction it contributes to the total
and then add the products as shown.
average mass = _
1
× 4.0 g + _
(2 3
) ( 10
× 3.0 g + _
1
) (5 )
× 2.5 g = 2.0 g + 0.9 g + 0.5 g
= 3.4 g
Method 4: Express the fractions used in method 3 as percentages: _ is 50%, _ is
1 3
2 10
30%, and _
1
is 20%. Then convert the percentages into decimal form
5
(for example, _ = 0.30), and multiply the decimals by their
30%
100%
respective masses. Add the resulting values to obtain the average mass.
average mass = (0.50 × 4.0 g) + (0.30 × 3.0 g) + (0.20 × 2.5 g)
= 2.0 g + 0.90 g + 0.50 g = 3.4 g

You can use method 4 to find the weighted average of any type or number of items, as
long as you know the percentage of the whole that is contributed by each subgroup. You
do not need to know the total number of items. This means that you can use method 4
to find the average atomic mass of an element with several naturally occurring isotopes.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 17

 Isotopic Abundance
Scientists have analyzed the atomic masses of most of the naturally occurring isotopes on
isotopic abundance
the amount of a Earth. They have determined the percentage contributed by the different isotopes of each
given isotope of an element in a large number of samples. These percentages for any given element are so
element that exists in similar to one another that, for most elements, scientists are confident that they represent
nature, expressed as a the percentages for all samples on Earth. Thus, scientists have established a standard
percentage of the total
amount of this element percentage for each isotope of an element, which is often called its isotopic abundance.
The following Sample Problem demonstrates how to calculate the average mass of
the atoms of an element, and the Practice Problems that follow give you an opportunity
to practise your skills. The Activity that follows will give you a chance to apply the
methods that you have learned.

Sample Problem

Calculating Average Atomic Mass

Problem
The table below provides the atomic mass of each naturally occurring isotope of copper and the
percentage of each isotope in a sample of copper. What is the average atomic mass of copper?
Mass and Isotopic Abundance of Each Isotope of Copper
Isotope Mass (u) Isotopic Abundance (%)
copper-63 62.93 69.2
copper-65 64.93 30.8

What Is Required?
The problem asks for the average atomic mass of copper.

What Is Given?
You know the mass and isotopic abundance of copper-63:
mass = 62.93 u and isotopic abundance = 69.2%
You know the mass and isotopic abundance of copper-65:
mass = 64.93 u and isotopic abundance = 30.8%

Plan Your Strategy Act on Your Strategy

Multiply the mass of each isotope by its isotopic contribution of isotope copper-63 = 62.93 u × 0.692
abundance, expressed as a decimal, to determine = 43.5476 u
the contribution of each isotope to the average contribution of isotope copper-65 = 64.93 u × 0.308
atomic mass. = 19.9984 u
Add the contributions of the isotopes to average atomic mass of Cu = 43.5476 u + 19.9984
determine the average atomic mass of the element. = 63.546 u
= 63.5 u

Alternative Solution
The calculation can be combined into one step, as follows:
average atomic mass of Cu = 62.93 u × 0.692 + 64.93 u × 0.308
= 63.5 u

Check Your Solution

The calculated average atomic mass is between the atomic masses of the isotopes, but closer to
the atomic mass of the isotope that has the larger isotopic abundance. Three significant digits are
appropriate, based on the number of significant digits in the isotopic abundances.

18 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

 Practice Problems

1. Chlorine exists naturally as 75.78% chlorine-35 (mass bromine-81 (mass = 80.92 u). What is the isotopic
= 34.97 u) and 24.22% chlorine-37 (mass = 36.97 u). abundance of bromine-81? What is the average
What is the average atomic mass of chlorine? atomic mass of bromine?
2. Boron exists naturally as boron-10 (mass = 10.01 u; 7. A sample of rubidium is 72.17% rubidium-85 (mass
isotopic abundance = 19.8%) and boron-11 (mass = = 84.91 u) and 27.83% rubidium-87 (mass = 86.91 u).
11.01 u; isotopic abundance = 80.2%). What is the Calculate the average atomic mass of rubidium.
average atomic mass of boron? 8. The average atomic mass of nitrogen is 14.01 u.
3. Lithium is composed of 7.59% lithium-6 (mass Nitrogen exists naturally as nitrogen-14 (mass =
= 6.02 u) and 92.41% lithium-7 (mass = 7.02 u). 14.00 u) and nitrogen-15 (mass = 15.00 u). What can
Calculate the average atomic mass of lithium. you infer about the isotopic abundances for nitrogen?
4. Magnesium exists naturally as 9. The following isotopes of rhenium are found
78.99% magnesium-24 (mass = 23.99 u), in nature.
10.00% magnesium-25 (mass = 24.99 u), rhenium-185: m = 184.953 u, abundance = 37.4%
and 11.01% magnesium-26 (mass = 25.98 u). rhenium-187: m = 186.956 u, abundance = 62.6%
What is the average atomic mass of magnesium? Analyze the data. Predict the average atomic mass
5. Gallium exists naturally as gallium-69 (mass = and write down your prediction. Then calculate
68.93 u; isotopic abundance = 60.1%) and the average atomic mass and compare it with your
gallium-71 (mass = 70.92 u). What is the isotopic prediction.
abundance of gallium-71? What is the average 10. The average atomic mass of iridium is 192.22 u. If
atomic mass of gallium? iridium-191 has an atomic mass of 190.961 u and an
6. Bromine exists naturally as bromine-79 (mass = isotopic abundance of 37.3%, and iridium-193 is the
78.92 u; isotopic abundance = 50.69%) and only other naturally occurring isotope, what is the
atomic mass of iridium-193?

Activity 1.1 Penny Isotopes

All Canadian pennies have a monetary value of one cent. 2. Count and record the number of pennies in each group.
However, not all pennies are alike. Many have different 3. Using the balance, determine the mass of one penny
masses, because the Canadian mint has changed the in each group. Record the mass of each penny isotope
composition of pennies several times. So, you can think of to the nearest 0.01 g. Hint: The final mass will be more
different pennies as “isotopes” of the penny. In this activity, accurate if you measure the total mass of all the pennies
you will determine the isotopic abundances of the penny in each group and then divide the total mass by the
isotopes in a sample, and the average mass of the penny. number of pennies in the group.
Safety Precaution 4. Calculate the “isotopic abundance” of each “isotope.”
Always wash your hands after handling money. You can do this by using the following formula:
number of pennies in category
isotopic abundance = ___ × 100%
Materials total number of pennies in sample
• sample of at least 25 Canadian pennies 5. Calculate the average mass of the penny.
• balance Questions
• calculator 1. Explain why the average mass of the “element” penny is
not necessarily the same as the mass of any one “isotope.”
Procedure
1. Sort all your pennies into the following groups of 2. Compare the average mass you calculated with the
“isotopes:” masses obtained by other groups in the class. Explain
• penny-1: 2000 to the present why the masses are not all the same. Why is the average
atomic mass of most elements the same in every sample
• penny-2: 1997 to 1999
that has been analyzed?
• penny-3: 1980 to 1996
3. Describe how the penny model is a valid model of
• penny-4: 1979 and earlier
isotopes and how it is not a valid model of isotopes.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 19

S T S E F E AT U R E

Quirks &
Quarks
with BOB MCDONALD

THIS WEEK ON QUIRKS & QUARKS

Unearthing an Ancient Andean Element Related Career

Bob McDonald is a science
You may already know that Spain conquered that the pollution from pre-Incan mines was journalist. He reports on
much of South America in the 1500s, mainly the cinnabar itself. All the pollution science issues for many radio
plundering its gold and silver mines. You was very near the mines. During the Incan and television programs. Bob
may not know, however, that the Spanish Empire, however, cinnabar was mined for its came to science from an arts
also mined cinnabar—mercury(II) sulfide, red pigment, which was used for decoration. education and a background
HgS(s)—, which they valued for its mercury When processing the ore, the Incas heated it, in theatre. Science journalists
content. Colin Cooke, a PhD student in the causing some of the mercury to vaporize. As a interview experts and share
what they learn in ways that
Department of Earth and Atmospheric vapour, the mercury travelled long distances
non-scientists can understand.
Science at the University of Alberta, studied carried by the wind. The Incas did not know
lake sediment high in the Peruvian Andes how toxic the vapour was.
of South America, looking for evidence of When the Spanish arrived, the mining was
atmospheric mercury pollution from old intensified. The Incan workers mined the ore
Spanish mining operations. Cooke found with picks and then roasted it, causing most
what he was looking for. However, to his of the mercury to vaporize. Although their
surprise, he also found evidence that people intent was to condense the vapour in order
had been mining cinnabar as far back as to collect the mercury, much of the vapour
1400 B.C.E., long before the Incas settled in the remained in the air. Inhaled mercury vapour
Peruvian Andes. Bob McDonald interviewed is possibly the most toxic form of mercury.
Colin Cooke to learn more about the extent of The Incan miners inhaled so much mercury
the pollution from ancient cinnabar mines. that many died within six months after they
Cooke was able to determine when the started mining. Even today, the mines and the
pollution from mining had occurred by miners’ skeletons pose a hazard because the
measuring how deeply the pollution was mercury that the miners inhaled now sits in
buried below the bottoms of lakes. He found pools in their graves.

In ancient times, cinnabar QU ES T I ONS

was prized for its intense
red colour.
1. What could the Incan miners have done to protect
themselves from inhaling the mercury?
2. Today, mercury is used in many ways, such as in
batteries. In nature, mercury waste escapes into
waterways and accumulates in fish. Considering
the seriousness of mercury poisoning, summarize
the risks and benefits of mercury use today.
3. As a science journalist, Bob McDonald, has made a
career out of talking to scientists. What credentials
do science journalists have? What kinds of jobs do
they do, and where do they work?

20 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

 Section 1.1 RE V IE W

Section Summary
• As scientists discovered new information about the atom, • The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons
they modified the model of the atom to reflect each piece and occupies a very small volume at the centre of
of new information. the atom.
• The number of electrons that can occupy an electron shell • An appropriate ratio of neutrons to protons stabilizes the
can be determined by using the formula 2n2, where n is nucleus. An atom with an unstable nucleus is called a
the shell number. radioisotope.
• The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called • Atomic masses that are reported in data tables are
valence electrons. weighted averages, based on isotopic abundances.
• A Lewis diagram is a simplified method for representing
an atom.

Review Questions
1. K/U Describe two characteristics of an atom that 10. T/I The atomic masses and isotopic abundances of
were determined by Schrödinger and that were not the naturally occurring isotopes of silicon are given
revealed by any previous technique or model. below. Calculate the average atomic mass of silicon.
28
2. K/U In what way does the Bohr-Rutherford model 14Si : mass = 27.977 u; isotopic abundance = 92.23%
of the atom provide more visual information than the 29
14Si : mass = 28.976 u; isotopic abundance = 4.67%
more accurate electron cloud model? 30
14Si : mass = 29.97 u; isotopic abundance = 3.10%
3. T/I Examine the Lewis 11. T/I The atomic mass of yttrium-89 is 88.91 u.
diagram shown here. List at
least three details about the P The average atomic mass of yttrium that is reported
in periodic tables is 88.91. Infer why these values are
atom that you can determine the same.
from this diagram.
12. K/U Write a paragraph that explains why the ratio of
4. C Draw a diagram showing the general isotope neutrons to protons increases as the atomic number
notation using the letters Z, A, and X. Include in your increases.
diagram the meaning of each symbol. 13. K/U You reviewed four methods for calculating
average values of a group of items. Which of the
5. K/U Define the term “isotope.”
methods can you use to calculate average atomic mass?
6. K/U Explain how an atom of one element can Explain why the other methods cannot be used.
turn into an atom of another element. Under what
14. A Animals consume carbon-containing compounds
conditions does this occur?
and incorporate them into their tissues and breathe out
7. K/U Define “isotopic abundance.” carbon dioxide. A very small amount of that carbon is
8. K/U Explain why the atomic mass reported in a radioactive carbon-14. When the animals die, they no
periodic table is nearly always an average value. longer exchange carbon with the environment. Based
9. T/I Copy and complete the following table. on this information, how do you think that scientists
use the percentage of carbon-14 in a fossil to determine
its age? (This technique is called carbon dating.)
Isotope Data
Name of Notation Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of
Isotope for Isotope Number Number Protons Electrons Neutrons
a. 35 81
b. 22 10
c. calcium-44
d. 47 60

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 21

 SECTION
The Periodic Table
1.2
Key Terms The periodic table contains a large amount of useful data. For example, you can use
the periodic table to look up chemical symbols, atomic numbers, and average atomic
periodic law
masses of elements. However, the periodic table can reveal much more about the
period
elements when you have a full understanding of its design.
group

The Development of the Periodic Table

During a timespan of about 200 years, between the 1600s and the 1800s, chemists
increased the number of recognized elements to 63 and observed and recorded many
of their properties. Chemists began to observe similarities in the chemical nature of
groups of elements. English chemist John Newlands (1837–1898) discovered that
56 elements could be classified into 11 groups that have similar chemical properties.
Newlands also discovered that the elements in each group differed in atomic mass
(then called atomic weight) by factors of eight.
Working independently of each other, German chemist Lothar Meyer (1830–1895)
and Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907) both developed a table of the
known elements according to their atomic masses. Because Mendeleev published his
table first (1869), he is considered to be the “father” of the periodic table.
To develop his table, Mendeleev made a card for each of the 63 known elements.
He wrote the symbol, atomic mass, and chemical and physical properties of an
element on each card. Mendeleev arranged the 63 cards vertically, according to the
atomic masses of the elements. When he came to an element that had chemical and
physical characteristics that were similar to the first element in the previous column,
he started a new column. He then placed the next element beside the element with
similar properties. In a few cases, however, Mendeleev had to reverse the order of
the elements to make their chemical properties match those of their neighbouring
elements. Later, in 1913, British physicist Henry Moseley (1887–1915) developed a
method for determining the number of protons in the nucleus of atoms, and thus the
atomic number of an element. When the elements were ordered
according to atomic number instead of atomic mass, the order
agreed with Mendeleev’s order.
Mendeleev left several gaps in his periodic table, attributing
these gaps to elements that had not yet been discovered. The
positions of these gaps enabled him to predict the properties of
the missing elements. Several of these elements were discovered
within the next few years, and the properties that Mendeleev
had predicted were shown to be correct. The discovery of these
elements gave validity to Mendeleev’s work. The first periodic
table that Mendeleev published is shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10 In Mendeleev’s first periodic table,

he listed the atomic masses vertically and placed
elements with similar properties in horizontal rows.
Infer why some of the columns are longer than others.

22 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

Characteristics of the Modern Periodic Table
The periodic table that you use today looks very different from Mendeleev’s table, but it
periodic law a
is based on the same periodic, or repeating, relationships. In fact, chemists now call the statement that describes
concept underlying the organization of the periodic table the periodic law. the repeating nature
of the properties of the
elements
The Periodic Law
When elements are arranged by atomic number, their chemical and physical properties
recur periodically.

Modern chemists have learned much more about the properties of elements and have
filled in all the gaps in Mendeleev’s table. As you read in Section 1.1, chemists have
also learned much more about the structure of atoms in general. This new information
can explain the periodic nature of the table. To begin to understand the periodicity,
examine the partial periodic table in Figure 1.11. Only the atomic numbers and Lewis
diagrams of the elements are shown in the table. The Lewis diagrams clearly show the
configuration of the electrons in the valence shell of the atoms of each element.
1 18
1 Group 2
1 H He Figure 1.11 Lewis
2 13 14 15 16 17
diagrams are shown in
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
this partial periodic table,
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne so you can quickly and
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
easily analyze the electron
configuration in each
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar column of the table.
Period

19 20 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te l Xe
55 56 81 82 83 84 86
6 Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po Rn

The atomic number increases as you go from left to right in the table. Because the
atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, the number of
electrons must also increase to make the net charge on the atom zero. The rows are
called periods. The period number is the number of electron shells that are occupied
by one or more electrons. As you go across a period, the outer electron shell is being
filled. When the shell contains the maximum number of electrons allowed in that
shell, the period ends. Because the first shell can contain only two electrons, the first
period has only two elements. The second shell can contain up to eight electrons, period a row in the
periodic table
so the second period has eight elements. The partial periodic table in Figure 1.11
group a column in the
omits columns 3 through 12 because, in Period 4, the valence shells of atoms of some
periodic table
elements have more than eight electrons. The analysis of the electron structure of these
elements is very complex, so it is left for more advanced chemistry courses.
Figure 1.11 was drawn with only valence electrons to highlight another important
feature of the elements as they are arranged in the periodic table. The columns are called
groups. All elements in a group have the same electron configuration in the valence shell
of their atoms. Before chemists knew about valence electrons, they knew that the elements
in each group had similar chemical and physical properties. Chemists now know that the
configuration of the valence electrons is responsible for these similar properties.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 23

 Atomic Relative
number atomic mass (u) Legend
main-group Alkali metals Solid
elements 26 55.85 Alkaline earth metals Liquid main-group elements
3+,2+ Common ion Transition metals Gas
1 Electronegativity 1.8 charges Other metals No stable isotopes 18
1.01 Other non-metals 4.00
1 Element 2
1+,1- Symbol Fe Halogens -
2.2 -
1 Noble gases
H iron He
Lanthanoids
hydrogen 2 Name of element Actinoids 13 14 15 16 17 helium

3 6.94 4 9.01 Metalloids 5 10.81 6 12.01 7 14.01 8 16.00 9 19.00 10 20.18

1+ 2+ - - 3- 2- 1- -
1.0 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.4 4.0 -
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon

11 22.99 12 24.31 13 26.98 14 28.09 15 30.97 16 32.07 17 35.45 18 39.95

1+ 2+ 3+ - 3- 2- 1- -
0.9 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.2 -
3 transition elements
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 aluminum silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

19 39.10 20 40.08 21 44.96 22 47.87 23 50.94 24 52.00 25 54.94 26 55.85 27 58.93 28 58.69 29 63.55 30 65.41 31 69.72 32 72.64 33 74.92 34 78.96 35 79.90 36 83.80
1+ 2+ 3+ 4+, 3+ 5+, 4+ 3+, 2+ 2+, 4+ 3+, 2+ 2+, 3+ 2+, 3+ 2+, 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 3- 2- 1- -
0.8 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.6 3.0 -
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton

37 85.47 38 87.62 39 88.91 40 91.22 41 92.91 42 95.94 43 (98) 44 101.07 45 102.91 46 106.42 47 107.87 48 112.41 49 114.32 50 118.71 51 121.76 52 127.60 53 126.90 54 131.29
1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+, 3+ 6+ 7+ 3+ 3+ 2+,3+ 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+, 2+ 3+, 5+ 2- 1- -

24 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.6 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.7 2.6
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon

55 132.91 56 137.33 57–71 72 178.49 73 180.95 74 183.84 75 186.21 76 190.23 77 192.22 78 195.08 79 196.97 80 200.59 81 204.38 82 207.2* 83 208.98 84 (209) 85 (210) 86 (222)
1+ 2+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+ 4+ 4+ 4+, 2+ 3+, 1+ 2+, 1+ 1+, 3+ 2+, 4+ 3+, 5+ 2+, 4+ 1- -
0.8 0.9 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 -
6 La–
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
cesium barium Lu hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon

87 (223) 88 (226) 89–103 104 (261) 105 (262) 106 (266) 107 (264) 108 (277) 109 (268) 110 (271) 111 (272) 112 (285) 113 (284) 114 (289) 115 (288) 116 (292) 118 (294)
1+ 2+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.7 0.9 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7 Ac–
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut* Uuq* Uup* Uuh* Uuo*
francium radium Lr rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicum ununtrium ununquadium ununpentium ununhexium ununoctium
*Temporary names
inner transition elements

57 138.91 58 140.12 59 (140.91) 60 144.24 61 (145) 62 150.36 63 151.96 64 157.25 65 158.93 66 162.50 67 164.93 68 167.26 69 168.93 70 173.04 71 174.97
3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+, 2+ 3+, 2+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+, 2+ 3+
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 - 1.2 - 1.2 - 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 - 1.0
6 Lanthanoids
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

the colours break down the categories according to the chemical properties of the elements.
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium

89 (227) 90 232.04 91 231.04 92 238.03 93 (237) 94 (244) 95 (243) 96 (247) 97 (247) 98 (251) 99 (252) 100 (257) 101 (258) 102 (259) 103 (262)
3+ 4+ 5+, 4+ 6+, 4+ 5+ 4+, 6+ 3+, 4+ 3+ 3+, 4+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 2+, 3+ 2+, 3+ 3+

Figure 1.12 The brackets above this table divide the elements into large general categories, while
1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.3 1.3 - - - - - - - - -
7 Actinoids
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
Although Group 12 elements are often included in the transition elements, these elements are chemically more similar to the main-group elements.
Any value in parentheses is the mass of the least unstable or best known isotope for elements that do not occur naturally.
Categories within the Complete Periodic Table
So far, you have been examining a partial periodic table. The design of the complete,
modern, periodic table makes it possible to divide the elements into categories based
on their properties. The complete periodic table in Figure 1.12 has brackets and colour
codes that highlight different categories of elements.

Categorizing Elements According to Their Properties

The colours codes in Figure 1.12 divide the elements into categories that highlight SuggestedInvestigation
unique chemical and physical properties. Some of the categories have specific names.
Inquiry Investigation 1-A,
Figure 1.13 shows a reduced copy of the periodic table in Figure 1.12, with labels that
Developing an Activity
show the names of these categories. You will see references to these categories many Series
times throughout your study of chemistry.

alkali metals All of the elements in Group 1, other non-metals This category consists of the noble gases The Group 18 elements are
except hydrogen, are called alkali metals. non-metals that are not halogens or noble gases. called the noble gases. They are completely
They are very reactive. In fact, all alkali metals These non-metals are neither as reactive as the unreactive. They do not undergo any
react vigorously with water. When rubidium halogens nor as unreactive as the noble gases. naturally occurring reactions. However,
and cesium are added to water, the reaction They are the most common elements in the tissues chemists have made artificial compounds
with water is explosive. of living organisms. that contain some of the noble gases.

alkaline earth metals The elements metalloids Metalloids have properties that halogens The
in Group 2 are called the alkaline earth are between those of the metals and elements in Group 17
metals. They are reactive, but less so non-metals. Many are shiny solids but they are called the
than the alkali metals. are poor conductors of electric current and halogens. They are
are brittle. reactive non-metals.

transition metals The other metals This category

transition metals in includes the main-group metals
1 18
Groups 3 through 11 are that are not alkali metals and
1 1.01 2 4.00
2.2
1+,1- very hard metals with alkaline earth metals. These -
-
1
H very high melting points. metals are not as reactive as the He
hydrogen 2 Because of their complex Group 1 and 2 metals. They are 13 14 15 16 17 helium
6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
3
1+
4
2+
electron configuration, quite common and useful. For 5
-
6
-
7
3-
8
2-
9
1-
10
-
1.0 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.4 4.0 -
2 they can form a wide example, you may be familiar
Li Be variety of compounds with many objects that are
B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon

11 22.99 12 24.31 with other elements. made from aluminum or tin. 13 26.98 14 28.09
-
15 30.97 16 32.07 17 35.45 18 39.95
-
1+ 2+ 3+ 3- 2- 1-
0.9 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.2 -
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 aluminum silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

19 39.10 20 40.08 21 44.96 22 47.87 23 50.94 24 52.00 25 54.94 26 55.85 27 58.93 28 58.69 29 63.55 30 65.41 31 69.72 32 72.64 33 74.92 34 78.96 35 79.90 36 83.80
1+ 2+ 3+ 4+, 3+ 5+, 4+ 3+, 2+ 2+, 4+ 3+, 2+ 2+, 3+ 2+, 3+ 2+, 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 3- 2- 1- -
0.8 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.6 3.0 -
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton

37 85.47 38 87.62 39 88.91 40 91.22 41 92.91 42 95.94 43 (98) 44 101.07 45 102.91 46 106.42 47 107.87 48 112.41 49 114.32 50 118.71 51 121.76 52 127.60 53 126.90 54 131.29
1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+, 3+ 6+ 7+ 3+ 3+ 2+,3+ 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+, 2+ 3+, 5+ 2- 1- -
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.6 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.7 2.6
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon

55 132.91 56 137.33 57–71 72 178.49 73 180.95 74 183.84 75 186.21 76 190.23 77 192.22 78 195.08 79 196.97 80 200.59 81 204.38 82 207.2* 83 208.98 84 (209) 85 (210) 86 (222)
1+ 2+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+ 4+ 4+ 4+, 2+ 3+, 1+ 2+, 1+ 1+, 3+ 2+, 4+ 3+, 5+ 2+, 4+ 1- -
0.8 0.9 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 -
6
Cs Ba La– Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
cesium barium Lu hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon

87 (223) 88 (226) 89–103 104 (261) 105 (262) 106 (266) 107 (264) 108 (277) 109 (268) 110 (271) 111 (272) 112 (285) 113 (284) 114 (289) 115 (288) 116 (292) 118 (294)
1+ 2+ - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.7 0.9 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7
Fr Ra Ac– Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut* Uuq* Uup* Uuh* Uuo*
francium radium Lr rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicum ununtrium ununquadium ununpentium ununhexium ununoctium

57 138.91 58 140.12 59 (140.91) 60 144.24 61 (145) 62 150.36 63 151.96 64 157.25 65 158.93 66 162.50 67 164.93 68 167.26 69 168.93 70 173.04 71 174.97
3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+, 2+ 3+, 2+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+, 2+ 3+
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 - 1.2 - 1.2 - 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 - 1.0
6 Lanthanoids
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
89 (227) 90 232.04 91 231.04 92 238.03 93 (237) 94 (244) 95 (243) 96 (247) 97 (247) 98 (251) 99 (252) 100 (257) 101 (258) 102 (259) 103 (262)
3+ 4+ 5+, 4+ 6+, 4+ 5+ 4+, 6+ 3+, 4+ 3+ 3+, 4+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 2+, 3+ 2+, 3+ 3+
1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.3 1.3 - - - - - - - - -
7 Actinoids
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium

lanthanoids The inner transition elements in Period 6 are called the actinoids The inner transition elements in Period 7 are
lanthanoids, because the first element is lanthanum. They are sometimes called the actinoids, because the first element is actinium.
called the rare earth elements. For many years, chemists had difficulty These elements have no stable isotopes. As a consequence,
separating them from one another. However, techniques were finally they are all radioactive. In fact, all of the elements beyond
developed to purify them. Some rare earth elements are used in the uranium are not naturally occurring and can only be
advanced batteries that are being developed for hybrid cars. produced artificially.

Figure 1.13 Each colour in this periodic table represents a group of elements that have similar
and unique properties.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 25

 Categorizing Elements According to More General Properties
The colours in the periodic table in Figure 1.14 show another way to categorize the
elements. These categories are based on the general properties of the elements.
The elements shaded in blue are metals. Recall from previous science courses that
all metals, except mercury, are solid at room temperature. (Mercury is a liquid.) Metals
tend to be shiny, are good conductors of electric current, and are malleable and ductile.
The elements shaded in yellow are non-metals. Some non-metals are solid at room
temperature, some are gases, and one (bromine) is a liquid. Non-metals are not shiny,
do not conduct electric current, and are not malleable or ductile.
The elements shaded in green are metalloids. Their properties are between those
of metals and non-metals. In their pure form, many metalloids look like metals, but
they are brittle and often poor conductors of electric current. For example, silicon is
shiny, but it is brittle and a poor conductor. It is an important semiconductor, used in
transistors and integrated circuits in computer chips.

Categorizing According to Blocks of Elements in the Periodic Table

When you look at the periodic table in Figure 1.12, you can imagine cutting it into
rectangles or blocks. These blocks are indicated by brackets across the top of the table
and are based on the electron configurations of the elements.

Main-group Elements
Groups 1, 2, and 12 through 18 are the main-group elements. Varied in their chemical
and physical properties, they are the most prevalent elements on Earth. The number
of valence electrons, with the exception of the elements in Group 12, is completely
predictable from the group number. The number of valence electrons increases from
one to eight going from left to right (skipping Group 12) across the main-group
elements. Although Group 12 does not fit into this pattern, it is often included with
the main-group elements because its elements are chemically more similar to the
main-group elements than to any other elements.

Transition Elements
The centre of the table contains the transition elements, sometimes called the transition
metals. These elements make the periodic table 18 columns wide because atoms of
some of the elements can have up to 18 electrons in their outer shell. Thus, their
electron configurations are more complex than those of the main-group elements.

Inner Transition Elements

At the bottom of the table lie two rows called the inner transition elements. These
elements fit between columns 3 and 4. Notice that, in Figure 1.12, the square in Group
3 of Period 6 reads “La−Lu,” meaning that all of the elements from lanthanum through
lutetium belong there. The square in Group 3 of Period 7 reads “Ac−Lr,” indicating
the location of the elements from actinium through lawrencium. Atoms of the inner
transition elements can have as many as 32 electrons in some of their valence shells.

Learning Check

7. How did Mendeleev organize his periodic table? 11. Describe the basis for the different categories of the
8. State the periodic law and explain its meaning. elements in the periodic table.
9. Compare and contrast groups and periods. 12. Use a graphic organizer such as a main idea web to
distinguish and describe key characteristics of the
10. Explain why each period ends with a noble gas.
categories of elements in the periodic table.

26 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

 Examples of Some Properties and Uses of Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids

Silver Sulfur Chlorine

Silver, a metal, is ductile and can be Sulfur, a non-metal, is a yellow solid at

drawn into a wire and shaped into coils. room temperature. It is used in the Chlorine, a non-metal, is a greenish-
processing of rubber and it is an yellow gas. It is very toxic and can
ingredient in gunpowder. damage the respiratory tract.

1 18
H 2 13 14 15 16 17 He

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd ln Sn Sb Te l Xe

Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Mercury Silicon Bromine

Silicon, a metalloid, is purified and

Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at shaped into ingots, which are sliced into Bromine, a non-metal, is a volatile,
room temperature. But, like the other wafers that are less than a millimetre reddish-brown liquid at room
metals, it is shiny and can conduct thick. These wafers are used for making temperature. It is used in water
electric current. solar cells and computer chips. purification and in pesticides.

Figure 1.14 Some properties and uses of metals, metalloids, and non-metals are summarized here.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 27

 Alternative Forms of the Periodic Table
The commonly used periodic table, as shown in Figure 1.12, is convenient for many
purposes. However, it is only one of several possible designs. Some chemists have
proposed the designs in Figure 1.15 for a table of the elements to highlight certain
properties of the elements.

3 57
La
89
Ac
139 227

Ce Th
58 90
140 232

Pr Pa 231
59 91
140

Nd 144 U 238
60 92

Pm 145 Np 237
61 93

Sm 150 Pu 244
62 94

Eu 152 Am 243
63 95

Gd 157 Cm 247
64 96

Tb 159 Bk 247
65 97

Dy 163 Cf 251
66 98

Ho 165 Es 252
67 99
IDS
NO
C TI

Er 167 Fm 257
68 100
RA
PE

Tm 169 Md 258
69 101
SU

Yb No 259
70 102
173

OIDS
C TIN
OID S&A 3 21
Sc 45.0
39
Y
71
Lu
Lr 260
103

L AN THAN 88.9 175

4 22
Ti 47.9 Zr 91.2
40
Hf 178 Rf 261
72
104

5 23
V 50.9 Nb 92.9
41 73
Ta 181 Db 262
105

TRAN 6 24
Cr 52.0 Mo 96.0
42 74
W 184 Sg 263
106
SITIO
N ME 7 Mn 55.0 Tc 96.0 Re 184 Bh 263
25 43 75 107
TALS
8 26
Fe 55.8 Ru 101
44 76
Os 190 Hs
108

9 27
Co 55.8 Rh 101
45 77
Ir 190 Mt
109

10 28
Ni 58.7 Pd 106
46 78
Pt 195 Ds
110

11 29
Cu 63.5 Ag 108
47 79
Au 197 Rg
111

12 30
Zn 65.4
48
Cd 112 Hg 201 Cn
80 112

13 5
B
13
Al
31
Ga 69.7
49
In 115 Tl 204
81 113
Uut
10.8 27.0

14 6
C
14
Si
32
Ge 72.6
50
Sn 118 Pb 207
82 114
Uuq
12.0 28.1

15 7
N
15
P
33
As 75.0
51
Sb 122 Bi 209
83 115
Uup
14.0 31.0

16 8
O
16
S
34
Se 79.0
52
Te 128 Po 209
84 116
Uuh
16.0 32.1

17 1
H 1.01
9
F 19.0
17
Cl 35.5
35
Br
53
I 127 At 210
85 117
Uus
80.0

18 2
He 4.00
10
Ne 20.2
18
Ar 40.0
36
Kr
54
Xe 131 Rn 222
86 118
Uuo
83.8

1 1 3 11
H 1.01 Li 6.94 Na 23.0 K 39.1 Rb 85.5 Cs
19 37 55 87
Fr
119
Uue
133 223

2 2 4 12 20 38 56
He 4.00 Be 9.01 Mg 24.3 Ca 40.1 Sr 87.6 Ba
88
Ra
120
Ubn
137 226

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

In this circular table, hydrogen is at the centre, and each circumference This pyramidal periodic table is separated into four blocks, based on
contains one period. Each group is in the shape of a piece of pie. the electron configurations of the elements. You will learn more about
The transition elements form an arm extending out from the circle. electron configurations if you take more advanced chemistry courses.
The inner transition elements form another arm extending out from the Notice, however, that the inner transition elements form the top of the
transition elements. This design emphasizes that the increase in atomic pyramid, with the transition elements just below them. The base of the
number is continuous. The circle highlights the repeating nature of the pyramid consists of the main-group elements. Each group forms a
properties of the elements. horizontal row.

Figure 1.15 These are just a few of the alternative periodic tables that some chemists have suggested.

28 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

 This student has constructed a unique—and
edible—version of the periodic table.

In this “periodic spiral,” hydrogen is in the centre. As you go around the spiral clockwise, the atomic number
increases. The main-group elements, the alkali and alkaline earth metals, the inner transition metals, and the
transition metals all form separate clusters. The noble gases form a line by themselves. Zinc, cadmium, and
mercury are also in a line by themselves because they have some characteristics of main-group elements and
some characteristics of transition metals. This periodic spiral comes with interactive software that contains a
wealth of information about the elements.
Identify the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, noble gases, actinoids, and
lanthanoids in this periodic table.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 29

 Section 1.2 RE V IE W

Section Summary
• Mendeleev developed the periodic table by first listing • Elements are categorized as metals, metalloids, and
the elements in order of increasing atomic mass. Then, non-metals, based on their chemical properties.
when the chemical properties of an element resembled • Several groups of elements are given specific names due
those of a previous element in the list, he put this element to their uniquely similar properties. Group 1 elements are
alongside the previous element. With a little adjusting, called the alkali metals, Group 2 elements are called the
Mendeleev developed a table of elements with increasing alkaline earth metals, Group 17 elements are called the
mass in the columns and similar properties in the rows. halogens, and Group 18 elements are called the noble gases.
• Elements are categorized as main-group, transition, • Many alternative forms of the periodic table have been
and inner transition elements, based on their electron developed to highlight specific properties of the elements.
configurations.

Review Questions
1. K/U When Mendeleev was working on his periodic 9. T/I If the inner transition elements were inserted
table, he listed the elements according to their mass. He into the periodic table between Groups 3 and 4 in
discovered that he had to reverse the order of a few of Periods 6 and 7, how many columns wide would the
the elements to make them fit the pattern of chemical table be? Explain your answer.
properties. Why were these elements out of order? 10. K/U Name three different categories into which the
2. Explain why some elements were missing in
K/U Group 17 elements could be classified.
Mendeleev’s periodic table. 11. K/U Why are the lanthanoids sometimes called rare
3. K/U What characteristic is the same for all the earth elements?
main-group elements in a given period? What 12. A Strontium is sometimes called a “bone seeker”
characteristic is the same for all the main-group because, when ingested, it is deposited in bones and
elements in a group? remains there for long periods of time. Find strontium
4. T/I Sodium metal is usually stored in oil. Find in the periodic table. Offer a possible explanation for
sodium in the periodic table. Based on its position in why strontium is called a “bone seeker.”
the periodic table, why do you think that sodium must 13. T/I Examine each of the following pairs of elements.
be stored in oil? State which element is the most reactive, and explain
5. A The platter shown here is made from copper. how you made your choice.
Why could silicon not be used to make objects such a. Na or Mg b. Br or Kr c. H or He
as this?
14. K/U The photograph below shows what happened
when a sample of a pure element was dropped in water.
Name two elements that could have caused this reaction.

6. K/U Name two characteristics that distinguish

main-group elements from transition or inner
transition elements.
7. K/U Which category—metals, metalloids, or
non-metals—includes elements that are gases at 15. A Living tissues are made up of just a few elements.
room temperature? In what category are most of these elements found?
8. T/I List the following elements in order, from 16. C Create a chart that summarizes the different
best to worst conductor of electric current: silicon, types of periodic tables presented in this chapter and
copper, iodine. include the benefits of each model.

30 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

 SECTION
Explaining Periodic Trends
1.3
In the previous section, you learned that the atomic number increases going from left Key Terms
to right across the periodic table. You also learned that the electron configuration of the
atomic radius
valence shell is similar for atoms of the elements within a group. These are only two of the
effective nuclear charge
numerous trends in the periodic table. In this section, you will learn about other trends,
which vary across a period or down a group in the periodic table, including trends in ionization energy
• atomic radius electron affinity
• ionization energy electronegativity
• electron affinity
• electronegativity

Atomic Radius
Consider the following questions: How would you predict that the size of an atom would
atomic radius the
change across a period or down a group? On what properties of elements would you distance from the
base your prediction? centre of an atom to the
To answer these questions, you need a way to describe the size of an atom. As boundary within which
explained in Section 1.1, electrons move around a nucleus in what is best described as the electrons spend
90 percent of their time
a cloud. In other words, an atom has no clearly defined boundary. To circumvent this
problem, chemists define the size of an atom as the space in which the electrons spend
90 percent of their time, as shown in Figure 1.16. The size of an atom is usually reported A
in terms of its atomic radius, the distance from the centre of an atom to the boundary
within which the electrons spend 90 percent of their time.
The next challenge becomes measuring the size of atoms. There is no way to
directly measure the size of the space in which electrons spend 90 percent of their
time, so chemists have had to find other methods for measuring atoms. The method
that chemists use depends on the type of atom. For elements that can be crystallized
in their pure form, chemists use a technique called X-ray crystallography. Using X-ray
crystallography, chemists can measure the distance between the centres of atoms, B
as shown in Figure 1.17 (A). The radius of the atom is half the distance between the
centres of the atoms. Chemists use similar techniques, called neutron diffraction and
electron diffraction, to measure the distance between the centres of atoms in of the
diatomic gas molecules—oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and the halogens. Half of this
distance gives the atomic radius of an atom in a diatomic molecule. The method for
measuring the radius of a hydrogen atom is illustrated in Figure 1.17 (B).
Figure 1.16 (A) This
illustration represents the
A B electron cloud of an atom.
(B) The circle contains the
metallic sodium
atoms in a crystal region where the electrons
74 pm
372 pm spend 90 percent of their
time.

186 pm radius 37 pm
hydrogen atoms
in a molecule
radius

Figure 1.17 (A) These atoms represent sodium atoms in a crystal. (B) This molecule represents
hydrogen. To obtain the atomic radius of an atom, the centre-to-centre distance is measured and then
divided by 2. The unit used in these diagrams is the picometre (pm) which is equal to 1 × 10-12 m.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 31

 Activity 1.2 Estimating Atomic Radii

The development of the scanning tunnelling microscope A

(STM) has given chemists another method for measuring
the size of an atom. In this activity, you will use STM data to
estimate the radius of a carbon atom in graphite. Graphite
consists of sheets of carbon atoms that are in hexagonal
arrays, as shown in the diagram labelled A.
The picture labelled B is a STM image of graphite. The
graph below the image shows the electric current through
the STM while it was scanning across the black line on the Materials
image. The two pointers on the graph are the same as those • ruler • calculator
in the image. They point to the centres of two carbon atoms
in one hexagonal unit. Procedure
1. Use the ruler to measure, in centimetres, the horizontal
B
distance between the pointers on the graph. Estimate
the measurement to two decimal places.
2. Measure, in centimetres, the distance that represents
1 nm (1 × 10-9 m) on the scale.
3. Calculate the centre-to-centre distance between the two
adjacent carbon atoms by using the following formula:
distance between pointers on graph
actual distance = ___
distance representing 1 nm of scale
4. From the centre-to-centre distance you calculated in
step 3, calculate the radius of a carbon atom.
5. The accepted radius of a carbon atom is 77 × 10-12 m.
0.05 Calculate the percent error for the radius you calculated
in step 4. Go to Measurement in Appendix A for help
with calculating percent error.
Current

0 Questions
1. Compare the structure of graphite to the STM image.
What do the bright spots on the STM image represent?
–0.05 What do the dark spots represent?
0 1 2
Displacement/nm 2. What was your percent error? Give possible reasons for
this error.
Data obtained from: Chaun-Jian Zhong et al. 2003. Atomic scale
imaging: a hands-on scanning probe microscopy laboratory for 3. Using the same image and scale, propose another
undergraduates. Journal of Chemical Education 80: 194–197. method for calculating the radius of a carbon atom that
might be more accurate.

Analyzing Atomic Radii Data

Using a variety of techniques, chemists have been able to measure the atomic radii of
atoms of all of the elements with stable isotopes. The results of these measurements
are shown in Figure 1.18 in the form of a periodic table. The values for atomic radii
are given in picometres. The spheres in the table show the relative sizes of atoms of
the elements.
To analyze the data for size versus atomic number of the elements, recall that all
of the positive charge and nearly all of the mass are located in an extremely small
volume at the centre of the atom. The electrons, with their negative charge, account for
almost the entire volume of the atom. Both the positive charge in the nucleus and the
negative charge of the electrons increase as the atomic number increases. The number
of occupied shells is the same across any given period. Positive and negative charges
attract one another. As the charge becomes greater, the attractive force becomes greater.
All of this information helps to explain the pattern shown in Figure 1.18.

32 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

Trends in Atomic Radius within a Period
As you can see in Figure 1.18, the size of an atom decreases going from left to right
across a period. In contrast, the number of positive charges in the nucleus increases.
The number of electrons also increases, so you might expect the sizes of the atoms to
get larger. However, all of the electrons in atoms of elements in the same period are
in the same shell. With the increase in the number of positive charges, the attractive
force on each electron becomes stronger. As the attractive force becomes stronger, the
electrons are drawn closer to the nucleus, and thus the atom is smaller.
1 18
H 37 He 31
atomic radius
1
( × 10-12 m)
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 2
Li 152 Be 112 B 85 C 77 N 75 O 73 F 72 Ne 71 chemical B 85
symbol
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 5
Na 186 Mg 160 Al 143 Si 118 P 110 S 103 Cl 100 Ar 98 relative size atomic
number
3
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
K 227 Ca 197 Ga 135 Ge 122 As 120 Se 119 Br 114 Kr 112
4
19 20 31 32 33 34 35 36
Rb 248 Sr 215 ln 167 Sn 140 Sb 140 Te 142 l 133 Xe 131
5
37 38 49 50 51 52 53 54
Cs 265 Ba 222 Tl 170 Pb 146 Bi 150 Po 168 At (140) Rn (140)
6
55 56 81 82 83 84 85 86

Figure 1.18 This partial periodic table shows the atomic radii of atoms of most of the main-group elements.
Analyze this periodic table with atomic radii and describe any trends that you see.

Activity 1.3 Plotting Atomic Radius versus Atomic Number

Data in graphical form are often easier to analyze than data 4. Label each peak and valley on your graph with the
in table form. In this activity, you will plot a graph using data chemical symbol for the element that matches the atomic
for atomic radius and atomic number. number on the scale below.

Materials Questions
• graph paper • ruler • pencil 1. What feature stands out the most on your graph? What
does it tell you about the atomic radii of the elements in
Procedure a particular period or group?
1. Plot a graph of atomic radius versus atomic number
2. How does the atomic radius change going across a
using the data in the periodic table in Figure 1.18.
period?
Atomic number will be your independent variable
(x-axis), and atomic radius will be your dependent 3. How does the atomic radius change going down a
variable (y-axis). Decide on a scale for your x-axis. Notice group?
that elements with atomic numbers 21 through 30, 39
4. What characteristic of atomic radii is made more obvious
through 48, and 57 through 80 are missing. Decide how
by plotting the data in a graph rather than observing the
you will show that they are missing on your graph.
data in the partial periodic table in Figure 1.18?
2. Analyze the atomic radius data in Figure 1.18 to decide
5. What characteristic is more obvious in the periodic table
on a suitable scale for your y-axis.
than in your graph?
3. Plot the data. Connect the data points with straight lines.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 33

 Trends in Atomic Radius within a Group
As you go down a group, the atomic number becomes greater, and thus the amount
effective nuclear
charge the apparent of positive charge also becomes greater. With each step down a group, however, the
nuclear charge, as number of occupied electron shells increases. The inner shells that are filled shield the
experienced by the outer electrons from the positive charge of the nucleus. Because of this shielding, the
outermost electrons effective nuclear charge appears smaller than the actual charge in the nucleus. As a
of an atom, as a result
of the shielding by the result, the outer electrons are not attracted to the nucleus as strongly as they would
inner-shell electrons have been without the shielding. Therefore, each additional electron shell, and thus the
atomic radius, becomes larger going down a group.

Learning Check

13. How do chemists define the radius of an atom? 17. List the following elements in order of increasing
14. Why is it not possible to measure the size of an atom atomic number and then in order of increasing size:
directly? oxygen, tin, potassium, krypton. Explain why the
orders of the elements are different in your two lists.
15. How does the amount of charge in the nucleus of an
atom affect the size of the atom? 18. List at least three factors that affect atomic radius.
16. Explain the shielding effect of electrons, and
describe how it affects the size of an atom.

Ionization Energy
In chemical reactions, atoms can lose, gain, or share electrons with other atoms. When
an atom loses an electron, the remaining ion is positively charged. A generalized
equation is shown below. The A in the equation represents any atom.

A(g) + energy → A+(g) + e- (first ionization)

The amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom is an important

ionization energy
the amount of energy property that plays a role in determining the types of reactions in which atoms of that
required to remove the element might be involved. The amount of energy required to remove the outermost
outermost electron from electron from an atom or ion in the gaseous state is called the ionization energy. The
an atom or ion in the reason that the definition states that the atom and ion are in the gaseous state is to
gaseous state
eliminate any effect of nearby atoms. If ionization energy were measured in the solid or
liquid state, the adjacent atoms would affect the measurement.
After one electron has been removed, it is still possible to remove more electrons,
leaving the ion with a larger positive charge. A generalized equation for the removal
of a second electron is shown below.

A+(g) + energy → A2+(g) + e- (second ionization)

The removal of any subsequent electron requires more energy than the removal of the
previous electron because there are fewer negative charges repelling each subsequent
electron but the same number of positive charges attracting it.
A graph of first ionization energy versus atomic number is shown in Figure 1.19. Notice
SuggestedInvestigation that the elements at all of the peaks in the graph are noble gases. Atoms of the noble gases
have filled valence shells. The filled shells make the atoms very stable so you would expect
ThoughtLab Investigation
that it would take more energy to remove electrons from atoms of these elements. Notice,
1-B, Analyzing Ionization
Energy Data
also, that the elements at the lowest points on the graph are Group 1 elements. Recall
that all of their atoms have only one electron in their valence shell. When that electron
is removed, the remaining ion has a filled outer shell, which is a stable configuration.

34 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

 First Ionization Energies of Elements Figure 1.19 The data
points on this graph
4
He represent the amount of
First Ionization Energy (J × 10-18) Ne energy required to remove
one electron from a
3 neutral atom of the various
Ar elements. The numbers
Kr
on the scale must be
Xe multiplied by 10-18 to give
2 H
Rn the correct value in Joules.
The dashed lines represent
sections in which data
1 points are missing.
Li Na
K Rb Cs

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Atomic Number (Z)

Electron Affinity
If one atom loses an electron, another atom must gain this electron. Neutral atoms can
gain electrons and become negatively charged. In the process of gaining an electron,
a neutral atom can release energy or energy might be needed to add the electron. If
energy is needed to add an electron to a neutral atom, the resulting negatively charged
ion will be unstable and will soon lose the electron. If energy is released when an
electron is added to a neutral atom, the resulting negatively charged ion will be stable.
An equation for the generalized reaction in which a stable ion is formed is shown here.

A(g) + e- → A-(g) + energy

The energy that is either absorbed or released during the addition of an electron to a
electron affinity the
neutral atom is called the atom’s electron affinity. Figure 1.20 shows a partial periodic energy absorbed or
table of most of the main-group elements, with electron affinities of elements that released when an
become stable ions after gaining an electron. The electron affinities are expressed as electron is added to a
negative values because energy is released in the formation of the ion. As the values neutral atom
become more negative, the ions become more stable. The elements with “unstable”
in place of a numerical value are the ones that have a positive electron affinity.
1 18
1 2
H He
-1.21 2 13 14 15 16 17 unstable
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Figure 1.20 The values
Li Be B C N O F Ne in this table represent
-0.989 unstable -0.448 -2.02 unstable -2.34 -5.44 unstable electron affinities. The
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 values must be multiplied
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar by 10−19 to get the correct
-0.877 unstable -0.683 -2.22 -1.19 -3.32 -5.78 unstable values in Joules.
19 20 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
-0.802 -0.00393 -0.689 -1.97 -1.30 -3.24 -5.39 unstable
37 38 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr ln Sn Sb Te l Xe
-0.778 -0.00769 -0.481 -1.78 -1.68 -3.16 -4.90 unstable
55 56 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
-0.756 -0.232 -0.320 -0.583 -1.51 -3.04 -4.49 unstable

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 35

 Trends in Electron Affinity
Analyze the electron affinities in Figure 1.20, and look for trends. In general, although
not always, the electron affinities become increasingly negative going across a period
and up a group. Also, notice that the noble gases do not form a stable ion if an electron
is added. This is understandable when you consider that the outer shell of a noble gas is
a filled shell. An added electron would be an unpaired electron in a higher shell, which
would be very unstable. Next, consider the halogens. This group has the most negative
electron affinities. Compared with all the other groups, the largest amount of energy
is released when an electron is added, indicating that the ion is very stable. Remember
that atoms of the halogens have seven electrons in their outer shell. The addition of one
electron fills this shell. As a result, the ion is quite stable.

Electronegativity
Consider what happens when an atom of one element has lost an electron and an atom
of another element has gained this electron. The result is oppositely charged ions, which
attract each other. Figure 1.21 (A) shows a negatively charged bromide ion beside a
positively charged potassium ion. The arrows represent the forces acting on the electrons.
Notice that the electron lost by the potassium atom and gained by the bromine atom
is attracted by both positive nuclei. Therefore, the overall effect is similar to shared
electrons, although they are not truly shared. Recall that atoms of some elements do share
electrons equally. Figure 1.21 (B) represents two chlorine atoms sharing two electrons. The
arrows indicate that both electrons are attracted by both positively charged nuclei.
Figure 1.21 (A) When
oppositely charged ions
A Br- K+ B Cl - Cl
attract each other, their
positively charged nuclei
attract each other’s electrons.
(B) The nuclei of both atoms
in the molecule attract the negative positive chlorine molecule
shared electrons. bromide ion potassium ion

electronegativity an
The interactions in Figure 1.21 lead to another important property of atoms, called
indicator of the relative electronegativity. An element’s electronegativity is an indicator of the relative ability
ability of an atom to of an atom of this element to attract shared electrons. Because electronegativity
attract shared electrons is a relative value, it typically has no units. Figure 1.22 shows a periodic table with
electronegativities. Notice that Group 18 elements have no values. The noble gases do
not share electrons with other atoms, so they do not have values for electronegativity.

Figure 1.22 1 Electronegativity Values 2

Electronegativity is relative, H He
2.2 electronegativity < 1.0
so units are often not used.
3 4 1.0 ≤ electronegativity < 2.0 5 6 7 8 9 10
However, some chemists use Li Be B C N O F Ne
the unit Paulings in honour 1.0 1.6 2.0 ≤ electronegativity < 3.0 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.4 4.0
of Linus Pauling, a Nobel 11 12 3.0 ≤ electronegativity < 4.0 13 14 15 16 17 18
prize-winning chemist. Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
0.9 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.2
Identify the element 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
with the greatest K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.6 3.0
electronegativity and the 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
element with the smallest Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
electronegativity. Describe 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.6 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.7
their relationship with each 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
other in the periodic table. 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 118
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uuo
0.7 0.9 1.1

36 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

Analyzing Trends in Electronegativity
Analyzing Figure 1.22 reveals that the electronegativity of the elements increases going
up a group and going from left to right across a period. Thus, fluorine has the largest
electronegativity, and francium has the smallest. To discover one of the reasons for
these trends, examine Figure 1.23. It shows a silicon atom beside a cesium atom, and a
silicon atom beside a fluorine atom.
Figure 1.23 As you
Cs Si F Si
can see, the nucleus of a small
atom can get much closer
distance between distance between fluorine to the outer-shell electrons
cesium nucleus and nucleus and valence
valence electrons electrons of silicon of another atom than the
of silicon nucleus of a larger atom can.
nucleus of valence electrons nucleus of valence electrons Predict how the distance of
cesium atom of silicon fluorine atom of silicon the nucleus of an atom from
the electrons of an adjacent
The elements in Figure 1.23 were chosen because silicon is a medium-sized atom, atom will affect the strength
of the attraction between that
cesium is very large, and fluorine is very small. Notice how far the nucleus of the
nucleus and the outer electrons
cesium atom is from the outer electrons of the silicon atom and how close the nucleus of the adjacent atom.
of the fluorine atom is to the outer electrons of the silicon atom. Because the positively
charged nucleus of a small atom can get much closer to the electrons of another atom,
this nucleus should be able to exert a stronger attractive force on those electrons.
This point raises a new question: Is atomic radius a critical factor in determining the
electronegativity of atoms? Examine Figure 1.24 to find out. The heights of the columns
show the electronegativities of the elements, while the spheres on top of the columns
show the relative sizes of the atoms. The correlation between size and electronegativity
appears to be strong. As the atom becomes smaller, its electronegativity becomes larger.

4.0

F
3.5

O
3.0
Figure 1.24 This periodic
N
2.5
table is shown in three
C dimensions, so you can
2.0 easily compare the sizes
B Cl and electronegativities of
Electro- 1.5
negativity Be the elements.
1.0 S
Li P
Si
0.5

0 Al Br
2 Mg Se
Na
Ge As
Ga
3
Ca I
K Te
Period In Sn Sb
4 4.0
Rb Sr
Po At 3.5
Tl Pb Bi 3.0
5
2.5
Cs Ba 2.0
1.5
6 1.0
0.5
0
1 2 13 14 15 16 17

Group

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 37

 Activity 1.4 Analyzing Trends in the Halogens

The halogens are a group of reactive non-metals. Although the atoms all
have seven electrons in their valence shell, their properties vary somewhat.
The following table lists values for several properties of the halogens.

Properties of Halogens
Atomic Radius Ionization Energy Electron Affinity Electro-
Halogen (× 10−12 m) (× 10−18 J) (× 10−19 J) negativity Reactivity
fluorine 72 2.79 -5.44 3.98 Highest
chlorine 100 2.08 -5.78 3.16 ↓
bromine 114 1.89 -5.39 2.96 ↓
iodine 133 1.67 -4.90 2.66 ↓
astatine 140 1.53 -4.49 2.2 Lowest

Procedure Questions
1. Before plotting points for graphs, predict what they 1. Compare your sketches with the graphs plotted from the
will look like, by sketching graphs of (A) atomic radius, data. Describe any differences.
(B) ionization energy, (C) electron affinity, and (D) 2. Suggest a possible explanation for each trend that you
electronegativity versus atomic number, for the halogens. listed in step 3, based on what you know about atoms.
2. On four separate graphs, plot the data for atomic radius, 3. Suggest the property (or properties) that might be most
ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity responsible for the trend in reactivity of the halogens.
against atomic number. Explain your reasoning.
3. Describe any trends that you see.

Summarizing Trends in the Periodic Table

Figure 1.25 summarizes the trends in atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity,
and electronegativity within periods and groups. The arrows indicate the direction of
increasing values. These concepts are all factors in how atoms of different elements
react, or do not react, with one another. In the next chapter, you will learn about bond
formation and the nature of the bonds that form when chemical reactions occur.
atomic radius ionization energy

1 2 1 2

H He H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be B C N O F Ne Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 118 87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 118

Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut* Uuq* Uup* Uuh* Uuo* Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut* Uuq* Uup* Uuh* Uuo*

electron affinity electronegativity

1 1

H H
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Li Be B C N O F Li Be B C N O F
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85

Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116

Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut* Uuq* Uup* Uuh* Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut* Uuq* Uup* Uuh*

Figure 1.25 You can use these miniature periodic tables as a quick reference when you need
to remember the trends in the groups and periods of elements. The two bottom tables do not
include Group 18 because the noble gases do not have values for these properties.
Identify the three properties that follow the same trends. State which property follows trends
opposite to the other three.

38 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

STSE

CHEMISTRY Connections
Elements of the Body
Every time you eat a sandwich or take a breath of air, you
are taking in elements that your body needs to function
normally. These elements have specific properties,
depending on their location in the periodic table.
The circle graph below shows the percent by mass of
elements in cells in the human body.
OXYGEN In an adult body, there are more than 14 billion
billion billion oxygen atoms! Without a constant input of
oxygen into the blood, the human body could die in just a
few minutes.
CARBON Carbon can form strong bonds with itself and
other elements. Carbon forms the long-chained carbon
backbones that are an essential part of biological molecules
such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. The DNA
molecule that determines your characteristics relies on
the versatility of carbon and its ability to bond with many
different elements.
HYDROGEN Although there are more hydrogen atoms
in the human body than there are atoms of all the other The entire human body is covered with muscle tissue.
elements combined, hydrogen represents only 10 percent
of the composition by mass because of its significantly NITROGEN As shown in the illustration above, the human
lower mass. Your body requires hydrogen in a variety of body is entirely covered with muscle tissue. Nitrogen atoms
essential compounds, like water, rather than in its elemental are found in the compounds that make up the muscle protein.
form. With oxygen and carbon, hydrogen is also a crucial OTHER ELEMENTS IN THE BODY Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen,
component of carbohydrates and other biological molecules and nitrogen are the most abundant elements in your body
that your body needs for energy. and yet are but a few of the elements that your body needs
to live and grow. Trace elements, which together make up
less than 2 percent of the body’s mass, are a critical part of
Percent by Mass of the
Elements in the Human Body your body. Your bones and teeth could not grow without
the constant intake of calcium. Although sulfur comprises
less than 1 percent of the human body by mass, it is an
carbon (C) essential component in some of the proteins, such as those
18% in your fingernails. Sodium and potassium are crucial for
hydrogen (H) the transmission of electrical signals in your brain.
oxygen (O)
10%
65%
nitrogen (N)
3%
Connect to Society
calcium (Ca)
2% Many food manufacturers add sulfites to their products.
What are the benefits of adding sulfites to food? How much
all others
2% of the sulfites are needed to provide these benefits? What
are the risks of adding sulfites to food? Do sulfites occur
The human body is composed of many different elements. naturally in any foods? Carry out research to answer these
questions. Then state why you do or do not think that
sulfites should be used as a food additive.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 39

 Section 1.3 RE V IE W

Section Summary
• The atomic radius of the atoms of an element is • The electron affinity of the atoms of an element is
influenced by the amount of charge in the atom’s nucleus influenced by whether the valence shell of the atoms is
and by the number of occupied electron shells. The filled. The electron affinity decreases when going down
atomic radius increases when going down a group and a group and increases when going across a period.
decreases when going across a period from left to right. • The electronegativity of the atoms of an element is
• The ionization energy of the atoms of an element is influenced by the atomic radius. The electronegativity
influenced by the distance between its outermost electron decreases when going down a group and increases when
and its nucleus. The ionization energy decreases when going going across a period.
down a group and increases when going across a period.

Review Questions
1. K/U What is atomic radius and how is this value 9. T/I List the following elements in the order of
obtained? increasing ionization energy for the first ionization:
2. T/I List the following elements in order of arsenic, cesium, fluorine, helium, phosphorus, strontium.
increasing radius: Ba, Cs, O, Sb, Sn. 10. K/U What is the significance of an element having a

3. K/U State the trend in atomic radius within a group. positive electron affinity? Is the resulting ion stable or
Describe the factor that accounts for this trend. unstable? Explain why.
4. T/I The following figures represent neutral atoms 11. K/U Atoms of what group have the most negative

gaining or losing an electron to become ions. One of electron affinities? Explain why.
these figures represents a chlorine atom, Cl, gaining an 12. C Using diagrams, show how electronegativity and
electron to become a negatively charged ion, Cl-. The electron affinity are different.
other figure represents a sodium atom, Na, losing an 13. K/U Explain the relationship between
electron to become a positively charged ion, Na+. electronegativity and the size of an atom.
Identify which figure represents each element. Provide
14. T/I Copy the following table in your notebook. Fill
possible explanations for the change in size upon
in the data for atomic mass, using the periodic table in
ionization. Note: The unit pm (picometre) is 10-12 m.
Figure 1.12 on page 24. Fill in the data for atomic
A B radius, using Figure 1.18 on page 33. Compare the data
186 pm 102 pm 100 pm 181 pm
for the two elements. Would a piece of aluminum or a
piece of lead be denser? Explain your reasoning.
Data for Aluminum and Lead
Element Atomic Mass Atomic Radius
5. K/U Define ionization energy. Use a chemical
aluminum
equation to clarify your definition.
lead
6. T/I Review the graph of First Ionization Energies in
Figure 1.19 on page 35. Notice that the differences in 15. A Use the data in Figure 1.19 and Figure 1.20 on
ionization energy for the first 20 elements is quite page 35 to answer the following questions. First
significant. Then, for elements 20 to 30, the values are ionization data can also be found in the data table in
very similar. Provide a possible explanation for the Investigation 1-B on page 42.
similarity in these values.
a. What would the total change in energy be to
7. T/IWrite a chemical equation for an atom losing remove an electron from a sodium atom and add
a third electron. Would the ionization energy for this the electron to a chlorine atom?
reaction be larger or smaller than the ionization energy b. Which of the following combinations would be
for the loss of the first or second electron? Explain. more stable, a sodium atom and a chlorine atom,
8. T/I Explain why helium does not have a third or a positively charged sodium ion and a negatively
ionization energy. charged chloride ion? Explain your reasoning.

40 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

 Inquiry 1-A
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check

✓
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
Developing an Activity Series
Many metals are known to react with dilute acids, resulting in the release of
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
hydrogen gas. Some metals react much more vigorously than others. In this
✓ Communicating
investigation, you will test four metals, supplied by your teacher, for their
relative reactivity. The list of metals in the order of most reactive to least reactive
Safety Precautions is called an activity series.

Pre-Lab Questions
• Wear safety eyewear, gloves,
and lab coat or apron. 1. When observing a reaction occurring in a test tube, what tells you that a gas
is being formed? How would you compare two reaction tubes to determine
• Hydrochloric acid is corrosive.
the one in which the reaction is happening more rapidly?
Avoid contact with skin.
2. What factors affect the reactivity of metals?
• Use tongs to handle materials.
3. What is the WHMIS symbol for acids? Describe the precautions you would
• Clean up all spills immediately.
need to take when working with acids.
• Follow teacher’s directions for
disposal of chemicals. Question
What is the order of reactivity of copper, iron, magnesium, and zinc with acid?
Materials
• MSDS for each chemical Procedure
• metal strips of copper, Cu(s); 1. Gently clean the surfaces of the metal strips with emery cloth or sandpaper.
iron, Fe(s); 2. Label the four test tubes by placing the name of one of the metals on each tube.
magnesium, Mg(s);
3. Pour dilute hydrochloric acid to a depth of about 1 cm in each of the four
zinc, Zn(s)
test tubes.
• dilute hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq)
4. One at a time, place the appropriate metal strip in the test tube. Carefully
• grease marker observe any reaction that might be occurring. After 1 min, record your
• 4 small test tubes observations. Include information about the rate of the reaction.
• test tube rack 5. Dispose of the chemicals as directed by your teacher.
• safety equipment
Analyze and Interpret
• tongs
1. What criteria did you use to determine the rate of a reaction?
• emery cloth or sandpaper
2. List the metals in the order of the rate of the reaction, from the fastest
reaction to the slowest.

Conclude and Communicate

3. Why do you think your list of metals is called an activity series?
4. Compare your activity series with that of other groups in your class.
Offer possible explanations for any differences.

Extend Further

5. INQUIRY Design an investigation that you could use to test the same four
metals for reactivity to verify your results for this investigation.
6. RESEARCH Carry out research to find a use for metals that depends on
their reactivity or lack of reactivity.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 41

 ThoughtLab 1-B
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check

✓
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
Analyzing Ionization Energy Data
Figure 1.19, on page 35, shows data for ionization energies. You can obtain a
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
lot of information from the graph in this figure. In this investigation, you will
✓ Communicating
analyze the graph in Figure 1.19 in more detail. You will then plot your own
graphs from data tables and make more inferences based on the data.
Materials
• graph of ionization energies with Pre-Lab Questions
data points only 1. Review what you have learned about ionization energies in this chapter.
• graph paper Explain the meaning of “ionization energy.”
• coloured pens or pencils 2. Define “second ionization energy.”
• data table on this page 3. Review the electron configurations in Figure 1.4 on page 13. Which atoms
have a filled valence shell?
4. What is the significance of a filled valence shell?

Question
What characteristics of an atom or ion cause its ionization energy to be very
high or very low?
First and Second Ionization Energies (× 10-18 J) for Elements 1 through 20
First Ionization Second Ionization
Z Element Energy Energy
1 H 2.18 N/A
2 He 3.94 8.71
3 Li 0.864 12.1
4 Be 1.49 2.92
5 B 1.33 4.04
6 C 1.80 3.90
7 N 2.32 4.75
8 O 2.18 5.63
9 F 2.79 5.60
10 Ne 3.54 6.56
11 Na 0.823 7.57
12 Mg 1.23 2.41
13 Al 0.960 3.02
14 Si 1.31 2.62
15 P 1.68 3.16
16 S 1.66 3.74
17 Cl 2.08 3.81
18 Ar 2.53 4.43
19 K 0.695 5.07
20 Ca 0.979 1.90

42 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

Organize the Data Analyze and Interpret
Part 1: Analyzing First Ionization Energies 1. Suggest possible reasons for the trends that you
1. Your teacher will give you a graph of data points for the described in step 4. These are the trends for the first
first ionization energies of the first 60 elements. This ionization energies of Group 1 and Group 18 elements.
graph is similar to the graph on page 35, Figure 1.19, 2. Suggest possible reasons for the trends you described
but it does not have lines between the data points. in step 6, for the first ionization energies of elements
2. Using a coloured pen or pencil, connect the data points within a period.
for all of the Group 18 elements. 3. What can you infer about the elements with the
3. Using the same coloured pen or pencil, connect the clustered ionization energies in step 7?
data points for all of the Group 1 elements. 4. Describe any similarities and differences between the
4. Describe any trends you see in the lines you drew. graphs for the first ionization energies and the second
ionization energies.
5. With a different-coloured pen or pencil, connect the
data points for the elements in Periods 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. 5. List the elements that are represented by the peaks
in the graph of first ionization energies. Study the
6. Describe any trends that you see in the lines for the
electron configurations of these elements in Figure 1.4.
elements in each period.
a. What is common to the electron configurations of
7. On the graph for Periods 4 and 5, there are clusters of
these elements?
data points representing ionization energies that are
b. What can you infer about ionization energies and
very close together. Where in the periodic table would
the electron configurations of these elements?
you find the elements with the ionization energies
represented by these data points? 6. Analyze the elements that are represented by the low
points or valleys in the graph of first ionization energies
Part 2: Comparing First and Second Ionization Energies in the same way that you analyzed the elements that are
8. On a clean sheet of graph paper, plot the data in the represented by the peaks in question 5.
table of first and second ionization energies on the 7. Refer to your graph of second ionization energies and
previous page. Use different-coloured pens or pencils to the partial periodic table that you drew to answer
for the two sets of data. Connect the points for each set question 10. Analyze these data in the same way that
of data. Note that there is no second ionization energy you analyzed data for first ionization energies in
for hydrogen because hydrogen has only one electron. questions 5 and 6.
9. Label the peaks and valleys with the chemical symbols
Conclude and Communicate
of the elements, similar to the way the graph in
Figure 1.19 on page 35 is labelled. 8. Write a paragraph that summarizes the concepts that
you learned about electron configurations and the
10. Draw a partial periodic table, similar to the one
amount of energy needed to remove an electron from
in Figure 1.4 on page 13. Instead of drawing
an atom or ion.
Bohr-Rutherford diagrams for the neutral atoms,
draw Bohr-Rutherford diagrams for ions that form
when one electron is removed. These diagrams will Extend Further
show the electron configurations of the ions that are
9. INQUIRY Data are available for third, fourth, fifth,
formed when one electron has been removed from
and further ionization energies. Develop an inquiry
the atoms. These are the ions from which a second
question that you could answer by analyzing these
electron will be removed in order to measure the
data. Explain how you would use these data to answer
second ionization energy.
your question.
10. RESEARCH Use print or Internet resources to research
one situation in which data about ionization energies
are used in an application.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 43

Chapter 1 SUMMARY

Section 1.1 The Nature of Atoms

As chemists learned more and more about the nature • The number of electrons that can occupy an electron
of atoms, they developed models and symbols to help shell can be determined by using 2n2, where n is the
them understand and communicate about atoms. shell number.
• The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called
KEY TERMS
valence electrons.
atomic mass unit Lewis diagram
electron pairs radioisotope • A Lewis diagram is a simplified method for representing
isotopes unpaired electrons an atom.
isotopic abundance valence electrons • The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons
and occupies a very small volume at the centre of the atom.
KEY CONCEPTS
• As scientists discovered new information about the atom, • An appropriate ratio of neutrons to protons stabilizes the
they modified the model of the atom to reflect each piece nucleus. An atom with an unstable nucleus is called a
of new information. radioisotope.
• Atomic masses that are reported in data tables are
weighted averages, based on isotopic abundances.

Section 1.2 The Periodic Table

Elements in the periodic table can be classified in several Mendeleev had a table of elements with increasing mass in
different ways, each emphasizing certain properties of the columns and similar properties in the rows.
the elements. • Elements are categorized as main-group, transition,
and inner transition elements, based on their electron
KEY TERMS
configurations.
group
period • Elements are categorized as metals, metalloids, and
periodic law non-metals, based on their chemical properties.
• Several groups of elements are given specific names due to
KEY CONCEPTS their uniquely similar properties. Group 1 elements are called
• Mendeleev developed the periodic table by first listing the alkali metals, Group 2 elements are called the alkaline
the elements in order of increasing mass. Then, when earth metals, Group 17 elements are called the halogens,
the chemical properties of an element closely resembled and Group 18 elements are called the noble gases.
those of a previous element in the list, he put this element
in line with the previous element. With a little adjusting, • Many alternative forms of the periodic table have been
developed to highlight specific properties of the elements.

Section 1.3 Explaining Periodic Trends

By the placement of an element in the periodic table, • The ionization energy of the atoms of an element is
you can predict the size, ionization energy, electron influenced by the distance between its outermost electron
affinity, and electronegativity of the element, relative to and its nucleus. The ionization energy decreases when
the other elements. going down a group and increases when going across
a period.
KEY TERMS
• The electron affinity of the atoms of an element is
atomic radius electronegativity
influenced by whether the valence shell of the atoms is
effective nuclear charge ionization energy
filled. The electron affinity decreases when going down
electron affinity
a group and increases when going across a period.
KEY CONCEPTS • The electronegativity of the atoms of an element is
• The atomic radius of the atoms of an element is influenced influenced by the atomic radius. The electronegativity
by the amount of charge in the atom’s nucleus and by the decreases when going down a group and increases when
number of occupied electron shells. The atomic radius going across a period.
increases when going down a group and decreases when
going across a period from left to right.

44 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

Chapter 1 REVIEW

Knowledge and Understanding d. the attractive forces among the protons are less than
Select the letter of the best answer below. the repulsive forces among the neutrons
e. the repulsive forces among the electrons are greater
1. Which of the following is the correct Lewis diagram
than the repulsive forces among the protons
for carbon?
a. b. c. 6. Which statement about the size of the atomic radius is
C correct?
C C a. The atomic radius decreases going down a group.
b. The atomic radius increases going across a period
d. 12 e.
6 C C
from left to right.
c. The atomic radius is unrelated to its position in the
periodic table.
2. What is the maximum number of electrons allowed d. The atomic radius increases going up a group.
in the third electron shell of an atom? e. The atomic radius decreases going across a period
a. 18 c. 32 b. 8 d. 2 e. 64 from left to right.
3. The effective nuclear charge is 7. Which statement about ionization energy is true?
a. equal to the sum of the charges of the protons in a. The first ionization energy is greater than the
the nucleus second, third, or fourth ionization energy.
b. equal to the sum of the charges of the protons in b. The ionization energy is the same for atoms of all
the nucleus minus the sum of the electrons in the elements in the same group.
outer shell c. For elements in a given period, the ionization
c. less than the sum of the charges of the protons in energy is greatest for atoms of the element with
the nucleus due to shielding by the electrons in the a filled outer electron shell.
outer shell d. Ionization energy decreases going across a group
d. less than the sum of the charges of the protons in from left to right.
the nucleus due to shielding by the electrons in the e. The ionization energy is greatest for atoms of
lower, filled shells elements that have only one electron in the
e. greater than the sum of the charges on the protons valence shell of their atoms.
in the nucleus 8. Which statement about electronegativity is true?
4. Isotopes are a. Electronegativity is the energy change that occurs
a. atoms with the same number of neutrons but when an electron is added to an atom.
different numbers of protons b. Electronegativity is an indicator of the degree to which
b. atoms with the same number of protons but the nucleus of an atom attracts shared electrons.
different numbers of neutrons c. The electronegativity of atoms decreases going from
c. atoms with the same sum of neutrons plus protons left to right across a period.
but different numbers of neutrons and of protons d. The electronegativity of atoms increases going down
d. atoms with the same number of protons and a group.
electrons e. The electronegativity of a noble gas is greater than
e. atoms with the same number of neutrons and the electronegativity of the halogen that is in the
electrons same period.
5. Radioisotopes are unstable because Answer the questions below.
a. there is an equal number of protons and neutrons 9. Explain what is incorrect about each of the following
in the nucleus Lewis diagrams. Draw the correct Lewis diagram for
b. the attractive nuclear forces among the neutrons each element.
and protons are too small to balance the repulsive a. b. c.
forces among the protons
c. the number of neutrons is greater than the number Si B Na
of protons

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 45

Chapter 1 REVIEW

10. Describe how Mendeleev used cards, each having the 20. Without looking up the electronegativities of the
name and properties of an element, to develop his elements shown in the periodic table below, answer the
periodic table. following questions.
11. Explain what periodicity is as it applies to the elements. a. Which of the four elements shown has the highest
That is, how are they periodic? electronegativity?
12. How do chemists describe the atomic radius of an b. Which of the four elements shown has the lowest
atom? Why is it not the same as the radius of a circular electronegativity?
object such as a coin, or the distance from the centre to c. Explain how you were able to answer parts a. and b.
the outer edge of the object?
13. Explain the difference between electronegativity and
electron affinity. Mg S

14. Sketch the following diagram of a periodic table.

Outline and label the main-group, transition, and inner
transition elements with a coloured pen or pencil.
With a different-coloured pen or pencil, outline and Ra Po
label the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens,
noble gases, lanthanoids, and actinoids. 21. The table below is an excerpt from the periodic table,
drawn in the modern form. The columns represent
groups, and the rows represent periods. The only data
in each cell are the chemical symbol and the average
atomic weight. The cell with a question mark should
contain data for one of the elements that was missing
from Mendeleev’s periodic table. Three other cells
contain data for titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), and
tantalum (Ta). Titanium is lustrous, conducts electric
current, and is ductile. Zirconium is malleable, ductile,
and lustrous. Tantalum is strong and very ductile, and
15. Write the general chemical equation that defines the conducts electric current. Predict the properties and
second ionization energy. the approximate atomic mass of the missing element.
16. If the electron affinity of an element is negative, what
does this mean about the resulting ion? Ti
47.88
17. What metalloids are in Period 5?

Thinking and Investigation Zr

91.22
18. Nuclear reactors create highly unstable, or radioactive,
waste. This waste is formed when uranium nuclei Ta
in the fuel fission, or split, into smaller nuclei. For ?
180.9
example, a uranium-235 ( 235 92U) nucleus might split
95
into a strontium-95 ( 38Sr) nucleus and a xenon-137 22. When an alkali metal loses an electron and becomes
( 137
54Xe) nucleus. Why are strontium-95 and xenon-137 a positively charged ion, its atomic radius decreases
nuclei unstable? Why do you think that any two dramatically. For example, the radius of a potassium
smaller nuclei that are produced when a uranium-235 atom, K, is 2.27 × 10-10 m. The radius of a potassium
nucleus splits will be unstable? Hint: Study Table 1.2. ion, K+, is 1.38 × 10-10 m. Think about the electron
19. Antimony has two commonly occurring isotopes: configuration of the alkali metals, and suggest a reason for
antimony-121 and antimony-123. Antimony-121 has this significant difference in the atomic radius of a neutral
a mass of 120.9038 u, and its isotopic abundance is atom and the atomic radius of its positively charged ion.
57.30%. Antimony-123 has a mass of 122.9042 u, and
its isotopic abundance is 42.70%. What is the average
atomic mass of antimony?

46 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

23. What characteristic of the electron configuration of 32. Prepare an oral presentation for chemistry class in
halogens explains their large negative electron affinities? which you discuss some advantages of using a Lewis
24. Draw a graph of electronegativity versus atomic diagram rather than another type of diagram such as
number, using the values in the periodic table in a Bohr-Rutherford diagram or a chemical symbol.
Figure 1.22 on page 36. Connect the points for the 33. Use a diagram to explain how chemists measure the
elements of each period with a different-coloured radius of an atom in a solid material, such as a metal.
pencil or pen. Examine the graph and answer the 34. Make a table with the headings Property, Trend Going
following questions. Down a Group, and Trend Going Across a Period.
a. Describe any forms of periodicity that you observe. Under Property, list Atomic Radius, Ionization Energy,
b. Describe the trends that you observe within any Electron Affinity, and Electronegativity. Fill in the
given period. table by indicating whether the trend is increasing
c. Describe the trends that you observe within any or decreasing. For each property, write a discussion
given group. about the factors that affect that property and why the
d. Explain the reasons for the trends based on the property follows the trend in your table.
properties of the elements. 35. Summarize your learning in this chapter using
a graphic organizer. To help you, the Chapter 1
Communication
Summary lists the Key Terms and Key Concepts. Refer
25. Describe the connection between the radius that to Using Graphic Organizers in Appendix A to help
Bohr calculated for electrons around the nucleus of a you decide which graphic organizer to use.
hydrogen atom and the electron cloud that represents
the solution to the Schrödinger wave equation. Application
26. Every element has predictable chemical 36. The alkali metals are banned from many classrooms.
and physical properties determined by Based on their properties, explain why they are banned.
its electron configuration. Choose an element from 37. When iodine is taken into the body, it accumulates in
Group 1, Group 2, or Group 17. Draw the the thyroid gland. There, it is used in the synthesis of
Bohr-Rutherford diagram for that element and use thyroid hormone. Iodine-131 is a radioactive isotope
it as the centre of a spider map with at least four or of iodine that is sometimes used to treat an overactive
more legs. For each leg, state a characteristic of that thyroid. Radioactive substances are usually considered
element and relate that characteristic to the electron to be dangerous because they damage tissues. Provide
configuration of the element. a possible reason why this dangerous substance is used
27. Use labelled diagrams to explain how the Bohr model for medical purposes.
of the atom improved on the model that Rutherford 38. Explain why gold can be used in jewellery, in crowns
had developed. What new information did Bohr for teeth, and also as a conductor in electronic devices.
discover that had not been available to Rutherford? 39. Breathing a halogen, such as chlorine or bromine
28. Write an e-mail to a classmate who is studying for vapour, can seriously harm the nose, throat, and lungs.
an exam, explaining how one isotope of magnesium In contrast, breathing small amounts of a noble gas is
differs from another isotope of magnesium. How are not harmful. You might have heard someone talk after
the isotopes the same? breathing helium. Why do you think breathing
29. Draw a concept map to explain the meaning of a halogen is harmful, whereas breathing a noble gas
“effective nuclear charge.” Is the effective nuclear is not?
charge of an atom larger or smaller than the actual 40. Imagine that you want to pursue a career in computer
nuclear charge? How does the effective nuclear charge electronics so you can work with a team that is
influence the size of an atom? developing smaller and more efficient microchips.
30. Use an example to show the difference between a Why would it be important for you to have a strong
simple average and a weighted average. background in chemistry?
31. State the periodic law, and, using a flowchart, describe
the observations that led to its development.

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 47

Chapter 1 SELFASSESSMENT

Select the letter of the best answer below. 7. K/U Which of the following pairs of properties of

1. K/U The atomic masses for the elements as reported atoms influences the atomic radius of an atom?
in the periodic table are called relative atomic masses a. the number of occupied electron shells and the size
because of the nucleus
a. the masses of different isotopes are different b. the number of electrons in the valence shell and the
b. they are reported as relative to the mass of charge in the nucleus
carbon-12 c. the number of neutrons in the nucleus and the
c. the reported mass is an average of the masses of the number of occupied electron shells
isotopes d. the charge in the nucleus and the number of filled
d. they are reported as relative to the mass of electron shells
hydrogen-1 e. the charge in the nucleus and the number of
e. they are reported as relative to the atomic number occupied electron shells
2. K/U In which electron shell is 32 the maximum 8. K/U Which statement about ionization energy is

number of electrons allowed? false?

a. first a. Ionization energy is the amount of energy required
b. second to remove the outermost electron from an atom or
c. third ion in the gaseous state.
d. fourth b. The ionization energies of Group 1 elements are
greater than the ionization energies of the elements
e. fifth
in any other group.
3. K/U How many neutrons does the isotope 86 36Kr have?
c. The second ionization energy of a given element is
a. 122
larger than the first ionization energy.
b. 36
d. The ionization energies of Group 18 elements are
c. 40
greater than the ionization energies of the elements
d. 50 in any other group.
e. 86 e. Within a period, the ionization energy is largest for
4. K/U Elements in Group 2 are called atoms or ions that have a filled outer shell.
a. noble gases 9. K/U Which of the following statements about
b. alkaline earth elements non-metals is false?
c. rare earth elements a. Group 15 elements are all non-metals.
d. halogens b. The halogens are non-metals.
e. alkali elements c. The most common elements in living tissues are
5. K/U The actinoids and lanthanoids together make up non-metals.
a. inner transition elements d. Non-metals are on the right end of the periodic
b. alkali elements table.
c. transition elements e. There are fewer non-metals than there are metals.
d. halogens 10. K/U Of the properties listed below, which one is
e. main-group elements most important in determining the electronegativity
6. K/U A negative value of electron affinity indicates of an atom?
that when an electron is added to the neutral atom a. the number of neutrons in the nucleus
a. the resulting ion is unstable b. the size of the atom with which it is sharing an
b. the resulting ion is positively charged electron
c. the original atom was unstable c. the number of electrons in its valence shell
d. the resulting ion is stable d. its atomic number
e. the original atom was missing an electron e. its atomic radius

48 MHR • Unit 1 Matter, Chemical Trends, and Chemical Bonding

Use sentences and diagrams as appropriate to answer the 18. K/U State the periodic law and explain how it is
questions below. applied in the design of the periodic table.
11. K/U Explain the meaning of isotopic abundance and 19. A Chlorine is typically used to disinfect water in
explain how it affects the value of the relative atomic swimming pools. Bromine is often used to disinfect
mass of an element. water in hot tubs. Explain this difference in halogen use.
12. K/U What is the current, most accurate model of the 20. K/U Explain why Period 4 is longer than Periods 1, 2,
atom and why is it not convenient to use? and 3.
13. T/I The isotopic abundance of europium-151 is 21. K/U How do chemists define atomic radius?
47.80% and its mass is 150.92 u. The isotopic 22. T/I Two main-group elements, X and Y, are in the
abundance of europium-153 is 52.20% and its mass same period. If X has a smaller atomic radius than Y, is
is 152.92 u. What is the average atomic mass of X to the left or right of Y in the periodic table? Explain
europium? how you made your decision.
14. C Identify the electron pairs and the unpaired 23. T/I Atoms of Group 1 elements have the lowest first
electrons in the diagram below. Explain how the role of ionization energy of all of the elements but have a
unpaired electrons differs from the role of electron larger increase between the first ionization energy and
pairs in the behaviour of an atom. the second ionization energy than other elements have.
Explain why this is the case, based on the electronic
F structure of the neutral atoms and of the ions formed
after the first electron is removed.
24. K/U Name the group in the periodic table that has
15. A Predict the most reactive element in the the largest negative electron affinities. Describe the
periodic table, and explain your choice. electronic structure of the atoms of elements in this
16. T/I Silver has two commonly occurring isotopes, group. Explain why these atoms have such large
silver-107 with an atomic mass of 106.91 u and negative electron affinities.
silver-109 with an atomic mass of 108.90 u. The 25. C Using a sketch, describe the trends in
average atomic mass of silver as reported in the electronegativity going down a group and going from
periodic table is 107.87 u. What can you infer about left to right across a period.
the isotopic abundances of silver-107 and silver-109
from these data? Ionization Energy and Atomic Radius
versus Atomic Number
17. T/I Study the graph on the right in which both
atomic radius
First Ionization Energy (× 10-18 J)

4 200

Atomic Radius (× 10-12 m)

ionization energy and atomic radius are plotted against ionization energy
175
atomic number. Based on the graph, answer the
3 150
following questions.
125
a. What trends do you see in ionization energy? 2 100
b. What trends do you see in atomic radius? 75
c. Describe the general relationship between the two 1 50
graphs. 25

d. Provide an explanation for the relationship that you 0 0

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
described in part c. Atomic Number

Self-Check
If you 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
missed
question …
Review 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3
section(s)…

Chapter 1 Elements and the Periodic Table • MHR 49