Chapter 9 Database Approach

Database Management Systems

Objectives for Chapter 9

 Problems inherent in the flat file approach to data management
that gave rise to the database concept
 Relationships among the defining elements of the database
environment
 Anomalies caused by unnormalized databases and the need for
data normalization
 Stages in database design: entity identification, data modeling,
constructing the physical database, and preparing user views  Solves the following problems of the flat file approach
 Features of distributed databases and issues to consider in  no data redundancy - except for primary keys, data is
deciding on a particular database configuration only stored once
 single update
Flat-File Versus Database Environments  current values
 Computer processing involves two components: data and  task-data independence - users have access to the full
instructions (programs) domain of data available to the firm
 Conceptually, there are two methods for designing the interface  A database is a set of computer files that minimizes data
between program instructions and data: redundancy and is accessed by one or more application
 File-oriented processing: A specific data file was created programs for data processing.
for each application  The database approach to data storage applies whenever a
 Data-oriented processing: Create a single data database is established to serve two or more applications,
repository to support numerous applications. organizational units, or types of users.
 Disadvantages of file-oriented processing include redundant  A database management system (DBMS) is a computer
data and programs and varying formats for storing the program that enables users to create, modify, and utilize
redundant data. database information efficiently.

Flat-File Environment Advantages of the Database Approach

Data sharing/centralize database resolves flat-file problems:
 No data redundancy: Data is stored only once, eliminating data
redundancy and reducing storage costs.
 Single update: Because data is in only one place, it requires
only a single update, reducing the time and cost of keeping the
database current.
 Current values: A change to the database made by any user
yields current data values for all other users.
 Task-data independence: As users’ information needs expand,
the new needs can be more easily satisfied than under the flat-
file approach.

Disadvantages of the Database Approach

 Can be costly to implement
 additional hardware, software, storage, and network
resources are required
 Users access data via computer programs that process the data  Can only run in certain operating environments
and present information to the users.  may make it unsuitable for some system configurations
 Users own their data files.  Because it is so different from the file-
 Data redundancy results as multiple applications maintain the oriented approach, the database approach
same data elements. requires training users
 Files and data elements used in more than one application must  may be inertia or resistance
be duplicated, which results in data redundancy.
 As a result of redundancy, the characteristics of data elements Elements of the Database Environment
and their values are likely to be inconsistent.
 Outputs usually consist of preprogrammed reports instead of ad-
hoc queries provided upon request. This results in
inaccessibility of data.
 Changes to current file-oriented applications cannot be made
easily, nor can new developments be quickly realized, which
results in inflexibility.

Data Redundancy and Flat-File Problems

 Data Storage - creates excessive storage costs of paper
documents and/or magnetic form
 Data Updating - any changes or additions must be performed
multiple times
 Currency of Information - potential problem of failing to update
all affected files
 Task-Data Dependency - user’s inability to obtain additional
information as his or her needs change
Internal Controls and DBMS
 The database management system (DBMS) stands between
the user and the database per se.
 Thus, commercial DBMS’s (e.g., Access or Oracle) actually
consist of a database plus…
 Plus software to manage the database, especially
controlling access and other internal controls
 Plus software to generate reports, create data-entry
forms, etc.
 The DBMS has special software to know which data elements
each user is authorized to access and deny unauthorized
requests of data.

DBMS Features
 Program Development - user created applications
 Backup and Recovery - copies database
 Database Usage Reporting - captures statistics on database
usage (who, when, etc.)
 Database Access - authorizes access to sections of the
database
 Also…
 User Programs - makes the presence of the DBMS
transparent to the user
 Direct Query - allows authorized users to access data
without programming

Data Definition Language (DDL)

 DDL is a programming language used to define the database
per se.
 It identifies the names and the relationship of all data
elements, records, and files that constitute the database.
 DDL defines the database on three viewing levels
 Internal view – physical arrangement of records (1
view) Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Conceptual view (schema) – representation of  DML is the proprietary programming language that a particular
database (1 view) DBMS uses to retrieve, process, and store data to / from the
 User view (subschema) – the portion of the database database.
each user views (many views)  Entire user programs may be written in the DML, or selected
DML commands can be inserted into universal programs, such
as COBOL and FORTRAN.
 Can be used to ‘patch’ third party applications to the DBMS

Query Language
 The query capability permits end users and professional
programmers to access data in the database without the need
for conventional programs.
 Can be an internal control issue since users may be
making an ‘end run’ around the controls built into the
conventional programs
 IBM’s structured query language (SQL) is a fourth-generation
language that has emerged as the standard query language.
 Adopted by ANSI as the standard language for all
relational databases

Functions of the DBA

 are associated with a single occurrence in a related table
 Used to determine primary keys and foreign keys

Database Conceptual Models

 Refers to the particular method used to organize records in a
database
 A.k.a. “logical data structures”
 Objective: develop the database efficiently so that data can be
accessed quickly and easily
 There are three main models:
 hierarchical (tree structure)
 network
 relational
 Most existing databases are relational. Some legacy systems
use hierarchical or network databases.
Properly Designed Relational Tables
The Relational Model  Each row in the table must be unique in at least one attribute,
 The relational model portrays data in the form of two which is the primary key.
dimensional ‘tables’.  Tables are linked by embedding the primary key into the
 Its strength is the ease with which tables may be linked to one related table as a foreign key.
another.  The attribute values in any column must all be of the same class
 A major weakness of hierarchical and network or data type.
databases  Each column in a given table must be uniquely named.
 Relational model is based on the relational algebra functions of  Tables must conform to the rules of normalization, i.e., free from
restrict, project, and join. structural dependencies or anomalies.

Three Types of Anomalies

 Insertion Anomaly: A new item cannot be added to the table
until at least one entity uses a particular attribute item.
 Deletion Anomaly: If an attribute item used by only one entity
is deleted, all information about that attribute item is lost.
 Update Anomaly: A modification on an attribute must be made
in each of the rows in which the attribute appears.
 Anomalies can be corrected by creating additional relational
tables.

Advantages of Relational Tables

 Removes all three types of anomalies
 Various items of interest (customers, inventory, sales) are
stored in separate tables.
 Space is used efficiently.
 Very flexible – users can form ad hoc relationships

The Normalization Process

 A process which systematically splits unnormalized complex
tables into smaller tables that meet two conditions:
 all nonkey (secondary) attributes in the table are
Associations and Cardinality dependent on the primary key
 Association – the labeled line connecting two entities or tables  all nonkey attributes are independent of the other
in a data model nonkey attributes
 Describes the nature of the between them  When unnormalized tables are split and reduced to third normal
 Represented with a verb, such as ships, requests, or form, they must then be linked together by foreign keys.
receives
 Cardinality – the degree of association between two entities
 The number of possible occurrences in one table that
 processing units (IPUs) distributed throughout the organization.
 Each IPU is placed under the control of the end user.
 DDP does not always mean total decentralization.
 IPUs in a DDP system are still connected to one
another and coordinated.
 Typically, DDP’s use a centralized database.
 Alternatively, the database can be distributed, similar to
the distribution of the data processing capability.
 Decentralization does not attempt to integrate the parts into a
logical whole unit.

Centralized Databases in DDP Environment

 The data is retained in a central location.
Accountants and Data Normalization  Remote IPUs send requests for data.
 Update anomalies can generate conflicting and obsolete  Central site services the needs of the remote IPUs.
database values.  The actual processing of the data is performed at the remote
 Insertion anomalies can result in unrecorded transactions and IPU.
incomplete audit trails.
 Deletion anomalies can cause the loss of accounting records Advantages of DDP
and the destruction of audit trails.  Cost reductions in hardware and data entry tasks
 Accountants should understand the data normalization process  Improved cost control responsibility
and be able to determine whether a database is properly  Improved user satisfaction since control is closer to the user
normalized. level
 Backup of data can be improved through the use of multiple
data storage sites

Six Phases in Designing Relational Databases Disadvantages of DDP

1. Identify entities  Loss of control
 identify the primary entities of the organization  Mismanagement of resources
 construct a data model of their relationships  Hardware and software incompatibility
2. Construct a data model showing entity associations  Redundant tasks and data
 determine the associations between entities  Consolidating incompatible tasks
 model associations into an ER diagram  Difficulty attracting qualified personnel
3. Add primary keys and attributes  Lack of standards
 assign primary keys to all entities in the model to
uniquely identify records Data Currency
 every attribute should appear in one or more user views  Occurs in DDP with a centralized database
4. Normalize and add foreign keys  During transaction processing, data will temporarily be
 remove repeating groups, partial and transitive inconsistent as records are read and updated.
dependencies  Database lockout procedures are necessary to keep IPUs from
 assign foreign keys to be able to link tables reading inconsistent data and from writing over a transaction
5. Construct the physical database being written by another IPU.
 create physical tables
 populate tables with data Distributed Databases: Partitioning
6. Prepare the user views  Splits the central database into segments that are distributed to
 normalized tables should support all required views of their primary users
system users  Advantages:
 user views restrict users from have access to  users’ control is increased by having data stored at local
unauthorized data sites
 transaction processing response time is improved
Distributed Data Processing (DDP)  volume of transmitted data between IPUs is reduced
 Data processing is organized around several information  reduces the potential data loss from a disaster
The Deadlock Phenomenon
 Especially a problem with partitioned databases
 Occurs when multiple sites lock each other out of data that they
are currently using
 One site needs data locked by another site.
 Special software is needed to analyze and resolve conflicts.
 Transactions may be terminated and restarted.

Distributed Databases: Replication

 The duplication of the entire database for multiple IPUs
 Effective for situations with a high degree of data sharing, but
no primary user
 Supports read-only queries
 Data traffic between sites is reduced considerably.

Concurrency Problems and Control Issues

 Database concurrency is the presence of complete and
accurate data at all IPU sites.
 With replicated databases, maintaining current data at all
locations is difficult.
 Time stamping is used to serialize transactions.
 Prevents and resolves conflicts created by updating
data at various IPUs

Distributed Databases and the Accountant

 The following database options impact the organization’s ability
to maintain database integrity, to preserve audit trails, and to
have accurate accounting records.
 Centralized or distributed data?
 If distributed, replicated or partitioned?
 If replicated, totally or partially replication?
 If partitioned, what allocation of the data segments
among the sites?