13.

1 INTRODUCTION

Signal generators provide a variety of waveforms for testing of electronic circuits at low
power levels. There are various types of signal generators, but the following
characteristics are common to all types:
1. Always a stable generator with desired frequency signals should be generated.
2. Generated signal amplitude should be regulated over a wide range from very small
to relatively large level.
3. Generated signal should be free from any distortions.
There are many variations of the above requirements, especially for specialised signal
generators such as function generators, pulse generators and pulse frequency generators.
Sine wave generators, both in audio and radio frequency ranges are called oscillators.
Although, the terminology is not universal, the term oscillator is generally used for an
instrument that provides only a sinusoidal output signal. The term function generator is
applied to an instrument that provides several output waveforms, including sine wave,
square wave, triangular wave and pulse trains as well as amplitude modulation of the
output signal.

13.2 OSCILLATORS

Oscillator is the basic element of ac signal sources and generates sinusoidal signals of
known frequency and amplitude. The main applications of oscillators are as sinusoidal
waveform sources in electronic measurement work. Oscillators can generate a wide range
of frequencies (few Hz to many GHz) as per the requirement of the application. Although
an oscillator can be considered as generating sinusoidal signal, it is to be noted that it
merely acts as an energy converter. It converts a dc source of supply to alternating current
of desired frequency.
Oscillators are generally an amplifier with positive feedback. An oscillator has a gain
equal to or slightly greater than unity. In the feedback path of the oscillator, capacitor,
inductor or both are used as reactive components. In addition to these reactive
components, an operational amplifier or bipolar transistor is used as amplifying device.
No external ac input is required to cause the oscillator to work as the dc supply energy is
converted by the oscillator into ac energy.
Oscillators may be classified in a number of ways. Here they are classified on three
bases: (a) the design principle used, (b) the frequency range over which they are used, and
(c) the nature of generated signals.
1. Classification According to Design Principle
(a) Positive feedback oscillators (b) Negative feedback oscillators
2. Classification According to Frequency Band of the Signals
(a) Audio Frequency (AF) oscillators—frequency rage is 20 Hz to 20 kHz
(b) Radio Frequency (RF) oscillators—frequency range is 20 kHz to 30 MHz
(c) Video Frequency oscillators—frequency range is dc to 5 MHz
(d) High Frequency (HF) oscillators—frequency range is 1.5 MHz to 30 MHz
(e) Very High Frequency (VHF) oscillators—frequency range is 30 MHz to 300
MHz
3. Classification According to Types of Generated Signals
(a) Sinusoidal Oscillators These are known as harmonic oscillators and are generally LC
tuned-feedback or RC tuned-feedback type oscillator that generates a sinusoidal waveform
which is of constant amplitude and frequency.
(b) Non-sinusoidal Oscillators These are known as relaxation oscillators and generate
complex non-sinusoidal waveforms that changes very quickly from one condition of
stability to another such as square-wave, triangular-wave or sawtooth-wave-type
waveforms.
13.2.1 Feedback Circuit Employed in Oscillators
It is the use of positive feedback that results in a feedback amplifier having closed-loop
gain Af greater than unity and satisfies the phase condition.
In a system assuming, Vin and Vout as the input and output voltages respectively.
Without feedback or open-loop gain,

Taking the forward path gain of the system as A and β as feedback factor
With feedback, the output voltage of the system,
Figure 13.1 Basic feedback circuit employed in oscillators

Oscillators generate a continuous voltage output waveform at a required frequency with

the values of the inductors, capacitors or resistors forming a frequency selective LC
resonant (or tank) feedback network. The oscillator frequency is regulated using a tuned or
resonant inductive/capacitive circuit with the resulting output frequency being known as
the oscillation frequency. So, the feedback path of the oscillator is made reactive. The
phase angle of the feedback will vary as a function of frequency and this is called phase
shift. Certain conditions are required to fulfill for sustained oscillations and these
conditions are that (a) the loop gain of the circuit must be equal to or greater than unity,
and (b) the phase shift around the circuit must be zero. These two conditions for sustained
oscillations are called Barkhausen criteria.
13.2.2 Resonance
If a constant voltage with varying frequency is impressed to a circuit consisting of an
inductor, capacitor and resistor, then the reactance of both the capacitor-resistor (RC) and
inductor-resistor (RL) paths are to change both in amplitude and in phase of the output
signal as compared to the input signal. At high frequencies the reactance of a capacitor is
very low and it acts as a short circuit while the reactance of the inductor is high and it acts
as an open circuit. At low frequencies, the reverse is true, meaning the reactance of the
capacitor acts as an open circuit and the reactance of the inductor acts as a short circuit.
Between these two boundaries, the combination of the inductor and capacitor produces a
tuned or resonant circuit that has a resonant frequency (fr) in which the capacitive and
inductive reactances are equal and cancel out each other, leaving only the resistance of the
circuit to oppose the flow of current and as a result of that, there is no phase shift as the
current is in phase with the voltage. Based on this concept subsequent sections of the
chapter are explained.
13.2.3 Basic LC Oscillatory Circuit
As shown in Figure 13.2, the circuit consists of an inductive coil L and a capacitor C. The
capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field and which produces a potential
or static voltage across it, while the inductive coil stores its energy in the form of a
magnetic field. The capacitor is charged up to the dc supply voltage V by putting the
switch in the position A. When the capacitor is fully charged, the switch is thrown to the
position B and the charged capacitor is now connected in parallel across the inductive coil
so the capacitor begins to discharge itself through the coil. The voltage across C starts
falling as the coil. The voltage across C starts falling as the current through the coil begins
to rise. This rising current sets up an electromagnetic field around the coil and when C is
completely discharged, the energy that was originally stored in the capacitor C as an
electrostatic field is now stored in the inductive coil L as an electromagnetic field around
the coil windings. As there is now no external voltage in the circuit to maintain the current
within the coil, it starts to fall as the electromagnetic field begins to collapse. A back emf
is induced in the coil (e = −Ldi/dt) keeping the current flowing in the original direction.
This current now charges the capacitor C with the opposite polarity to its original charge.
C continues to charge until the current has fallen to zero and the electromagnetic field of
the coil has collapsed completely. The energy originally introduced into the circuit through
the switch has been returned to the capacitor which again has an electrostatic potential
across it, although it is now of the opposite polarity. The capacitor now starts to discharge
again back through the coil and the whole process is repeated, with the polarities changed
and continues as the energy is passed back and forth producing an ac type sinusoidal
voltage and current waveform.

Figure 13.2 Basic LC oscillator circuit

This oscillatory action of transferring energy from the capacitor C to the inductor, L and
vice versa, would continue indefinitely if there is no loss of energy in the circuit. But,
energy is lost in the resistance of the inductor coil, in the dielectric of the capacitor, and in
radiation from the circuit; so the oscillation steadily decreases until it dies away
completely. Then in a practical LC circuit, the amplitude of the oscillatory voltage
decreases at each half cycle of oscillation and will eventually die away to zero. The
oscillations are then said to be damped. The quality factor of the circuit sets the amount of
damping. In Figure 13.3, damped oscillations are shown in both the cases, with small R
and with large R.
The frequency of the oscillatory voltage depends upon the value of the inductance and
capacitance in the LC circuit. We know when resonance has to occur, both the capacitive
XC and inductive XL reactances must be equal and opposite to cancel out each other. As a
result, the resistance in the circuit remains to oppose the flow of current. Then the
frequency at which this will happen is given as

Resonant frequency in a tuned LC circuit, the output frequency,

To maintain the oscillations keeping the amplitude at a constant level, in an LC circuit,
it is required to replace the energy lost in each oscillation. The amount of energy replaced
must be equal to that lost during each cycle. Alternatively, if the amount of energy
replaced is too small, the amplitude would decrease to zero over time. The simplest way of
replacing this energy is to take part of the output from the LC circuit, amplify it and then
feed it back into the LC circuit again and this can be achieved using a voltage amplifier. To
produce a constant oscillation, the level of the energy fed back to the LC network must be
accurately controlled. Then there must be some form of automatic amplitude or gain
control when the amplitude tries to vary from a reference voltage either up or down. To
maintain a stable oscillation the overall gain of the circuit must be equal to 1 or unity. Any
less and the oscillations will not start or die away to zero, any more the oscillations will
occur but the amplitude will become clipped by the supply rails causing distortion. A
circuit containing this feature is considered in the next section.

Figure 13.3 Damped oscillations

13.2.4 Basic Transistor LC Oscillator Circuit

A BJT is used as the oscillator amplifier and the tuned LC circuit acts as the collector load
as shown in Figure 13.4. A second coil L2 is connected between the base and emitter.
Electromagnetic field of L2 is mutually coupled with that of the coil L. Mutual inductance
exists between two circuits. The changing current in one circuit induces by
electromagnetic induction a potential in the other due to transformer action. So as the
oscillations take place in the tuned circuit, electromagnetic energy is transferred from the
coil L to the coil L2 and a voltage of the same frequency as that in the tuned circuit is
applied between the base and emitter of the transistor. In this way, the necessary automatic
feedback voltage is obtained. The amount of feedback can be varied by changing the
coupling between coils L and L2. When the circuit is oscillating, its impedance is resistive
and the collector and base voltages are 180° out of phase. In order to maintain oscillations,
the voltage applied to the tuned circuit must be in-phase with the oscillations occurring in
the tuned circuit. So, it is necessary to introduce an additional 180° phase shift into the
feedback path between the collector and base. This is done by winding the coil of L2 in the
correct direction relative to the coil L giving us the correct amplitude and phase
relationships for the oscillator circuit or by introducing a phase shift network between the
output and input of the amplifier.

Figure 13.4 Basic transistor LC oscillator

 LC oscillators are actually sinusoidal oscillators or harmonic oscillators that can
generate high-frequency sine waves for use in Radio Frequency (RF) Type applications
with the transistor amplifier being a BJT or FET. There are different ways to construct LC
filter networks and amplifiers. As a result, harmonic oscillators come in different forms
and the most common forms are Hartley LC oscillator, Colpitts LC oscillator, Armstrong
oscillator, Clapp oscillator, etc.
13.2.5 Oscillator Summary
A few basic requirements for an oscillatory circuit are given as follows:
1. The circuit should contain a reactive or frequency dependent component—either an
Inductor (L) or a Capacitor (C) and a dc supply voltage.
2. Overall gain of the amplifier circuit must be at least unity.
3. Self-regenerative or positive feedback results oscillations.
4. Oscillations of the circuit become damped due to circuit losses.
5. To overcome these circuit losses, voltage amplification is necessary.
6. Desired oscillations can be maintained by using some part of the output voltage as
feedback to the tuned circuit that is of the correct amplitude and in-phase (0°).
7. To keep the output signal in phase with the input, the overall phase shift of the
circuit must be zero.

13.3 HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

The basic LC oscillator circuit does not have the option of controlling the amplitude of the
oscillations. A weak electromagnetic coupling between L and L2 results in insufficient
feedback and the oscillations would eventually die away to zero. Similarly, a strong
feedback causes the oscillations to increase in amplitude until they are limited by the
circuit conditions producing distortion. It is possible to feed back exactly the right amount
of voltage for constant amplitude oscillations. If the feedback is more than what is
necessary, the amplitude of the oscillations can be controlled by biasing the amplifier in
such a way that if the oscillations increase in amplitude, the bias is increased and the gain
of the amplifier is reduced. If the amplitude of the oscillations decreases, the bias
decreases and the gain of the amplifier increases, thus, increasing the feedback. This is the
method to keep oscillations constant and it is known as automatic base bias. Efficient
oscillator can be implemented by employing a class-B or even class-C bias as the collector
current flows during only part of the cycle and the quiescent collector current is very
small. Then this self-tuning base oscillator circuit forms the basic configuration for the
Hartley oscillator circuit.
In the Hartley oscillator, the tuned LC circuit is connected between the collector and the
base of the transistor amplifier and as far as the oscillatory voltage is concerned, the
emitter is connected to a tapping point on the tuned circuit coil. A Hartley oscillator can be
implemented from any configuration that uses either a single-tapped coil or a pair of
series-connected coils in parallel with a single capacitor.
13.3.1 Basic Hartley Oscillator Circuit
Figure 13.5 shows the basic Hartley oscillator circuit. During oscillation, the voltage at the
point X (collector), relative to the point Y (emitter), is 180° out-of-phase with the voltage
at the point Z (base) relative to the point Y. At the frequency of oscillation, the impedance
of the collector load is resistive and an increase in base voltage causes a decrease in the
collector voltage. Then there is a 180° phase change in the voltage between the base and
collector and this along with the original 180° phase shift in the feedback loop provides
the correct phase relationship of positive feedback for oscillations to be maintained. The
position of tapping point of the inductor sets the amount of feedback. If it is moved nearer
to the collector, the amount of feedback is increased, but the output taken between the
collector and ground is reduced and vice versa. Resistors R1 and R2 are there for the usual
stabilising dc bias for the transistor in the normal manner while the capacitors act as dc-
blocking capacitors. In this circuit, the dc collector current flows through a part of the coil
and for this reason, the circuit is said to be series-fed with the frequency of oscillation of
the Hartley oscillator being given as

where, L = L1 + L2.
Note: L is the total inductance if two separate coils are used.

Figure 13.5 Basic Hartley oscillator

The frequency of oscillations can be adjusted by varying the tuning capacitor C or by

varying the tap position of the inductive coil, giving an output over a wide range of
frequencies making it very easy to tune. In the series-fed Hartley oscillator, it is also
possible to connect the tuned tank circuit across the amplifier as a shunt-fed oscillator
discussed as follows.
13.3.2 Shunt-fed Hartley Oscillator Circuit
As shown in Figure 13.6, in the shunt-fed Hartley oscillator, both the ac and dc
components of the collector current have separate paths around the circuit. Here, a very
small amount of power is wasted in the tuned circuit. Since the dc component is blocked
by the capacitor C2, no dc component flows through the inductive coil, L. The Radio
Frequency Coil (RFC) L2 is an RF choke which offers a high reactance at the frequency of
oscillations so that most of the RF current is applied to the LC tuning tank circuit via the
capacitor, C2 as the dc component passes through L2 to the power supply. A resistor could
be used in place of the RFC coil but the efficiency would be less.

Figure 13.6 Shunt-fed Hartley oscillator

One Hartley oscillator circuit has two inductors of 0.5 mH

Example 13.1 and each is tuned to resonate with a capacitor which can be
varied from 100 pF to 500 pF. Determine the upper and
lower frequencies of oscillation and the oscillator
bandwidth.
Solution The circuit consists of two inductive coils in series.
The total inductance is given as:

Upper frequency,

Lower frequency,

Oscillator bandwidth

13.4 COLPITTS OSCILLATORS

The Colpitts oscillator is somewhat opposite to the Hartley oscillator as the centre tapping
is made from capacitive voltage divider network instead of tapped inductive coil as shown
in Figure 13.7. Similar to the Hartley oscillator, the tuned tank circuit consists of an LC
resonance circuit connected between the collector and base of the transistor amplifier.

Figure 13.7 Basic Colpitts oscillator circuit

The emitter of the transistor amplifier is connected to the junction of capacitors C1 and
C2 which are connected in series with the required external phase shift obtained in a
similar manner to that in the Hartley oscillator. The amount of feedback is controlled by
the ratio of C1 and C2 which are generally ganged together to provide a constant amount
of feedback. Once again, the frequency of oscillations for a Colpitts oscillator is
determined by the resonant frequency of the LC tank circuit and is given as

where CT is the capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series and is given as.

A common emitter-amplifier configuration is employed here, with the output signal

180° out of phase with respect to the input signal. The two capacitors are connected
together in series but in parallel with the inductive coil resulting in overall phase shift of
the circuit being zero. Resistors R1 and R2 are used for the usual stabilising dc bias for the
transistor in the normal manner while the capacitor acts as dc-blocking capacitors.

One Colpitts oscillator circuit has two capacitors of 10 pF

Example 13.2 and 100 pF respectively connected in parallel with an
inductor of 10 mH. Determine the frequency of oscillations
of the circuit.
Solution The circuit consists of two capacitors in series.
So, the total capacitance is given as
 If the inductor is of 10 mH then the frequency of oscillation is

Then the frequency of oscillations for the oscillator is 527.8 kHz.

13.5 THE RC OSCILLATOR

So far, only LC tuned circuits that cause phase shift of 180° due to inductive or capacitive
coupling in addition to a 180° phase shift produced by the transistor or op-amp, have been
discussed. Such LC oscillators are employed to generate high-frequency oscillations but
they cannot be employed for generation of low frequency oscillations as they become too
bulky and expensive. RC oscillators are commonly used for generating audio-frequencies
as they provide good frequency stability and waveform. When an RC network is
connected in class-A configuration, a single stage amplifier will produce 180° of phase
shift between its output and input signals. If an oscillator has to oscillate a sufficient
positive feedback of the correct phase must be provided with the amplifier being used as
an inverting stage to achieve this. In an RC oscillator, the input is shifted 180° through the
amplifier stage and 180° again through a second inverting stage giving 360° (180° + 180°)
of phase shift which is the same as 0° thereby providing the required positive feedback.
This method of phase shift between the input to an RC network and the output from the
same network is employed in a resistance-capacitance oscillator or simply an RC
oscillator.

Figure 13.8 RC phase-shift network

In Figure 13.8, the circuit on the top shows a single resistor-capacitor network and
whose output voltage leads the input voltage by some angle less than 90°. An ideal RC
circuit would produce a phase shift of exactly 90°, as it is known that the amount of actual
phase shift in the circuit depends upon the values of the resistor, capacitor and the chosen
frequency of oscillations. The phase angle (Ф) is given as

In this simple example above, the values of R and C have been chosen so that at the
required frequency, the output voltage leads the input voltage by an angle of about 60°.
Then by cascading or connecting together three such RC networks in series, it is possible
to produce a total phase shift in the circuit of 180° at the chosen frequency and it forms the
basis of an RC oscillator circuit. It is known that in an amplifier circuit, either using a BJT
or Op-AMP, it will produce a phase-shift of 180° between its input and output. If an RC
phase-shift network is connected between this input and output of the amplifier, the total
phase shift will become 360°, i.e. the feedback is in-phase.
13.5.1 Basic RC Oscillator Circuit
The RC oscillator as shown in Figure 13.9, which is called a phase-shift oscillator,
produces a sine-wave output signal using regenerative feedback from the resistor-capacitor
combination.

Figure 13.9 Basic RC oscillator circuit

This regenerative feedback from the RC network is possible due to the capability of the
capacitor to store an electric charge. The resistor-capacitor feedback network can be
connected as shown above to produce a leading phase shift or interchanged to produce a
lagging phase and the outcome is still the same as the sine-wave oscillations only occur at
the frequency at which the overall phase shift is 360°. By varying one or more of the
resistors or capacitors in the phase-shift network, the frequency can be varied and
generally this is done using a 3-ganged variable capacitor. If all the resistors R and the
capacitors C are equal in value then the frequency of oscillations produced by the
oscillator is given

where f is the output frequency in Hz, R is the resistance in ohms, C is the capacitance in
farads, N is the number of RC stages and in our example, N = 3
13.5.2 The Op-amp ffCOscillator
Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) RC oscillators are more common than their bipolar
transistor counterparts. The RC network that produces the phase shift is connected from
the op-amps output back to its non-inverting input as shown in Figure 13.10.
Figure 13.10 Operational-amplifier RC oscillators

The feedback is connected to the non-inverting input and the operational amplifier is
connected in its inverting amplifier configuration which produces the required 180° phase
shift. The RC network produces the other 180° phase shift at the required frequency.
Although it is possible to cascade together two RC stages to provide the required 180° of
phase shift, but in that case the stability of the oscillator at low frequencies is poor. One of
the most important characteristics of an RC oscillator is its frequency stability. This is the
ability of an oscillator to provide a constant frequency output under varying load
conditions. So to obtain higher frequency stability, three or even four RC stages together
are cascaded. RC oscillators with four stages are widely used because commonly available
operational amplifiers come in quad IC packages. So, designing a 4-stage oscillator with
45° of phase shift relative to each other is comparatively easy. RC oscillators are stable
and provide a well-shaped sine-wave output with the frequency being proportional to
1/RC. Using a variable capacitor, a wider frequency range is possible. However, the use of
RC oscillators are restricted to low-frequency applications, because of their bandwidth
limitations to produce the desired phase shift at high frequencies.

Example 13.3 Determine the frequency of oscillations of a RC oscillator

circuit having three-stages each with a resistor and
capacitor of equal values. R = 10 kΩ and C = 500 pF

Solution Here, R = 10 kΩ, C = 500 pF, N = 3

Therefore, the frequency of oscillation is given as

13.6 WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATORS

The Wien bridge oscillator is another type of oscillator which uses a RC network in place
of the conventional LC tuned circuit to produce a sinusoidal output waveform. The Wien
bridge oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled amplifier circuit that has good stability at its
resonant frequency, low distortion and is very easy to tune making it a popular circuit as
an audiofrequency oscillator. The phase shift of the output signal is considerably different
from the previous RC oscillators.
The Wien bridge oscillator employs a feedback circuit consisting of a series RC circuit
connected with a parallel RC of the same component values producing a phase delay-
advance (lag-lead) circuit depending upon the frequency as shown in Figure 13.11.
The above RC network is a typical second-order frequency dependent band-pass filter
with high quality factor(Q). It consists of a low-pass filter (series RC network) and another
high-pass filter (parallel RC network). At low frequencies, the reactance Xc of the series
capacitor is very high so the series capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any input
signal Vin and therefore there is no output signal Vout. At high frequencies, the reactance of
the parallel capacitor is very low so the parallel capacitor acts like a short circuit on the
output, so again there is no output signal. However, between these two extremes, the
output voltage reaches a maximum and the frequency at which this happens is called the
resonant frequency (fr) as the circuit’s reactance equals its resistance Xc = R. At this
resonant frequency, the output voltage is one third (1/3) of the input voltage.

Figure 13.11 RC phase shift network

Figure 13.12 Output gain and phase shift

It can be seen as in Figure 13.12 that at very low frequencies, the phase angle between
the input and output signals is positive, i.e. leading in nature, while at very high
frequencies the phase angle becomes negative, i.e. lagging in nature. In the middle of
these two points the circuit is at its resonant frequency (fr) with the signals being in-phase
or 0°. The expression of resonant frequency is as follows:

This frequency-selective RC network forms the basis of the Wien Bridge oscillator
circuit. The Wien bridge oscillator circuit is produced by placing this RC network across a
non-inverting amplifier. As in Figure 13.13, the output of the operational amplifier is fed
back to the inputs in-phase with part of the feedback signal connected to the inverting
input terminal via the resistor divider network of R1 and R2, while the other part is fed
back to the non-inverting input terminal via the RC network. Then at the selected resonant
frequency (fr), the voltages applied to the inverting and non-inverting inputs will be equal
and in-phase. So the positive feedback will cancel the negative feedback signal causing
the circuit to oscillate. Also the voltage gain of the amplifier circuit should be 3 as set by
the resistor network, R1 and R2.

Figure 13.13 Wien bridge oscillator with op-amp

Determine the maximum and minimum frequency of

Example 13.4 oscillations of a Wien bridge oscillator circuit having a
resistor of 10 kΩ and a variable capacitor of 1 nF to 1000
nF.
Solution The frequency of oscillations for a Wien bridge oscillator is given as:

Lowest frequency,

Highest frequency,

13.7 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS

Frequency stability is the most important feature of an oscillator. Frequency stability is the
ability to provide a constant frequency output under varying load conditions. Frequency
stability of the output signal can be improved by proper selection of the components used
for the resonant feedback circuit including the amplifier but there is a limit to the stability
that can be obtained from normal LC and RC tank circuits. Some of the factors that affect
the frequency stability of an oscillator include temperature, variations in the load and
changes in the power supply. For very high stability, a quartz crystal is generally used as
the frequency-determining device to produce a typical type of oscillator circuit known as
crystal oscillators.
The crystal oscillators are implemented using the piezo-electric effect. This is actually
realised when a voltage source is applied to a small thin piece of crystal quartz. The quartz
crystal begins to change shape. This piezo-electric effect is the property of a crystal by
which an electrical charge produces a mechanical force by changing the shape of the
crystal. In reverse sense, a mechanical force applied to the crystal produces an electrical
charge. This piezo-electric effect produces mechanical vibrations or oscillations which are
used to replace the LC tank circuit and can be seen in many different types of crystal
substances with the most important of these for electronic circuits being the quartz
minerals because of their superior mechanical strength.
The quartz crystal is a very small, thin piece or wafer of cut quartz with the two parallel
surfaces metalised to make the electrical connections in a crystal oscillator. The physical
size and thickness of a piece of quartz crystal is tightly controlled since it affects the final
frequency of oscillations and is called the characteristic frequency of the crystal. Once cut
and shaped, the crystal cannot be used at any other frequency. The crystal’s characteristic
or resonant frequency is inversely proportional to its physical thickness between the two
metalised surfaces. A mechanically vibrating crystal can be represented by an equivalent
electrical circuit consisting of low resistance, large inductance and small capacitance as
shown in Figure 13.14.

Figure 13.14 Quartz crystal

Like an electrically tuned tank circuit, a quartz crystal has resonant frequency with very
high Q factor due to low resistance. The frequencies of quartz crystals range from 4 kHz
to 10 MHz. The cut of the crystal also determines how it will vibrate and behave as some
crystals will vibrate at more than one frequency. Also, if the crystal is of varying
thickness, it has two or more resonant frequencies having both a fundamental frequency
and harmonics such as second or third harmonics. However, usually the fundamental
frequency is more pronounced than the others and this is the one used. The equivalent
circuit above consists of three reactive components and there are two resonant frequencies,
the lowest is a series-type frequency and the highest a parallel-type resonant frequency.
In a crystal oscillator circuit, the oscillator will oscillate at the crystal’s fundamental
series resonant frequency as the crystal always intends to oscillate when a voltage source
is applied to it. It is also possible to tune a crystal oscillator to any even harmonic of the
fundamental frequencies, (2nd, 4th, 8th, etc.) and these are known generally as harmonic
oscillators while overtone oscillators vibrate at odd multiples of the fundamental
frequencies, (3rd, 5th, 11th, etc). Crystal oscillators that operate at overtone frequencies do
so using their series resonant frequency.
13.7.1 Colpitts Crystal Oscillator
The design of a Colpitts crystal oscillator is very similar to the Colpitts oscillator. The LC
tank in the Colpitt oscillator circuit has been replaced by a quartz crystal as shown below
in Figure 13.15. The input signal to the base of the transistor is inverted at the transistors
output. The output signal at the collector is then taken through 180° phase shifting
network which contains the crystal operating in a series resonant mode.
The output is fed back to the input which is inphase with the input providing the
necessary positive feedback. Resistors R1 and R2 bias the transistor in class-A operation
and the resistor Re is taken so that the loop gain is slightly higher than unity. Capacitors C1
and C2 are made as large as possible in order to get the frequency of series resonant mode
of the crystal.
This frequency does not depend upon the values of these capacitors. The circuit
diagram above of the Colpitts crystal oscillator circuit shows that capacitors C1 and C2
shunt the output of the transistor which reduces the feedback signal. Therefore, the gain of
the transistor limits the maximum values of C1 and C2. Another important point is that the
output amplitude should be kept low in order to avoid excessive power dissipation in the
crystal, otherwise, the crystal could destroy itself by excessive vibration.

Figure 13.15 Colpitts crystal oscillator

13.8 PIERCE OSCILLATOR

The Pierce oscillator is another common design of a crystal oscillator. It uses the crystal as
part of its feedback path instead of the resonant tank circuit. A JFET is used as amplifier as
it provides a very high input impedance with the crystal connected between the drain
(output) terminal and the gate (input) terminal as shown in Figure 13.16.
Figure 13.16 Pierce crystal oscillator

In the above circuit, the crystal determines the frequency of oscillations and operates on
its series resonant frequency giving a low-impedance path between output and input. It
gives 180° phase shift at resonance and makes the feedback positive. The maximum
voltage range at the drain terminal sets the amplitude of the output sine wave. Resistor R1
regulates the amount of feedback and crystal drive. The voltage across the Radio
Frequency Choke (RFC) reverses during each cycle. The Pierce oscillator can be
implemented using the minimum number of components. Because of this, Pierce
oscillators are used to design most digital clocks, watches and timers, etc.

13.9 MICROPROCESSOR CLOCKS

The crystal quartz oscillator is the most suitable frequency-determining device in virtually
all microprocessors, microcontrollers, PICs and CPUs, used to generate their clock
waveforms. Crystal oscillators provide the highest accuracy and frequency stability
compared to resistor-capacitor or inductor-capacitor oscillators. The CPU clock dictates
how fast the processor can process the data, and a microprocessor having a clock speed of
3 MHz means that it can process data internally 3 million times a second at every clock
cycle. Generally, all that is needed to produce a microprocessor clock waveform is a
crystal and two ceramic capacitors of values ranging between 15 to 33 pF as shown in
Figure 13.17.

Figure 13.17 Microprocessor oscillator

Most microprocessors, microcontrollers and PICs have two oscillator pins labelled
OSC1 and OSC2 to connect to an external quartz crystal, RC network or even a ceramic
resonator. In this application, the crystal oscillator produces a train of continuous square-
wave pulses whose frequency is controlled by the crystal which in turn executes the
instructions that control the device.
Table 13.1 Oscillators with their operating frequency range

Type of oscillator Approximate frequency range

Crystal oscillator Fixed frequency
Wien bridge oscillator 1 Hz to 1 MHz
Phase-shift oscillator 1 Hz to 10 MHz
Hartley oscillator 10 kHz to 100 MHz
Colpitts oscillator 10 kHz to 100 MHz

13.10 SQUARE WAVE AND PULSE GENERATORS

Wave shape, or wave profile, of a single pulse is shown in Figure 13.18. The
characteristics of a single pulse are given below.
• The voltage rises very rapidly from zero to its maximum value.
• It stays steady at the maximum value for a time.
• It then falls very rapidly back to zero.
• The duration of a pulse can be anywhere from a very long time (days) to a very short time (picoseconds or less).
• Pulses do not rise and fall instantaneously but take time (which may be very short).
• They are called the rise and fall times.

Figure 13.18 Wave shape of a single-pulse

Figure 13.19 Waveform of pulse train

As shown in Figure 13.19, a few characteristics of pulse trains are stated below:
• If pulses occur one after another, they are called a pulse train.
• The duration time of a pulse is called the mark.
• The time between pulses is called the space.
• The relative times are expressed as the mark-to-space ratio.
• Mark to space ratios may vary.

13.10.1 Typical Square Wave Generator

A continuous signal with regular wave shape is one requirement in a wide range of
applications. One of the most important of these is a square-wave generator.
The circuit in Figure 13.20 uses an op-amp as comparator with both positive and
negative feedback to control its output voltage. Because the negative feedback path uses a
capacitor while the positive feedback path does not, there is a time delay before the
comparator is triggered to change state. As a result, the circuit oscillates, or keeps
changing state back and forth at a predictable rate.

Figure 13.20 Square wave generator circuit using op-amp

Since no force or excitation is given to limit the output voltage, it will switch from one
extreme to the other. If it is assumed that output voltage starts at −12 volts then the voltage
at the positive or non-inverting input terminal will be set by R2 and R1 to a Figure 13.20
fixed voltage equal to −12 R1/(R1 + R2) volts. Now, it becomes the reference voltage for
the comparator, and the output will remain unchanged until the negative or inverting input
terminal becomes more negative than this value. But the inverting terminal is connected to
a capacitor (C) which is gradually charging in a negative direction through the resistor Rf.
Since C is charging towards −12 volts, but the reference voltage at the non-inverting input
is necessarily smaller than the−12 volt limit, eventually the capacitor will charge to a
voltage that exceeds the reference voltage. When that happens, the circuit will
immediately change state. The output will become +12 volts and the reference voltage will
abruptly become positive rather than negative. Now the capacitor will charge towards +12
volts, and the other half of the cycle will take place. The output frequency is given by the
approximate equation:

In the practical field, the circuit-component values are chosen such that R1 is
approximately Rf/3, and R2 is in the range of 2 to 10 times R1.

13.10.2 OP-AMP Astable Multivibrator and Monostable

Multivibrator Circuits
Relaxation oscillators are normally non-sinusoidal waveform generators. The relaxation
oscillator using an op-amp shown in Figure 13.21 is a square-wave generator. Square
waves are relatively easy to generate.
The frequency of oscillation of a circuit is dependent on the charging and discharging of
a capacitor C through the feedback resistor Rf. The main component of the oscillator is an
inverting op-amp working as comparator. A comparator circuit has positive feedback
which increases the gain of the amplifier. A comparator circuit having positive feedback
offers two advantages.
 First, the high gain causes the op-amp’s output to switch very quickly from one state to
another and vice versa. Second, the use of positive feedback gives the hysteresis loop in
the circuit operation.

Figure 13.21 Op-amp square-wave generator

As shown in Figure 13.21, in the op-amp square-wave generator, the output voltage Vout
is connected to ground through two Zener diodes Z1 and Z2, connected back-to-back and is
limited to either VZ2 or VZ1. A fraction of the output is fed back to the non-inverting (+)
input terminal. A combination of Rf and C act as a low-pass RC circuit which is used to
integrate the output voltage Vout The capacitor voltage Vc is applied to the inverting input
terminal instead of external signal.
At that point of time, the differential input voltage is given as Vin = Vc − βVout.
When Vin is + ve Vout = − Vzl
and when Vin is −ve , Vout = + Vz2.
Consider an instant when Vin < 0. At this instant, Vout = +Vz2, and the voltage at the
non-inverting (+) input terminal is βVz2, the capacitor C charges exponentially towards
Vz2, with a time constant RfC. The output voltage remains constant at Vz2 until vc equal
βVz2. When it happens, comparator output reverses to −Vz1. Now vc changes exponentially
towards −Vz1 with the same time constant and again the output makes a transition from
−Vz1 to + Vz2 when Vc equals −βVz1
Let Vz1 = Vz2
The time period, T of the output square wave is determined using the charging and
discharging phenomena of the capacitor C. The voltage across the capacitor Vc when it is
charging from −B Vz to + Vz is given by

Vc = [1 − (1 + β)]e−T/2τ
where τ = RfC
The waveforms of the capacitor voltage vc and output voltage Vout (or vz) are shown in
Figure 13.22.
When t = t/2,
Vc = +βVz or +βVout
 Therefore, βVz = Vz [1 − (1 + β)e−T/2τ]

or e−T/2τ = (1 − β)/(1 + β)
or T = 2τ loge [(1 − β)/(1 + β)] = 2Rfc loge [1 + (2R3/R2)]

Figure 13.22 Output and capacitor voltage waveforms

Here, the frequency (f = 1/T), of the square wave is independent of the output voltage
Vout. This circuit is also known as free-running or astable multivibrator. This circuit has
two quasi-stable states as shown in Figure 13.22. The output remains in one state for the
time T1 and then a rapid transition to the second state and remains in that state for time T2.
The cycle repeats itself after time T = (T1 + T2). where, T is the time period of the square-
wave. The op-amp square-wave generator offers good performance in the frequency range
of about 10 Hz − 10 kHz. But, at higher frequencies, the slew rate of the op-amp limits the
slope of the output square wave. The matching of two Zener diodes Z1 and Z2 decides
symmetry of the output waveform. The unsymmetrical square wave (T1 not equal to T2)
can be obtained by choosing different charging time constants for charging the capacitor C
to + Vout and −Vout
Figure 13.23 Pulse generator/monostable circuit and waveforms

A pulse generator circuit, as shown in Figure 13.23, is a monostable multivibrator A

Monostable Multi Vibrator (MMV) has one stable state and one quasi-stable state. An
external triggering pulse pushes the circuit to operate in the quasi-stable state from the
stable state. The circuit comes back to its stable state after a time period T. As a result, a
single output pulse is generated in response to an input pulse and is referred to as a one-
shot or mono shot. The monostable multivibrator circuit shown in Figure 13.23. is
obtained by modifying the previous circuit by connecting a diode D1 across the capacitor
C so as to clamp vc at vd during positive excursion.
At steady state, the circuit will remain in its stable state and the output will be VOUT = +
VOUT or + Vz. The capacitor C is clamped at the voltage VD (= 0.7 V). The voltage VD
must be less than βVOUT for Vin < 0. The circuit can be switched to the other state by
applying a negative pulse with amplitude greater than βVOUT − VD to the non-inverting (+)
terminal of the op-amp. If a trigger pulse with amplitude greater than βVOUT − VD is given,
Vin goes positive causing a transition in the state of the circuit to −Vout. The capacitor C
starts charging exponentially with a time constant of τ = RfC towards VOUT and diode D1
becomes reverse-biased. When the capacitor voltage vc becomes more negative than
−βVOUT, Vin becomes negative and, therefore, the output swings back to + VOUT which is
the steady-state output. The capacitor now charges towards + VOUT till vc attains VD and
capacitor C becomes clamped at VD. The trigger pulse, capacitor voltage waveform and
output voltage waveform are shown in Figure 13. 23(b), 23(c) and 23(d) respectively.
The trigger pulse width T must be much smaller than the duration of the output pulse
generated, i.e. TP = T and for reliable, operation the circuit should not be triggered again
before T.
During the quasi-stable state, the exponential profile of the capacitor voltage is
expressed as,
vc = −VOUT + (VOUT + VD)e−t/τ
At, t = T, vc = −βVOUT
So −βVOUT = −VOUT + (VOUT + vD) e−T/τ
or, T = RfC loge (1 + VD/Vout)/ 1 − β
Normally, VD << VOUT and taking R2 = R3
The factor, β = R3/(R2 + R3) = 1/2
So, T = RfC loge 2 = 0.693 Rf C

13.11 TRIANGULAR WAVE GENERATOR

Simply integrating the generated square wave can produce a triangular wave. With the
basic squarewave-generator circuit, if a gradually charging capacitor is used to set the
timing or frequency of the circuit then the desired triangular signal may be obtained. Since
the capacitor is charging through a resistor, the charging profile necessarily follows a
logarithmic curve, rather than a linear ramp.
As shown in Figure 13.24, in the right part of the circuit, a separate integrator is used to
generate a ramp voltage from the generated square wave. As a result, both waveforms
from a single circuit can be obtained. Note that the integrator inverts as well as integrating,
so it will produce a negative-going ramp for a positive input voltage, and vice versa.

Figure 13.24 Triangular wave generator

Since an op-amp is in use in the integrator, to get the triangle wave, a logarithmic
response is not obtained anywhere in the circuit. As a result, the equation for the operating
frequency is
 The square-wave amplitude is still the limit of voltage transition, which are assuming
here to be ±12 volts. The triangle wave’s amplitude is set by the ratio of R1/R2.
The circuit shown in Figure 13.25 is an example of a relaxation oscillator designed with
two op-amps. The integrator output waveform will be triangular if the input to it is a
square wave. So, a triangular-wave generator can be formed by simply cascading an
integrator and a square-wave generator, as illustrated in Figure 13.13.25(a). To implement
the circuit, a dual op-amp, two capacitors, and at least five resistors are required. The
rectangular-wave output swings between +Vsat and −Vsat with a time period determined.
The frequency of triangular-waveform and the square waveform are same.

Figure 13.25 Basic circuit of triangular-wave generator

The input to the integrator A2 is a square wave and its output is a triangular waveform,
the output of the integrator will be a triangular wave only when R4 C2 > T/2; where T is
the time period of the square wave. As a general rule, R4C2 should be equal to T. To obtain
a stable triangular wave, it may also be necessary to shunt the capacitor C2 with resistance
R5 = 10 R4 and connect an offset volt compensating network at the non-inverting (+) input
terminal of the op-amp A2. As usual, the frequency of the triangular-wave generator is
limited by the op-amp slew rate. It is better to use a high slew rate op-amp (like LM 301),
to generate triangular waveforms of relatively higher frequency.
With fewer components, another triangular-waveform generator can be formed and the
circuit of that is shown in Figure 13.26(a). The arrangement consists of a Schmitt trigger
in non-inverting configuration followed by an integrator. The rectangular wave output of
the Schmitt trigger drives an integrator. The integrator generates a triangular wave, which
is fed back and used to drive the Schmitt trigger. Thus, the first part of the circuit drives
the second part of the circuit, and the second drives the first. But the question arises on
how the circuit gets started at the outset. This part is explained as follows.
Figure 13.26 (a) Feedback circuit with Schmitt trigger and integrator producing triangular output waveform (b)
Transfer characteristic of Schmitt trigger (c) Output waveforms

The fact is that the moment the Schmitt trigger is connected to power supplies, the
output of the Schmitt trigger must be either at low state or at high state. If the Schmitt
trigger output is low then the output of the integrator will be a rising ramp and for Schmitt
trigger of high output, the integrator will produce a falling ramp. In any case, the
triangular waveform will start to generate, and the positive feedback to the Schmitt trigger
input keeps it going. The transfer characteristic of the Schmitt trigger is shown in Figure
13.26(b). When the output is low, the input must increase to the upper threshold voltage to
switch the output to high. Likewise, when the output is high, the input must fall to the
lower threshold voltage to switch the output to low. The triangular wave produced by the
integrator is capable of driving the Schmitt trigger. When the output of the Schmitt trigger
is low, the integrator develops a rising ramp which increases till it reaches the upper
threshold voltage, as illustrated in Figure 13.26(c). At this point, the output of the Schmitt
trigger switches to the high state and forces the triangular wave to reverse in direction.
The negative or falling ramp produced by the integrator now falls till it reaches the upper
threshold voltage, where another Schmitt output change occurs.

13.12 SINE WAVE GENERATOR

The demand of sine waves in many electronic applications is very high. The circuit,
shown in Figure 13.27 is the scheme to implement a mathematical relationship between
the sine and cosine trigonometric functions. By integrating a sine wave, an inverted cosine
wave is obtained. A cosine waveform is actually the same waveform as the sine wave but
shifted 90° in phase. If that cosine wave is integrated and another 90° phase shift is
achieved, it produces a negative sine wave. Of course, each op-amp integrator introduces
an inversion as well, so the output of the first integrator is actually a non-inverted cosine
wave. This is reversed again by the second integrator, so its output is still a negative sine
wave. By inverting the negative sine wave, the original sine wave can be restored.
In this circuit, R1 is adjusted to ensure that oscillations start and to help set the output
amplitude. The Zener diodes serve to limit the output signal amplitude by limiting the gain
of the cosine amplifier beyond the desired level. This prevents the circuit from amplifying
the signal beyond its ±12 volt limits.

Figure 13.27 A sine-wave generator circuit

The clipping effect caused by the Zener diodes does introduce some distortion, but with
a reasonable setting of R1 this effect is very slight, and the distortion it causes will be
significantly reduced by the second integrator.

Figure 13.28 A sine-wave oscillator

A classic oscillator circuit is shown in Figure 13.28. In this circuit, the op-amp offsets
must be precisely balanced; otherwise, they will accumulate on the two integrators and
gradually damp out the oscillations. This circuit can be implemented nicely using a dual
op amp such as the 1458. All three capacitors are the same, and Rt is taken very slightly
less than R to ensure that the oscillations start the moment power is applied. Here, the
frequency of oscillations is f = 1/2 RC. The frequency response of the op amps in use
determines the maximum frequency of oscillations. In the circuit, the loop gain will
decrease as frequency increases, and oscillations cannot be sustained if the loop gain is
less than 1. The loop gain of this circuit must be greater than 1 to ensure oscillations. This
circuit will also tend to clip the output waveforms. However, the same double-Zener
clipping scheme in the circuit can be applied to the cosine integrator, to limit the signal
amplitude and prevent either op amp from getting saturated.
As both sine and cosine waves are available, this circuit is also known as a quadrature
oscillator.

13.13 FUNCTION GENERATORS

A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of producing different types
of waveforms as its output signal. The most common output waveforms are sine waves,
triangular waves square waves and sawtooth waves. The frequencies of such waveforms
may be adjusted from a fraction of a hertz to several hundred kilohertz.
Actually, the function generators are very versatile instruments as they are capable of
producing a wide variety of waveforms and frequencies. In fact, each of the waveforms
they generate are particularly suitable for a different group of applications. The uses of
sinusoidal outputs and square-wave outputs have already been described in the earlier
Sections. The triangular-wave and sawtooth wave outputs of function generators are
commonly used for those applications which need a signal that increases (or reduces) at a
specific linear rate. They are also used in driving sweep oscillators in oscilloscopes and
the X-axis of X-Y recorders.
Many function generators are also capable of generating two different waveforms
simultaneously (from different output terminals, of course). This can be a useful feature
when two generated signals are required for a particular application. For instance, by
providing a square wave for linearity measurements in an audio-system, a simultaneous
sawtooth output may be used to drive the horizontal deflection amplifier of an
oscilloscope, providing a visual display of the measurement result. For another example, a
triangular wave and a sine wave of equal frequencies can be produced simultaneously. If
the zero crossings of both the waves are made to occur at the same time, a linearly varying
waveform is available which can be started at the point of zero phase of a sine wave.
Another important feature of some function generators is their capability of phase
locking to an external signal source. One function generator may be used to phase lock a
second function generator, and the two output signals can be displaced in phase by an
adjustable amount. In addition, one function generator may be phase locked to a harmonic
of the sine wave of another function generator. By adjustment of the phase and the
amplitude of the harmonics, almost any waveform may be produced by the summation of
the fundamental frequency generated by one function generator and the harmonics
generated by the other function generator. The function generator can also be phase locked
to an accurate frequency standard, and all its output waveforms will have the same
frequency, stability and accuracy as the standard.
The block diagram of a function generator is given in Figure 13.29. In this instrument,
the frequency is controlled by varying the magnitude of current that drives the integrator.
This instrument provides different types of waveforms (such as sinusoidal, triangular and
square waves) as its output signal with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.
The frequency-controlled voltage regulates two current supply sources. The current
supply source 1 supplies constant current to the integrator whose output voltage rises
linearly with time. An increase or decrease in the current increases or reduces the slope of
the output voltage and thus, controls the frequency.
Figure 13.29 Function generator block diagram

The voltage comparator multivibrator changes state at a predetermined maximum level,

of the integrator output voltage. This change cuts off the current supply from the supply
source 1 and switches to the supply source 2. The current supply source 2 supplies a
reverse current to the integrator so that its output drops linearly with time. When the
output attains a predetermined level, the voltage comparator again changes state and
switches on to the current supply source. The output of the integrator is a triangular wave
whose frequency depends on the current supplied by the constant-current supply sources.
The comparator output provides a square wave of the same frequency as the output. The
resistance diode network changes the slope of the triangular wave as its amplitude changes
and produces a sinusoidal wave with less than 1% distortion.
Voltage-controlled Oscillator

Figure 13.30 block diagram of voltage-controlled oscillator

In most cases, the frequency of an oscillator is determined by the time constant RC.
However, in cases or applications such as FM, tone generators, and Frequency-Shift
Keying (FSK), the frequency is to be controlled by means of an input voltage, called the
control voltage. This can be achieved in a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO). A VCO is
a circuit that provides an oscillating output signal (typically of square wave or triangular
waveform) whose frequency can be adjusted over a range by a dc voltage. An example of
a VCO is the 566 IC unit as shown in Figure 13.30 which provides simultaneously the
square-wave and triangular-wave outputs as a function of input voltage. The frequency of
oscillation is set by an external resistor R1 and a capacitor C1 and the voltage Vc applied to
the control terminals. Figure 13.20 shows that the 566 IC unit contains current sources to
charge and discharge an external capacitor Cv at a rate set by an external resistor R1 and
the modulating dc input voltage. A Schmitt trigger circuit is employed to switch the
current sources between charging and discharging the capacitor, and the triangular voltage
produced across the capacitor and square wave from the Schmitt trigger are provided as
outputs through buffer amplifiers. Both the output waveforms are buffered so that the
output impedance of each is 50 f2. The typical magnitude of the triangular wave and the
square wave are 2.4 [Link]-peak and 5.4 [Link].
The frequency of the output waveforms is approximated by
fout = 2(V+ − Vc)/R1C1V+

13.14 RF SIGNAL GENERATOR

An RF oscillator is employed for generating a carrier waveform whose frequency can be
adjusted typically from about 100 kHz to 30 MHz. Carrier wave frequency can be varied
and indicated with the help of a range selector switch and a vernier dial setting. Range is
selected by employing frequency dividers. Frequency stability of the oscillator is kept very
high at all frequency ranges.
• The following measures are taken in order to achieve stable frequency output.
• Frequency of output voltage changes with the change in supply voltage so
regulated power supply is used.
• Buffer amplifiers are used to isolate the oscillator circuit from output circuit so
that any change in the circuit connected to the output does not affect the frequency
and amplitude of the oscillator output.
• Temperature also causes change in oscillator frequency, so temperature-
compensating devices are used.
• Q-factor of the LC circuit should be very high, say above 20,000. This can be
achieved by employing quartz crystal oscillator in place of the LC oscillator.
• An audio-frequency modulating signal is generated in another very stable
oscillator, called the modulation oscillator. Provision is made in the modulation
oscillator for changing the frequency and the amplitude of the signal being
generated.
In this oscillator, provision is also made to get various types of waveforms such as the
square, triangular waves or pulses. The radio-frequency and the modulation-frequency
signals are fed to a wide-band amplifier, called the output amplifier. Percentage of
modulation (can also be adjusted and it is indicated by the meter.
Modulation level can be adjusted up to 95% by a control device. The output of the
amplifier is then fed to an attenuator and finally the signal goes to the output of signal
generator. The output meter is provided to read the final output signal.
 The accuracy to which the frequency of the RF oscillator is known is an important
specification of the signal generator performance. Most laboratory-type models are usually
calibrated to be within 0. 5 − 1.0% of the dial setting. This accuracy is usually sufficient
for most measurements. For greater accuracy, if needed, a crystal oscillator, whose
frequency is known to be within 0.01% or better, may be used as an internal RF
calibration source.
Another key specification of signal generators is their amplitude stability. It is very
important that the amplitude of the output signal remains constant as the RF frequency is
varied.

13.15 SWEEP FREQUENCY GENERATOR

A sweep frequency generator is a special type of signal generator which generates a
sinusoidal output whose frequency is automatically varied or swept between two selected
frequencies. One complete cycle of the frequency variation is called a sweep. The rate at
which the frequency is varied can be either linear or logarithmic, depending upon the
design of a particular instrument. However, the amplitude of the signal output is designed
to remain constant over the entire frequency range of the sweep.
Sweep-frequency generators are primarily employed for measurement of responses of
amplifiers, filters, and electrical components over various frequency bands. The frequency
range of a sweep-frequency generator usually extends over three bands: 0.001 Hz−100
kHz (low frequency to audio), 100 kHz−1,500 MHz (RF range), and 1 − 200 GHz
(microwave range). Performance of measurement of bandwidth over a wide frequency
range with a manually tuned oscillator is a time-consuming task. With the use of a sweep-
frequency generator, a sinusoidal signal that is automatically swept between two chosen
frequencies can be applied to the circuit under test and its response against frequency can
be displayed on an oscilloscope or X-Y recorder.
Thus, the measurement time and effort is considerably reduced. Sweep generators may
also be employed for checking and repairing amplifiers used in TV and radar receivers.
The block diagram of an electronically tuned sweep frequency generator is shown in
Figure 13.31
As shown in Figure 13.31, the main component of a sweep-frequency generator is a
master oscillator, usually an RF type, with several operating ranges which are selected by
a range switch. The frequency of the output signal of the signal generator may be varied
either mechanically or electronically.
In the mechanically varied models, the frequency of the output signal of the master
oscillator is varied (tuned) by a motor-driven capacitor.
In the electronically tuned models, the frequency of the master oscillator is kept fixed
and a varying frequency signal is produced in another oscillator, called the Voltage
Controlled Oscillator (VCO). The VCO contains an element whose capacitance depends
upon the voltage applied across it. This element is employed for varying the frequency of
the sinusoidal output of the VCO. The output of the VCO is then combined with the
output of the master oscillator in a special electronic device, called the mixer. The output
of the mixer is sinusoidal, whose frequency depends on the difference of frequencies of
the output signals of the master oscillator and VCO. For example, if the master oscillator
frequency is fixed at 10.00 MHz and the variable frequency is varied between 10.01 MHz
to 35 MHz, the mixer will give sinusoidal output whose frequency is swept from 10 kHz
to 25 MHz.

Figure 13.31 Electronically tuned sweep generator

The sweep rates of sweep frequency generators can be adjusted to vary from 100 to
0.01 seconds per sweep. A voltage varying linearly or logarithmically according to sweep
rate can be used for driving the X-axis of an oscilloscope or X-Y recorder synchronously.
In the electronically tuned sweep generators, the same voltage which drives the VCO
serves as this voltage.
The frequency of various points along the frequency-response curve can be interpolated
from the values of the end frequencies if it is known how does the frequency vary (i.e.
linearly or logarithmically).
A basic system for the sweep generator is shown in Figure 13.32. A low-frequency
sawtooth wave is generated from some form of oscillator or waveform generator. The
instantaneous voltage of the sawtooth wave controls the frequency of an RF oscillator with
its centre frequency set at the centre frequency of the device under test (filter or IF channel
etc). Over a single sweep of frequency, RF output voltage from the device, as a function of
time, is a plot of the filter response. By rectifying and RF filtering in a simple AM
detector, the output is converted to a dc voltage varying as a function of time and this
voltage is applied to the vertical input of the CRO. By synchronising the sweep of the
CRO with the sawtooth output, the device response is plotted on the CRO screen.
Figure 13.32 Basic sweep-generator arrangement

To achieve this for a range of frequencies, it is easiest to sweep a single frequency (say
1 MHz) and heterodyne this to the test frequency required. The system developed is
shown in the block diagram of Figure 13.32. A 1 MHz oscillator is frequency modulated
by the output of a sawtooth generator operating at 33 Hz. The modulated output is beat
with an external signal generator set to provide the difference frequency centreed at the
centre frequency of the filter or IF circuit under test. The output of circuit under test is fed
to a simple AM detector which provides varying dc output level to feed the CRO vertical
input. By synchronising the CRO sweep circuit to the 33 Hz sweep generator, a plot of test
circuit response is displayed in terms of amplitude versus frequency.

Figure 13.33 The heterodyne sweep generator system—sweep frequency width is independent of output frequency

The Heterodyne Sweep Generator

Circuit detail of the heterodyne sweep generator is shown in Figure 13.34. The operation
is described as follows:
The XR205 sawtooth generator NI drives a voltage-controlled oscillator N2 operating at
a fixed centre frequency of 1 MHz. This is a very stable IC package type XR2209 which
can operate at 1 MHz with its frequency set by external R and C components. Its output at
Pin 8 is a triangular waveform and this is shaped to a sine wave by LP filter L1, C10, L2
and C11. The sweep-frequency span is controlled by the amplitude of the sawtooth wave
and this is set by the potentiometer R8.
The 1 MHz sweep output is mixed with an external variable signal source (such as a
standard signal generator) in a double balanced mixer N3. This balances out the two input
signals and delivers two frequencies which are the sum and difference of the input signal
frequencies. The well-known MC1496 is used for this function and provides a high output
level of mixed signals up to around 20 MHz with output falling off as 25 MHz is
approached. Its low-frequency performance is limited to around 100 kHz by the primary
inductance of coupling transformer TI, wound on a small ferrite toroidal core. Output level
is set by the potentiometer R24 coupled via emitter follower stage V1 to provide low
output impedance. For satisfactory operation, the signal level from the external signal
source needs to be around 0.1 to 0.5 VPP.
To set up for a given output frequency, it is only necessary to set the external signal
generator to a frequency 1 MHz removed from the required frequency. No tuning is
required in the sweep generator itself. Of course, there is always a second image
frequency component at the output, but as the filter or IF channel being tested is itself a
selective band-limiting device, the image component is rejected from reaching the detector
circuit.

Figure 13.34 Heterodyne sweep generator (100 kHz to 25 MHz) showing sawtooth generator, voltage controlled
oscillator and mixer circuits

From an operational point of view, the precise centre frequency of the fixed internal
sweep oscillator is not important. However, by setting it right at 1 MHz, the frequency
required from the external oscillator becomes obvious without putting pencil to paper or
referring to the calculator. The precise frequency of the oscillator can be set to 1 MHz by
trimming the value of C7. The XR2209 is a very stable oscillator provided its supply
voltage is held constant. Hence, the 12 V supply to the sweep generator must be regulated.
The MC1496 (N3) used was the TO5 package and the pin numbers shown are for that
package. The pin numbers for the DIL package would be different. Packages N1 and N2
are both DIL types.

13.16 WAVE ANALYSER

It is well known that any periodic waveform can be represented as a sum of a dc
component and a series of sinusoidal harmonics. Analysis of a waveform consists of
determination of the values of amplitudes, frequency and sometimes phase angle of the
harmonic components. Graphical and mathematical methods may be used for the purpose
but methods are quite laborised. The analysis of a complex waveform can be done by
electrical means using a bandpass filter network to single out the various harmonic
components. Networks of these types pass a narrow band of frequency and provide a high
degree of assumptions to all other frequencies.
A wave analyser, in fact, is an instrument designed to measure relative amplitude of
single frequency components in a complex waveform. Basically, the instrument acts as a
frequency selective voltmeter which is turned to the frequency of one signal while
rejecting all other signal components. The desired frequency is selected by a frequency
calibrated dial to the point of maximum amplitude. The amplitude is indicated either by a
suitable voltmeter or a CRO.
There are two types of wave analyser, depending upon frequency ranges used: (i)
frequency selective wave analyser and (ii) heterodyne wave analyser.
13.16.1 Frequency Selective Wave Analyser
This wave analyser is employed in audio-frequency-range (20 Hz to 20 kHz)
measurement. It consists of a narrow band pass filter which can be tuned to the frequency
of interest. The block diagram of this analyser is shown in Figure 13.35. The waveform to
be analysed in terms of its separate frequency components is applied to an input attenuator
that is set by the meter range switch on the front panel. A driver amplifier feeds the
attenuated waveform to a high-Q active filter. The filter consists of a cascaded
arrangement of RC resonant sections and filter amplifiers. The passband of the whole filter
section is covered in decade steps over the entire audio range by switch capacitors in the
RC sections. Close-tolerance polystyrene capacitors are generally used for selecting the
frequency ranges. Precision potentiometers are used to tune the filter to any desired
frequency within the selection passband. The final amplifier stage supplies the selected
signal to the meter circuit and to an unturned buffer amplifier. The buffer amplifier can be
used to drive a recorder or an electronic counter. The meter is driven by an average type
detector and usually has several voltage ranges as well as a decibel scale. The bandwidth
is very narrow, typically about 1% of the selected frequency. Figure 13.36 shows a typical
attenuation curve of a wave analyser.
13.16.2 Heterodyne Wave Analyser
This wave analyser is used to measure the frequency in megahertz range. The block
diagram of this wave analyser is shown in Figure 13.37. The signal as input is fed through
an attenuator and amplifier before being mixed with a local oscillator signal. The
frequency of this oscillator is adjusted to give a fixed frequency output which is in the
pass band of the amplifier. In the next stage, this signal is mixed with a second crystal
oscillator, whose frequency is such that the output from the mixer is centreed on zero
frequency. The subsequent active filter has a controllable bandwidth, and passes the
selected component of the frequency to the indicating meter. Good frequency stability in a
wave analyser is achieved by using frequency synthesisers, which have high accuracy and
resolution, or by automatic frequency control. In an automatic frequency control system,
the local oscillator locks to the signal, and so eliminates the drift between them.
Figure 13.35 Block diagram of a frequency selective wave analyser

Figure 13.36 Attenuation of a wave analyser

Figure 13.37 Block diagram of a heterodyne wave analyser

13.16.3 Applications of Wave Analysers

Wave analysers have very important applications in the field of i) electrical measurements,
ii) sound measurements, and iii) vibration measurements.
Wave analysers are used industrially to detect and reduce the sound and vibration
generated by rotating electrical machines and equipment. A good spectrum analysis with a
wave analyser shows various discrete frequencies and resonances that can be related to the
motion of machines.

13.17 HARMONIC DISTORTION ANALYSERS

Generally, the output waveform of an electronic device, such as an amplifier, should
become an exact replica of the input waveform. However, in most of the cases that does
not happen due to the introduction of various types of distortions. Distortions may be a
result of the inherent non-linear characteristics of components used in the electronic
circuit. Non-linear behaviour of circuit elements introduces harmonics in the output
waveform and the resultant distortion is often termed Harmonic Distortion (HD).
Types of Distortion
The various types of distortions which occur are explained below.
1. Frequency Distortion
This distortion occurs due to the amplification factor of the amplifier is different for
different frequencies.
2. Phase distortion
This distortion occurs due to the presence of energy-storage elements in the system, which
cause the output signal to be displaced in phase with the input signal. If signals of all
frequencies are displaced by the same amount, the phase shift distortion would not be
observed. However, in actual practice, signals at different frequencies are shifted in phase
by different angles and therefore, the phase-shift distortion becomes noticeable.
3. Amplitude Distortion
Harmonic distortion occurs due to the fact that the amplifier generates harmonics of the
fundamental of the input signal. Harmonics always give rise to amplitude distortion, for
example, when an amplifier is overdriven and clips the input signals.
4. Inter-modulation Distortion
This type of distortion occurs as a consequence of interaction or heterodyning of two
frequencies, giving an output which is the sum or difference of the two original
frequencies.
5. Cross-over Distortion
This type of distortion occurs in push-pull amplifier due to incorrect bias levels.
6. Total Harmonic Distortion
A non-linear system produces harmonics of an input sine wave, the harmonics consists of
a sine wave with frequencies which are multiples of the fundamental of the input signal.
The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is measured in terms of the harmonic contents of
the wave, as given by

In a measurement system, noise is read in addition to harmonics, and the total

waveform, consisting of harmonics, noise and fundamental, is measured instead of the
fundamental alone. Therefore, the measured value of the total harmonic distortion
(THDM) is given by

Figure 13.38 shows the block diagram of a harmonic distortion analyser which is used
to measure THD. The signal source has very low distortion and this can be checked by
reading its output distortion by connecting directly into the analyser. The signal from the
source is fed into the amplifier under test. This generates harmonics and the original
fundamental frequency. The fundamental frequency is removed by a notch filter. In the
manual system, as shown in Figure 13.38 (a), the switch S is first placed in the position 1
and the total content of fundamental and harmonics (ET) is measured. Then the switch is
moved to the position 2 to measure just the harmonics EH. the value of THD is then found
using following equation:

Figure 13.38 Simplified block diagrams of fundamental suppression harmonic distortion analysers: (a) Manual reading
(b) Ratio reading

The meter can be calibrated by putting the switch in the position 1 and adjusting the
reading for full scale deflection. With the switch position 2, the meter reading is now
proportional to THD. Figure 13.28(b) shows an alternative arrangement, where the value
of ET and EH are read simultaneously and their ratio calculated and displayed as THD on
the indicator. For good accuracy, the notch filter must have excellent rejection and high
pass characteristics. It should attenuate the fundamental by 100 db or more and the
harmonics by less than 1 db. The filter also needs to be tuned accurately to the
fundamental of the signal source. This is difficult to achieve manually and most distortion
analysers do this automatically. A common form of notch filter is a Wien bridge. This
balances at one frequency only and at this frequency, the output voltage at the bridge null
detector is minimum.

13.18 SPECTRUM ANALYSER

A spectrum analyser is a wide band, very sensitive receiver. It works on the principle of
“superheterodyne receiver” to convert higher frequencies (normally ranging up to several
10s of GHz) to measurable quantities. The received frequency spectrum is slowly swept
through a range of pre-selected frequencies, converting the selected frequency to a
measurable dc level (usually logarithmic scale), and displaying the same on a CRT. The
CRT displays received signal strength (y-axis) against frequency (x-axis).

Figure 13.39 Simplified block diagram of a super-heterodyne receiver

As seen from Figure 13.39, it consists of the following parts:

1. Front-end mixer
2. Voltage controlled oscillator
3. Sawtooth generator
4. IF amplifier
5. Detector
6. Video amplifier
7. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

The front-end mixer is where the RF input is combined with the local oscillator (VCO)
frequency to give IF (Intermediate Frequency) output. The IF frequencies are then fed to
an IF amplifier, then to a detector. The output of the detector is fed to the video amplifier.
The output from the video amplifier is given to CRT (vertical axis), and the output of the
sawtooth generator is given to the horizontal axis of the CRT. Thus, we see the signal
amplitude against the time sweep (which in turn represents the frequency).
Normally, the frequency conversion takes place in multiple stages, and band-pass filters
are used to shape the signals. Also, precision amplifiers and detectors are used to amplify
and detect the signals.
Obviously, signals that are weaker than the background noise could not be measured by
a spectrum analyser. For this reason, the noise floor of a spectrum analyser in combination
with RBW is a vital parameter to be considered when choosing a spectrum analyser. The
received signal strength is normally measured in decibels (dbm). (Note that 0 dBm
corresponds to 1 mWatt of power on a logarithmic scale). The primary reasons for
measuring the power (in dBm) rather than voltage in spectrum analysers are the low
received signal strength, and the frequency range of measurement. Spectrum analysers are
capable of measuring the frequency response of a device at power levels as low as −120
dBm. These power levels are encountered frequently in microwave receivers, and
spectrum analysers are capable of measuring the device characteristics at those power
levels.
13.18.1 Spectrum Analyser Vs Oscilloscope
1. A spectrum analyser displays received signal strength (y-axis) against frequency (x-
axis). An oscilloscope displays received signal strength (y-axis) against time (x-axis).
2. A Spectrum analyser is useful for analysing the amplitude response of a device
against frequency. The amplitude is normally measured in dBm in spectrum
analysers, whereas the same is measured in volts when using oscilloscopes.
3. Normally, an oscilloscope cannot measure very low voltage levels (say, −100 dBm)
and are intended for low-frequency, high-amplitude measurements. A spectrum
analyser can easily measure very low amplitudes (as low as −120 dBm), and high
frequencies (as high as 150 GHz).
4. The spectrum analyser measurements are in frequency domain, whereas the
oscilloscope measurements are in time domain.
5. Also, a spectrum analyser uses complex circuitry compared with an oscilloscope. As
a result of this, the cost of a spectrum analyser is usually quite high.
A signal is usually defined by a time-varying function carrying some sort of
information. Such a function most often represents a time-changing electric or magnetic
field, whose propagation can be in free space or in dielectric materials constrained by
conductors (waveguides, coaxial cables, etc.). A signal is said to be periodic if it repeats
itself exactly after a given time T called the period. The inverse of the period T, measured
in seconds, is the frequency f measured in hertz (Hz).
A periodic signal can always be represented in terms of a sum of several (possibly
infinite) sinusoidal signals, with suitable amplitude and phase, and having frequencies that
are integer multiples of the signal frequency. Assuming an electric signal, the square of the
amplitudes of such sinusoidal signals represents the power in each sinusoid, and is said to
be the power spectrum of the signal. These concepts can be generalised to an aperiodic
signal; in this case, its representation (spectrum) will include a continuous interval of
frequencies, instead of a discrete distribution of integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency.
The representation of a signal in terms of its sinusoidal components is called Fourier
analysis. The (complex) function describing the distribution of amplitudes and phases of
the sinusoids composing a signal is called its Fourier Transform (FT). The Fourier
analysis can be readily generalised to functions of two or more variables; for instance, the
FT of a function of two (spatial) variables is the starting point of many techniques of
image processing. A time-dependent electrical signal can be analysed directly as a
function of time with an oscilloscope which is said to operate in the time domain. The time
evolution of the signal is then displayed and evaluated on the vertical and horizontal scales
of the screen.
The spectrum analyser is said to operate in the frequency domain because it allows one
to measure the harmonic content of an electric signal, that is, the power of each of its
spectral components. In this case, the vertical and horizontal scales read powers and
frequencies. The two domains are mathematically well defined and, through the FT
algorithm, it is not too difficult to switch from one response to the other.
Their graphical, easily perceivable representation is shown in Figure 13.40, where the
two responses are shown lying on orthogonal planes. It is trivial to say that the easiest way
to make a Fourier analysis of a time-dependent signal is to have it displayed on a spectrum
analyser. Many physical processes produce (electric) signals whose nature is not
deterministic, but rather stochastic, or random (noise). Such signals can also be analysed
in terms of FT, although in a statistical sense only. A time signal is said to be band-limited
if its FT is nonzero only in a finite interval of frequencies, say (Fmax − Fmin) = B. Usually,
this is the case and an average frequency F0 can be defined. Although the definition is
somewhat arbitrary, a (band-limited) signal is referred to as RF (radio frequency) if F0 is
in the range 100 kHz to 1 GHz and as a microwave signal in the range 1 to 1000 GHz. The
distinction is not fundamental theoretically, but it has very strong practical implications in
instrumentation and spectral measuring techniques. A band-limited signal can be described
further as narrow band, if B/F0 < = 1, or wide band otherwise.

Figure 13.40 How the same signal can be displayed

The first step in performing a spectral analysis of a narrow-band signal is generally the
so-called heterodyne down-conversion: it consists in the mixing (beating) of the signal
with a pure sinusoidal signal of frequency FL, called Local Oscillator (LO). In principle,
mixing two signals of frequency F0 and FL in any nonlinear device will result in a signal
output containing the original frequencies as well as the difference (F0 − FL) and the sum
(F0 + FL) frequencies, and all their harmonic (multiple) frequencies. In the practical case,
a purely quadratic mixer is used, with an LO frequency FL < F0; the output will include
the frequencies (F0 − FL), 2FL, 2F0, and (F0 + FL), and the first term (called the
intermediate frequency or IF) will be easily separated from the others, which have a much
higher frequency. The bandwidth of the IF signal will be the same as the original
bandwidth B; however, to preserve the original information fully in the IF signal, stringent
limits must be imposed on the LO signal, because any deviation from a pure sinusoidal
law will show up in the IF signal as added phase and amplitude noise, corrupting the
original spectral content. The process of down converting a (band-limited) signal is
generally necessary to perform spectral analysis in the very-high-frequency (microwave)
region, to convert the signal to a frequency range more easily handled [Link]
the heterodyne process is applied to a wideband signal (or whenever FL > Fmin),
“negative” frequencies will appear in the IF signal. This process is called double sideband
mixing, because a given IF bandwidth B (i.e., (FL + B/2) will include two separate bands
of the original signal, centreed at FL + IF (“upper” sideband) and FL − IF (“lower” side-
band). This form of mixing is obviously undesirable in spectrum analysis, and input filters
are generally necessary to split a wide-band signal in several narrow-band signals before
down conversion. Alternatively, special mixers can be used that can deliver the upper and
lower sidebands to separate IF channels. A band-limited signal in the frequency interval
(Fmax − Fmin) = B is said to be converted to baseband when the LO is placed at FL = Fmin,
so that the band is converted to the interval (B − 0). No further lowering of frequency is
then possible, unless the signal is split into separate frequency bands by means of filters.
After down conversion, the techniques employed to perform power-spectrum analysis
vary considerably depending on the frequencies involved. At lower frequencies, it is
possible to employ analog-to-digital converters (ADC) to get a discrete numerical
representation of the analog signal, and the spectral analysis is then performed
numerically, either by direct computation of the FT (generally via the fast Fourier
transform, FFT, algorithm) or by computation of the signal autocorrelation function, which
is directly related to the square modulus of the FT via the Wiener-Khinchin theorem.
Considering that the ADC must sample the signal at least at the Nyquist rate (i.e. at twice
the highest frequency present) and with adequate digital resolution, this process is feasible
and practical only for frequencies (bandwidths) less than a few megahertz. Also, the
possibility of a real-time analysis with high spectral resolution may be limited by the
availability of very fast digital electronics and special-purpose computers. The digital
approach is the only one that can provide extremely high spectral resolution, up to several
hundred thousand channels. For high frequencies, several analog techniques are employed.
13.18.2 A Practical Approach to Spectrum Analysis
Spectrum analysis is normally done in order to verify the harmonic content of oscillators,
transmitters, frequency multipliers, etc. or the spurious components of amplifiers and
mixers. Other specialised applications are possible, such as the monitoring of Radio
Frequency Interference (RFI), Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), and Electromagnetic
Compatibility (EMC). These applications, as a rule, require an antenna connection and a
low-noise, external amplifier. Which are then the specifications to look for in a good
spectrum analyser? We would suggest the following:
1. It should display selectable, very wide bands of the EM radio spectrum with power
and frequency readable with good accuracy.
2. Its selectivity should range, in discrete steps, from a few hertz to megahertz so that
sidebands of a selected signal can be spotted and shown with the necessary details.
3. It should possess a very wide dynamic range, so that signals differing in amplitude
six to eight orders of magnitude can be observed at the same time on the display.
4. Its sensitivity must be compatible with the measurements to be taken. As already
mentioned, specialised applications may require external wide-band, low-noise
amplifiers and an antenna connection.
5. Stability and reliability are major requests but they are met most of the time.
Occasionally, a battery-operated option for portable field applications may be necessary.
A block diagram of a commercial spectrum analyser is shown in Figure 13.41.
Referring to Figure 13.41, we can say that we are confronted with a radio-receiver-like
superhet with a wide-band input circuit. The horizontal scale of the instrument is driven by
a ramp generator which is also applied to the voltage-controlled LO [2].
A problem arises when dealing with a broadband mixing configuration like the one
shown above, namely, avoiding receiving the image band.
The problem is successfully tackled here by upconverting the input band to a high-
valued IF. An easily designed input low-pass filter, not shown in the block diagram for
simplicity, will now provide the necessary rejection of the unwanted image band.

Figure 13.41 Block diagram of a commercial spectrum analyser

Nowadays, with the introduction of YIG bandpass filter preselectors, tunable over very
wide input bands, up conversion is not always necessary. Traces of unwanted signals may,
however, show up on the display although at very low level (less than −80 dBc) on good
analysers.
A block diagram of a commercial spectrum analyser exploiting both the mentioned
principles is shown in Figure 13.41. This instrument includes a very important feature
which greatly improves its performance: the LO frequency is no longer coming from a
free-running source but rather from a synthesised unit referenced to a very stable quartz
oscillator. The improved quality of the LO, both in terms of its own noise and frequency
stability, optimises several specifications of the instrument, such as frequency-determining
accuracy, finer resolution on display, and reduced noise in general.
Further, a stable LO generates stable harmonics which can then be used to widen the
input-selected bands up to the millimetre region. As already stated, this option requires
external devices, e.g. a mixer. The power reference on the screen is the top horizontal line
of the reticle. Due to the very wide dynamic range foreseen, the use of a log scale (e.g., 10
dB/square) seems appropriate. Conventionally, 1 mW is taken as the zero reference level:
accordingly, dBm is used throughout. The noise power level present on the display
without an input signal connected (noise floor) is due to the input random noise multiplied
by the IF amplifier gain. Such a noise is always present and varies with input frequency,
IF selectivity, and analyser sensitivity (in terms of noise figure 13.13.). The “on-display
dynamic range” of the analyser is the difference between the maximum compression-free
level of the input signal and the noise floor. As a guideline, the dynamic range of a good
instrument could be of the order of 70 to 90 dB.
An input attenuator, always available on the front panel, allows one to apply more
power to the analyser while avoiding saturation and nonlinear readings. The only
drawback is the obvious sensitivity loss. One should not expect a spectrum analyser to
give absolute power-level readings to be better than a couple of dB.
For the accurate measurement of power levels, the suggestion is to use a power meter.
An erratic signal pattern on display and a fancy level indication may be caused by the
wrong setting of the “scan time” knob. It must be realised that high-resolution observation
of a wide input band requires proper scanning time. An incorrect parameter setting yields
wrong readings but usually an optical alarm is automatically switched on to warn the
operator.
13.18.3 Spectrum Analyser Applications
1. Device Frequency Response Measurements
You can use spectrum analysers for measuring the amplitude response (typically measured
in dbm) against frequency of the device. The device may be anything from a broadband
amplifier to a narrowband filter.
2. Microware Tower Monitoring
You can measure the transmitted power and received power of a microware tower.
Typically, you use a directional coupler to tap the power without interrupting the
communications. In this way, you can verify that the frequency and signal strength of your
transmitter are according to the specified values.
3. Interference Measurements
Any large RF installations normally require site survey. A spectrum analyser can be used
to verify and identify interferences. Any such interfering signals need to be minimised
before going ahead with the site work. Interference can be created by a number of
different sources, such as telecom microwave towers, TV stations, airport guidance
systems, etc.
Other measurements that could be made using a spectrum analyser include the
following:
• Return-loss measurement
• Satellite antenna alignment
• Spurious signals measurement
• Harmonic measurements
• Inter-modulation measurements

Given below are some important features available with few portable spectrum analyser
of 9 kHz to 26.5 GHz:
• Colour display
• Continuous 30 Hz to 26.5 GHz sweep
• Fast digital resolution bandwidths of 1, 3, 10, 30 and 100 Hz
• Adjacent channel power, channel power, carrier power, occupied bandwidth percentage and time-gated
measurements standard
• Precision timebase and 1 Hz counter resolution
• Measurement personalities for digital radio and phase noise measurements
• Easily transfer screen image or trace data to PC

Note: The above specifications are given as an example only, and may not accurately
represent the actual equipment specifications.

EXERCISE

Objective-type Questions
1. Which one of the following oscillators is used for generation of high frequencies?
(a) RC phase shift
(b) Wien bridge
(c) LC oscillator
(d) Blocking oscillator
2. A triangular wave can be generated by
(a) integrating a square wave
(b) differentiating a square wave
(c) integrating a sine wave
(d) differentiating a sine wave
3. Harmonic distortion is due to
(a) change in the behaviour of circuit elements due to change in temperature
(b) change in the behaviour of circuit elements due to change in environment
(c) linear behaviour of circuit elements
(d) nonlinear behaviour of circuit elements
4. A spectrum analyser is a combination of
(a) narrow band super-heterodyne receiver and CRO
(b) signal generator and CRO
(c) oscillator and wave analyser
 (d) VTVM and CRO
5. A spectrum analyser is used across the frequency spectrum of a given signal to study the
(a) current distribution
(b) voltage distribution
(c) energy distribution
(d) power distribution

Short-answer Questions
1. What is the initial condition for an oscillator to start?
2. What are the Barkhausen conditions of oscillations?
3. Why are LC resonant circuits impractical at audio frequencies?
4. Why is a crystal oscillator preferred in communication transmitters and receivers?
5. What is a function generator?
6. What is the basic difference between a square-wave generator and pulse generator?
7. What is a Schmitt trigger circuit? Discuss the applications of a Schmitt trigger circuit.
8. What is a VCO? Explain its working principle.

Long-answer Questions
1. Classify oscillators on the basis of design principle. How can an amplifier be converted into an oscillator? What is
the role of resonance in an oscillator circuit?
2. What is an oscillator? How does it differ from an amplifier? What are the major parts of an oscillator circuit?
3. Draw the circuit diagram of a Hartley oscillator and explain its operation.
4. Draw the circuit diagram of a Colpitts oscillator and explain its operation.
5. Enumerate the advantages of RC oscillators. Explain the working of an RC phase shift oscillator.
6. Draw and explain the circuit of the Wien bridge oscillator. Derive the expression for frequency of oscillation for
such an oscillator. Will oscillations take place if the bridge is balanced?
7. What are the requirements of pulse? Draw a circuit diagram of a generator which produces such pulses.
8. Explain the working of a function generator producing sine, square and triangular waveforms. Draw its block
diagram.
9. Draw the circuit diagram of a stable multivibrator. How does it generate square wave?
10. Describe with a block diagram a sweep-frequency generator and its applications.
11. Discuss the working of a wave analyser.
12. With the help of a block diagram, explain the working of a harmonic distortion analyser.
13. What is a wave analyser? Explain the working principle of a heterodyne wave analyser.
14. Distinguish the principles of the working of a spectrum analyser and a wave analyser. Draw the block diagram of a
spectrum analyser. Indicate the common applications of a spectrum analyser.
 14.1 INTRODUCTION

A data acquisition system is a device or an integrated system used to collect information
about the state or condition of various parameters of any process. For example, collecting
day-to-day temperature of a particular location can be termed data acquisition. Say, a
person recording the level of municipal water-storing tank into a piece of paper, is actually
performing the task of a data acquisition system. With the advancement of digital
electronics, various electronic devices have been developed to perform this kind of
recording or logging job.
Now a days, most data acquisition systems are integrated with computer, sensors, signal
conditioning devices, etc. and the function of these kind of data acquisition systems varies
for simple recording of process parameter to control of industrial system. These kinds of
systems basically have a hardware and a software part. The hardware part consists of a
sensor, signal conditioning, analog-to-digital converter, memory, processor, switches,
digital-to-analog converter, etc. and the software part consist, of operating system, editor,
graph display program and data processing software, etc..
A data acquisition system is used in various applications, starting from industry to
scientific laboratories.
The actual definition of a data acquisition system also varies; here is a common
definition of data acquisition system.
“Data acquisition is the process by which physical phenomena from the real world are
transformed into electrical signals that are measured and converted into a digital format
for processing, analysing, and storage by a computer”.

14.2 BASIC COMPONENTS OF DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

The basic elements of a data acquisition system, as shown in the functional diagram
(Figure 14.1) are as follows:
Sensors and transducers
Field wiring
Signal conditioning
Data acquisition hardware
PC (operating system)
Data acquisition software
 Figure 14.1 (a) and (b) Functional diagram of a data acquisition system

We can think of a data acquisition system as a collection of software and hardware that
connects us to the physical world. A typical data acquisition system consists of these
components.
Table 14.1 Components of a data acquisition system

Components Description
The main function of this hardware is to convert ana-log
Data acquisition hardware signals to digital signals, and to convert processed digital
signals to analog signals.
Transducer/Sensor converts input energy from one form to
another form. For example, a thermocouple converts heat
energy into electrical. An actuator also converts energy
Sensors and actuators (transducers)
from one form to another, which is often connected at the
output of a data acquisition system in order to manipulate
the final control element.
Sensor signals are often not compatible with data
acquisition hardware. To overcome this incompatibility,
the signal must be conditioned. For example, we may need
Signal conditioning hardware
to condition the thermocouple output signal by amplifying
it or by removing unwanted frequency components. Output
signals may also need conditioning.
The computer provides a processor, a system clock, a bus
Computer
 to transfer data, and memory and disk space to store data.
It allows exchanging information between the computer
and the hardware. For example, typical software allows us
Software
to configure the sampling rate of our board, and acquire a
predefined amount of data.

COMPONENTS OF A TYPICAL PC-BASED DATA

14.3 ACQUISITION SYSTEM

Earlier, expensive mainframe computers were used extensively for gathering multiple
channels of data, primarily in large industrial or scientific applications. They were seldom
used in small projects because of their relatively high cost. But the introduction of small
rack-mounted minicomputers that developed in the 1960’s and later desktop personal-type
computers that housed microprocessors and proliferated in the 1970’s justified their use
for smaller projects. Soon, data acquisition plug-in cards (as well as hundreds of other
types of plug-in cards) for these small computers were a common means to collect and
record data of all types.
14.3.1 DAQ Hardware
A Data Acquisition System ( DAQ) is a combination of computer hardware and software
that gathers stores or processes data in order to control or monitor some sort of physical
process. A typical data acquisition system comprises a computer system with DAQ
hardware, wherein the DAQ hardware is typically plugged into one of the I/O slots of the
computer system. The DAQ hardware is configured and controlled by DAQ software
executing on the computer system. Data acquisition hardware is either internal and
installed directly into an expansion slot inside your computer, or external and connected to
your computer through an external cable, which is typically a USB cable.
At the simplest level, data acquisition hardware is characterised by the subsystems it
possesses. A subsystem is a component of data acquisition hardware that performs a
specialised task. Common subsystems include
Analog input
Analog output
Digital input/output
Counter/timer
Hardware devices that consist of multiple subsystems, such as the one depicted below,
are called multifunction boards.
1. Analog Input Subsystems
Analog input subsystems convert real-world analog input signals from a sensor into bits
that can be read by your computer. Perhaps the most important of all the subsystems
commonly available, they are typically multichannel devices offering 12 or 16 bits of
resolution.
Analog input subsystems are also referred to as AI subsystems, A/D converters, or
ADCs.
Analog-to-Digital Conversion In data acquisition systems, it is necessary to convert one or
several analog signals into one or several digital signals capable of being stored in a digital
memory and processed by a digital processor. Analog signals must be digitised before they
can be used by a computer as a basis for supporting computations. An analog-to-digital
converter is an electrical device that converts an analog signal to a digital signal. When the
analog signal has been converted to a digital signal, it can be processed and stored by
computer systems. An analog-to-digital converter is often fabricated on a single integrated
circuit. The details of an analog input subsystem will be discussed in latter.
2. Analog Output Subsystems
Analog output subsystems convert digital data stored on your computer to a real-world
analog signal. These subsystems perform the inverse conversion of analog input
subsystems. Typical acquisition boards offer two output channels with 12 bits of
resolution, with special hardware available to support multiple channel analog output
operations.
Analog output subsystems are also referred to as AO subsystems, D/A converters, or
DACs.
3. Digital Input/Output Subsystems
Digital input/output (DIO) subsystems are designed to input and output digital values
(logic levels) to and from hardware. These values are typically handled either as single
bits or lines, or as a port, which typically consists of eight lines.
While most popular data acquisition cards include some digital I/O capability, it is
usually limited to simple operations, and special dedicated hardware is often necessary for
performing advanced digital I/O operations.
4. Counter/Timers Subsystems
Counter/Timer subsystems are designed to count the number of pulses coming from
external devices and the timers are normally used to provide strict time count of delay
time
14.3.2 Sensors and Transducers
Transducer/Sensor converts input energy from one form to another form. According to the
type, output sensors are classified in two types: digital sensors and analog sensors.
The sensors which can produce a digital output signal, that is a digital representation of
the input signal, having discrete values of magnitude measured at discrete times, are called
digital sensors. A digital sensor must output logic levels that are compatible with the
digital receiver. Examples of digital sensors include switches and position encoders.
Analog sensors produce an output signal that is directly proportional to the input signal,
and is continuous in both magnitude and in time. Most physical variables such as
temperature, pressure and acceleration are continuous in nature and are readily measured
with an analog sensor. For example, some common analog sensors and the physical
variables they measure are listed below.
Table 14.2 Common analog sensors

Sensor Physical Variable

Thermocouple Temperature
Microphone Pressure
Pressure gauge Pressure
Photodiode Light intensity
Strain gauge Force
LVDT Displacement

When choosing the best analog sensor to use, you must match the characteristics of the
physical variable you are measuring with the characteristics of the sensor. The two most
important sensor characteristics are
The sensor output
The sensor bandwidth
14.3.3 Signal Conditioning
Most sensors and transducers generate signals that must be conditioned before a
measurement or DAQ device can reliably and accurately acquire the signal. This front-end
processing is referred to as signal conditioning. A signal conditioner may create excitation
for certain transducers such as strain gauges and resistance temperature detectors, which
require external excitation voltages or currents. The main tasks performed by signal
conditioning are as follows:
Filtering
Amplification
Linearisation
Isolation
Excitation
Filtering
In noisy environments, it is very difficult to acquire low magnitude signals received from
sensors such as signals from thermocouples and strain gauges (in the order of mV). If the
noise is of the same or greater order of magnitude than the required signal, the noise must
first be filtered out. Signal conditioning equipment often contain low-pass filters designed
to eliminate high-frequency noise that can lead to inaccurate data.
Filtering is a process by which the unwanted noise frequencies are removed from the
source signal. This is done before the signal is amplified to feed to the DAQ system.
Ideally, a filter should have a very sharp cut-off frequency, in order to separate the
useful frequencies from the noise frequencies. However, most practical filters do not
accurately attenuate the undesired frequencies beyond the desired range.
In general, analog filter hardware consists of two types of filters—namely active filters
and passive filters.
While active filters use components like OP-AMPs, passive filters consist of passive
components like capacitors, inductors and resistors. They provide cheap hardware for
filtering action. However, such filters are not ideal and they do not accurately attenuate the
noise amplitudes.
In intelligent signal-conditioning modules, however, integrating A/D converters go a
long way to averaging (filtering) out any cyclical noise appearing at the input.
Alternatively, software averaging may also be used to eliminate periodic system noises
such as mains hum.
Filters have certain attributes which define them. They are as following:
1. Cut-off Frequency
It is the frequency beyond which the filter attenuates all the frequencies. It can be high-
pass or low-pass cut-off frequency as required by the device. In general, cut-off frequency
is considered as frequency where the normalised gain of the signal drops below 0.707
times the maximum gain.
2. Roll Off
This is the slope of the amplitude versus the frequency graph at the region of the cut-off
frequency. This characteristic differentiates an ideal filter from a non-ideal filter.
3. Quality Factor
This factor determines the gain of the filter at the resonant frequency and the roll-off of the
transfer characteristics on both sides of the resonant frequency.
Active filters are more frequently used as against the passive filters due to their sharper
roll-of and better stability.
4. Types of Filters
There are four kinds of filters, namely
Low-pass filter
High-pass filter
Band-pass filter
Band-stop filter
(a) Low-Pass Filter A low-pass filter allows the low frequencies to pass while attenuates the
higher frequencies. Figure 14.2 shows the ideal low-pass filter characteristics, where ωp is
the filter cut-off frequency. Figure 14.3 shows the circuit diagram of an active low-pass
filter. The actual filter response deviates from the original when implemented. Figure 14.4
shows the practical filter characteristics.

Figure 14.2 Ideal low-pass filter characteristics

 Figure 14.3 Circuit diagram of an active low-pass filter

Figure 14.4 Practical low-pass filter characteristics

Figures 14.2 and 14.3 shows the circuit diagram and the transfer characteristics of a
low-pass filter respectively. As we can see, a low-pass filter allows the low frequencies to
pass while attenuates the higher frequencies.
(b) High-Pass Filter A high-pass filter allows the high frequencies to pass while attenuates
the lower frequencies. Figure 14.5 shows the ideal high-pass filter characteristics, where
wp is the filter cut-off frequency. Figure 14.6 shows the circuit diagram of an active high-
pass filter. The actual filter response deviates from the original when implemented. Figure
14.7 shows the practical filter characteristics.

Figure 14.5 Ideal high-pass filter characteristics

Figure 14.6 Circuit diagram of an active high-pass filter

 Figure 14.7 Practical high-pass filter characteristics

(c) Band-Pass (selective) Filter These are filters which allow frequencies within a certain
range, bound by an upper (wp2) and a lower (wp1) cut-off frequency to pass through,
attenuating other frequencies. These are also known as selective filters and they combine a
low-pass and a high-pass filter in series to give selected band of frequency allowance.
Figure 14.8 and 14.9 shows the characteristics of band-pass filter for an ideal and a real
filter respectively.

Figure 14.8 Ideal band-pass filter characteristics

Figure 14.9 Practical band-pass filter characteristics

(d) Band-stop (Notch) Filters This kind of filter attenuates a certain band of frequencies and
lets all other frequencies to pass through. They use a parallel combination of a high and
low-pass filters to give the required attenuation of a band of frequencies. They are also
known as notch. Figure 14.10 and 14.11 show the ideal and practical band-stop filter
characteristics of a band-stop filter.
 Figure 14.10 Ideal band-stop filter characteristics

Figure 14.11 Ideal band-stop filter characteristics

(e) Butterworth Filter This is a kind of active filter which provides a better level of low-pass
filtering. This is achieved by cascading two or more stages of low-pass filters. The number
of stages of filtering determines how sharp the roll-off is at the cut-off frequency. Figure
14.12 shows a two-stage Butterworth filter.

Figure 14.12 A two-stage Butterworth filter

5. Amplification
It is a process by which an input signal of weak signal strength (low amplitude) is
converted into a signal of higher signal strength (high amplitude), so as to be readable by
the processing devices.
In signal conditioning, amplification serves two main purposes:
Increases resolution of the input signal
Increases Signal-to-Noise ratio (SNR)
Amplification mainly serves for increasing resolution of the input signal. If, for
example, a low-level signal of the order of a few mV is fed to a 12-bit ADC, there will be
a loss of precision as the resolution of the ADC is of the order of 2 mV. However, if the
signal is amplified to the order of 10 V (full scale voltage for ADC), we get the maximum
precision. The highest possible resolution can be achieved by amplifying the input signal
so that the maximum input voltage swing equals the maximum input range of the ADC.
Another important function of amplification is to achieve high signal-to-noise ratio.
Amplifying a signal before sending it through a cable to the receiving end enables high
SNR to the noises introduced in the path having noise interference. This ensures the
improved precision of the measurement. If, however, the signal is amplified after the noise
interference causes low SNR which implies the noise causes a considerable error in the
input signal.
6. Linearisation
It is the modification of a system so that its outputs are approximately linear functions of
its inputs, in order to facilitate analysis of the system.
It is seen that sometimes the data output by transducers bear a non-linear relationship
with the measured phenomenon over a range of the measured variable. A good example of
such relation is thermocouples. Such non-linear relationships need to be properly
linearised for analysis of data. Typically, the DAQ software facilitates the linearisation of
the signals. However, if the signal has a periodic and repeatable non-linear relation, an
intelligent signal conditioning hardware may as well provide such linearisation. This
however, requires the signal conditioning module to be modified for a particular type of
transducer. The result then can be sent directly to the host PC directly without undergoing
linearisation as the signal is directly related to the measured phenomenon
7. Isolation
Signal-conditioning equipment can also be used to provide isolation of transducer signals
from the computer where there is a possibility that high-voltage transients may occur
within the system being monitored, either due to electrostatic discharge or electrical
failure. Isolation protects expensive computer equipment from damage and computer
operators from injury. In addition, where common-mode voltage levels are high or there is
a need for extremely low common-mode leakage current, as for medical applications,
isolation allows measurements to be accurately and safely obtained.
Isolation in signal conditioning refers to the transmission signal from the source to
measuring device without physical connection. The most common methods of circuit
isolation include opto-isolation, magnetic or capacitive isolation. While opto-isolation is
used for digital signals, magnetic and capacitive isolations are used for analog signals.
Magnetic or capacitive isolation involves the modulation of the signal converting it from
voltage to frequency signal and the transmitting it over a transformer or a capacitor, when
it is again converted back to a voltage signal.
Isolation of the signal source is very crucial where there is a risk of high voltage
transients caused by electrostatic discharge, lightning, or high-voltage equipment failure,
which may ruin the expensive DAQ equipment if not isolated from the signal source and
may also cause serious injuries to humans handling the equipment. Also using isolation
prevents complexities caused by common-mode voltages and ground loops.
System isolation can be carried out in the following ways:
By using isolation transformer in order to reject the common-mode voltage appearing
on the signal lines
By using buffer amplifiers to isolate the input signals from ground noise
By isolating system ground references
8. Excitation
The transducers generally provide for the excitation signals required by the DAQ
hardware and data manipulation. However, in some cases, the transducers require external
excitation due to weak signal generation, non-electrical signal generation or due to noise
interference and other factors. The signal-conditioning hardware provides for such
excitation signals. The transducers which convert the non-electrical values into electrical
(voltage or current) signals are known as active transducers. These transducers do not
generally require external excitation. Other devices known as passive transducers change
an electrical network value, such as resistance, inductance or capacitance, according to
changes in the physical quantity being measured. Strain gauges (resistive change to stress)
and LVDTs (inductance change to displacement) are two examples of this. To be able to
detect such changes, passive devices require external excitation.
14.3.4 The Computer
The PC used in a data acquisition system can greatly affect the speeds at which data can
be continuously and accurately acquired, processed, and stored for a particular application.
Where high-speed data acquisition is performed with a plug-in expansion board, the
throughput provided by bus architectures, such as the PCI expansion bus, is higher than
that delivered by the standard ISA or EISA expansion bus of the PC.
The particular application, the microprocessor speed, hard-disk access time, disk
capacity and the types of data transfer available, can all have an impact on the speed at
which the computer is able to continuously acquire data. All PCs, for example, are capable
of programmed I/O and interrupt-driven data transfers. The use of Direct Memory Access
(DMA), in which dedicated hardware is used to transfer data directly into the computer’s
memory, greatly increases the system throughput and leaves the computer’s
microprocessor free for other tasks. In normal operation, the data acquired, from a plug-in
data acquisition board or other DAQ hardware (e.g. data logger), is stored directly to
system memory. Where the available system memory exceeds the amount of data to be
acquired, data can be transferred to permanent storage, such as a hard disk, at any time.
The speed at which the data is transferred to permanent storage does not affect the overall
throughput of the data acquisition system.
If real-time processing of the acquired data is needed, the performance of the
computer’s processor is paramount. A minimum requirement for high-frequency signals
acquired at high sampling rates would be a 32-bit processor with its accompanying
coprocessor, or alternatively a dedicated plug-in processor. Low frequency signals, for
which only a few samples are processed each second, would obviously not require the
same level of processing power. A low-end PC would, therefore, be satisfactory. Clearly,
the performance requirements of the host computer must be matched to the specific
application. As with all aspects of a data acquisition system, the choice of computer is a
compromise between cost and the current and future requirements it must meet.
One final aspect of the personal computer that should be considered is the type of
operating system installed. This may be single-tasking (e.g. MS-DOS) or multitasking
(e.g. Windows 2000). While the multitasking nature of Windows provides many
advantages for a wide range of applications, its use in data acquisition is not as clear.
The computer provides a processor, a system clock, a bus to transfer data, and memory
and disk space to store data. The processor controls how fast data is accepted by the
converter. The system clock provides time information about the acquired data. Data is
transferred from the hardware to system memory via Dynamic Memory Access (DMA) or
interrupts. DMA is hardware controlled and therefore extremely fast. Interrupts might be
slow because of the latency time between when a board requests interrupt servicing and
when the computer responds. The maximum acquisition rate is also determined by the
computer’s bus architecture.
14.3.5 Software
Regardless of the hardware you are using, you must send information to the hardware and
receive information from the hardware. You send configuration information to the
hardware such as the sampling rate, and receive information from the hardware such as
data, status messages, and error messages. You might also need to supply the hardware
with information so that you can integrate it with other hardware and with computer
resources. This information exchange is accomplished with software. There are two kinds
of software:
Driver software
Application software
1. Driver Software
It allows us to access and control the capabilities of hardware. Among other things, basic
driver software allows us to
Bring data on to and get data off the board
Control the rate at which data is acquired
Integrate the data acquisition hardware with computer resources such as processor
interrupts, DMA and memory
Integrate the data acquisition hardware with signal-conditioning hardware
Access multiple subsystems on a given data acquisition board
Access multiple data acquisition boards
2. Application Software
It provides a convenient front end to the driver software. It allows us to
Report relevant information such as the number of samples acquired
Manage the data stored in computer memory
Condition a signal
Plot acquired data

14.4 ANALOG INPUT SUBSYSTEM

Many data acquisition hardware devices contain one or more subsystems that convert
(digitise) real-world sensor signals into numbers which computers can read. Such devices
are called analog input subsystems (AI subsystems, A/D converters, or ADCs). Analog
input subsystems convert real-world analog input signals from a sensor into bits that can
be read by our computer. Perhaps the most important of all the subsystems commonly
available, they are typically multichannel devices offering 12 or 16 bits of resolution.
14.4.1 Nyquist Criterion
Analog signals are continuous in time and in amplitude (within predefined limits).
Sampling takes a “snapshot” of the signal at discrete times, while quantisation divides the
voltage (or current) value into discrete amplitudes.
Sampling frequency has to be at least twice the frequency of the event that requires
capture.
This rule is called the Nyquist Criterion. If one fails to follow this rule then a
phenomenon called aliasing occurs. Aliasing is when a frequency higher than half of our
sampling frequency gets “folded” back onto a frequency that is less than half of our
sampling frequency. This creates a ghost signal that can really mess up our results.
14.4.2 A/D Conversion
A process of converting an analog signal into a digital signal comprises measuring the
amplitude of the analog signal at consistent time intervals and producing a set of signals
representing the measured digital value. The information in the digital signals and the
known time interval enables one to convert the digital signal back to the analog signal.
Analog to digital conversion of a continuous input signal normally occurs in two steps:
sampling and quantisation. The sampler takes a time-varying analog input signal and
converts it to a fixed voltage, current, electrical charge, or other output level. The
quantiser takes the constant sampled level and compares it to the closest level from a
discrete range of values called quantisation levels. The performance of analog and digital
converters is typically quantified by two primary parameters, speed (in samples per
second) and resolution (in bits). Higher resolution A/D converters typically require a large
signal-to-noise ratio and good linearity. A/D converters with high sampling rates are
frequently desired, but generally have lower resolution. There are two basic techniques for
performing analog-to-digital conversion: an open-loop technique and a feedback
technique.
14.4.3 Different Types of A/D Converters
While all analog-to-digital converters are classified by their resolution or number of bits,
how the A/D circuitry achieves this resolution varies from device to device. There are four
primary types of A/D converters used for industrial and laboratory applications:
Successive approximation
Flash/Parallel
Integrating
Ramp/Counting
Industrial and lab data acquisition tasks typically require 12 to 16 bits—12 are the most
common. As a rule, increasing resolution results in higher costs and slower conversion
speed.
Table 14.3 Comparison of different A/D converters
1. Successive Approximation
A successive approximation ADC is a type of analog-to-digital converter that converts a
continuous analog waveform into a discrete digital representation via a binary search
through all possible quantisation levels before finally converging upon a digital output for
each conversion. It is the most common A/D converter design used for general industrial
and laboratory applications (Figure 14.13). This design provides an effective compromise
among resolution, speed, and cost. An internal digital-to-analog (D/A) converter and a
single comparator—essentially a circuit determines which of two voltages is higher—are
used to narrow in on the unknown voltage by turning bits in the D/A converter on until the
voltages match to within the least significant bit.

Figure 14.13 A/D conversion by successive approximation

2. Flash/Parallel
A flash A/D converter includes a reference voltage generator for generating a plurality of
reference voltages, a first group of amplifiers having a plurality of amplifiers. Each of
these amplifies a difference voltage between each reference voltage (generated by the
reference voltage generator and a voltage of an input signal) and a second group of
amplifiers having a plurality of amplifiers. It is used when higher speed operation is
required. This design uses multiple comparators in parallel to process samples at more
than 100 MHz with 8 to 12-bit resolution. Conversion is accomplished by a string of
comparators with appropriate references operating in parallel (Figure 14.14).
The downside of this design is the large number of relatively expensive comparators
that are required—for example; a 12-bit converter requires 4,095 comparators.
 Figure 14.14 A/D Conversion by Flash/Parallel technique

3. Integrating
Integrating analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) provide high resolution and can provide
good line frequency and noise rejection. This type of A/D converter integrates an
unknown input voltage for a specific period of time and then integrates it back down to
zero. This time is compared to the amount of time taken to perform a similar integration
on a known reference voltage. The relative times required and the known reference
voltage then yields the unknown input voltage. Integrating converters with 12 to 18-bit
resolution are available, at raw sampling rates of 10–500 kHz. These types of converters
often include built-in drivers for LCD or LED displays and are found in many portable
instrument applications, including digital panel meters and digital multimeters.
It also smoothes out signal noise because this type of design effectively averages the
input voltage over time. And, if an integration period is chosen that is a multiple of the ac
line frequency, excellent common-mode noise rejection is achieved. More accurate and
more linear than successive approximation converters, integrating converters are a good
choice for low-level voltage signals.
4. Ramp/Counter
The flash (simultaneous) A/D converter uses several voltage comparators that compare
reference voltages with the analog input voltage. These converters use one comparator
circuit and a D/A converter (Figure 14.15). This design progressively increments a digital
counter and with each new count generates the corresponding analog voltage and
compares it to the unknown input voltage. When agreement is indicated, the counter
contains the digital equivalent of the unknown signal. The advantage of this circuit is that
it provides a faster method of analog-to-digital conversion.
A variation on the counter method is the ramp method, which substitutes an operational
amplifier or other analog ramping circuit for the D/A converter. This technique is
somewhat faster.

Figure 14.15 A/D Conversion by counting/ramp technique

14.4.3 Performance
Performance of a ADC is judged by obtaining following parameters:
1. Resolution
Central to the performance of an A/D converter is its resolution, often expressed in bits.
An A/D converter essentially divides the analog input range into 2N bits, where N is the
number of bits. In other words, resolution is a measure of the number of levels used to
represent the analog input range and determines the converter’s sensitivity to a change in
analog input. Amplification of the signal, or input gain, can be used to increase the
apparent sensitivity if the signal’s expected maximum range is less than the input range of
the A/D converter. As higher resolution A/D converters cost more, it is especially
important to not buy more resolution than one needs—if one has 1% accurate (1 in 100)
temperature transducers, a 16-bit (1 in 65,536) A/D converter has probably more
resolution than one needs.
2. Voltage Stability
Absolute accuracy of the A/D conversion is a function of the reference voltage stability
(the known voltage to which the unknown voltage is compared) as well as the comparator
performance. Overall, it is of limited use to know the accuracy of the A/D converter itself.
Accuracy of the system, together with the associated multiplexer, amplifier, and other
circuitry is typically more meaningful.
3. Speed
The other primary A/D converter performance parameter that must be considered is speed-
throughput for a multi-channel device. Overall, system speed depends on the conversion
time, acquisition time, transfer time, and the number of channels being served by the
system.
4. Acquisition
Acquisition is the time needed by the front-end analog circuitry to acquire a signal. Also
called aperture time, it is the time for which the converter must see the analog voltage in
order to complete a conversion. Conversion is the time needed to produce a digital value
corresponding to the analog value. Transfer is the time needed to send the digital value to
the host computer’s memory. Throughput, then, equals the number of channels being
served divided by the time required to do all three functions.

An analog to digital converter (ADC) measures voltages in

Example 14.1 the range of 0 to 25 V and has 12-bit accuracy. What is the
smallest voltage step that the ADC can resolve?
Solution 12 bits = 212 = 4096

Therefore, the ADC can measure 4096 different values of voltage (from 0 to 4095
inclusive), the number of voltage steps is thus 4095 (one fewer than the number of
different values available). Assuming that we set digital 0 to be equivalent to 0 V and
digital 4095 to be equivalent to 25 V, each voltage step is simply given by
25 V/4095 = 0.006105 V = 6.105 mV

Example 14.2 Determine the number of output bits required for an ADC
so that quantising error less than 1 %.
Solution For 1 % quantising error, count ≥ 100.

For n = 6, N = 26 – 1 = 63
 For n = 7, N = 27 – 1 = 127

A ramp-type ADC system uses a 10 MHz clock generator

Example 14.3 and a ramp voltage that increases from 0 V to 1.25 V in a
time of 125 ms. Determine the number of clock pulses
counted into the register when V = 0.9 V, and when it is
0.75 V.
Solution For Vr = 1.25 V, tr = 125 ms

If 3.45 V is applied to a 4-bit successive-approximation-type

Example 14.4 A/D converter which has a reference voltage of 5 V, what
will be the digital output of the ADC?
Set d3 = 1, Output 5/21 = 2.5 V.
Now, 3.45 > 2.5 and set d3 = 1
Set d2 = 1, Output = 2.5 + =3.75
Now, 3.45 < 3.75 and set d2 = 0
Set d1 = 1, Output = 2.5 + =3.125
Now, 3.125 < 3.45 and set d1 = 1
Set d0 = 1, Output = 3.125 + = 3.4375
Now, 3.4375 < 3.45 and set d0 = 1.
Thus, the output of the A/D converter is 1011.

14.5 ANALOG OUTPUT SUBSYSTEM

Analog outputs commonly are used to operate final control elements in industrial
environments like valves and motors. An analog output subsystem mainly consist of a
Digital-to-Analog (D/A) converter, which is functionally opposite to an A/D converter.
Similar to analog input configurations, a common D/A converter often is shared among
multiplexed output signals. Standard analog output ranges are often same as analog input
standards: ±5 V dc, ±10 V dc, 0–10 V dc, and 4–20 mA dc, etc.
1. Key Specifications of an Analog Output Subsystem
(a) Settling Time Period required for a D/A converter to respond to a full-scale set point
change.
(b) Linearity This refers to the device’s ability to accurately divide the reference voltage
into evenly sized increments.
(c) Range The reference voltage sets the limit on the output voltage achievable.

2. D/A Conversion
A digital-to-analog converter, or simply DAC, is a semiconductor device that is used to
convert a digital code into an analog signal. Digital-to-analog conversion is the primary
means by which digital equipment such as computer-based systems are able to translate
digital data into real-world signals that are more understandable to or useable by humans,
such as music, speech, pictures, video, and the like. It also allows digital control of
machines, equipment, household appliances, and the like.
Essentially, the logic circuitry for an analog voltage output uses a digital word or series
of bits, to drop in (or drop out, depending on whether the bit is 1 or 0) a series of resistors
from a circuit driven by a reference voltage. This ladder of resistors can be made of either
weighted-value resistors or an R-2R network using only two resistor values—one if placed
in series (Figure 14.16). While operation of the weighted-value network is more
intuitively obvious, the R-2R scheme is more practical. Because only one resistor value
need be used, it is easier to match the temperature coefficients of an R-2R ladder than a
weighted network, resulting in more accurate outputs. Plus, for high resolution outputs,
very high resistor values are needed in the weighted-resistor approach.

Figure 14.16 Weighted value and single-value resistor networks for D/A conversion

By the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, sampled data can be reconstructed

perfectly provided that its bandwidth meets certain requirements (e.g., a base-band signal
with bandwidth less than the Nyquist frequency). However, even with an ideal
reconstruction filter, digital sampling introduces quantisation error that makes perfect
reconstruction practically impossible. Increasing the digital resolution (i.e., increasing the
number of bits used in each sample) or introducing sampling dither can reduce this error.
14.5.1 Different Types of DACs
The most common types of electronic DACs are the following:
1. Pulse Width Modulator
It is the simplest DAC type. A stable current or voltage is switched into a low-pass analog
filter with a duration determined by the digital input code. This technique is often used for
electric motor speed control, and is now becoming common in high-fidelity audio.
2. Oversampling DACs or Interpolating DACs
They use a pulse density conversion technique. The oversampling technique allows for the
use of a lower resolution DAC internally. A simple 1-bit DAC is often chosen because the
oversampled result is inherently linear. The DAC is driven with a pulse density modulated
signal, created with the use of a low-pass filter, step nonlinearity (the actual 1-bit DAC),
and negative feedback loop, in a technique called delta-sigma modulation. This results in
an effective high-pass filter acting on the quantisation (signal processing) noise, thus
steering this noise out of the low frequencies of interest into the high frequencies of little
interest, which is called noise shaping (very high frequencies because of the over
sampling). The quantisation noise at these high frequencies are removed or greatly
attenuated by use of an analog low-pass filter at the output (sometimes a simple RC low-
pass circuit is sufficient). Most very-high-resolution DACs (greater than 16 bits) are of
this type due to high linearity and low cost. Higher oversampling rates can relax the
specifications of the output low-pass filter and enable further suppression of quantisation
noise. Speeds of greater than 100 thousand samples per second (for example, 192 kHz)
and resolutions of 24 bits are attainable with Delta-Sigma DACs.
3. Binary Weighted DAC
It contains one resistor or current source for each bit of the DAC connected to a summing
point. These precise voltages or currents sum to the correct output value. This is one of the
fastest conversion methods but suffers from poor accuracy because of the high precision
required for each individual voltage or current. Such high-precision resistors and current
sources are expensive, so this type of converter is usually limited to 8-bit resolution or
less.
4. R-2R Ladder DAC
It is a binary weighted DAC that uses a repeating cascaded structure of resistor values R
and 2R as shown in Figure 14.17. This improves the precision due to the relative ease of
producing equal-valued matched resistors (or current sources). However, wide converters
perform slowly due to increasingly large RC-constants for each added R-2R link.
 Figure 14.17 R-2R ladder DAC

5. Thermometer Coded DAC

It contains an equal resistor or current source segment for each possible value of DAC
output. An 8-bit thermometer DAC would have 255 segments, and a 16-bit thermometer
DAC would have 65,535 segments. This is perhaps the fastest and highest precision DAC
architecture but at the expense of high cost. Conversion speeds of >1 billion samples per
second have been reached with this type of DAC.
6. Hybrid DAC
It uses a combination of the above techniques in a single converter. Most DAC integrated
circuits are of this type due to the difficulty of getting low cost, high speed and high
precision in one device.
14.5.2 DAC Performance
DACs are at the beginning of the analog signal chain, which makes them very important
to system performance. The most important characteristics of these devices are the
following:
1. Resolution
This is the number of possible output levels the DAC is designed to reproduce. This is
usually stated as the number of bits it uses, which is the base two logarithm of the number
of levels. For instance, a 1 bit DAC is designed to reproduce 2 (21) levels while an 8 bit
DAC is designed for 256 (28) levels. Resolution is related to the Effective Number of Bits
(ENOB) which is a measurement of the actual resolution attained by the DAC.
2. Maximum Sampling Frequency
This is a measurement of the maximum speed at which the DACs circuitry can operate
and still produce the correct output. As stated in the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem,
a signal must be sampled at over twice the frequency of the desired signal. For instance, to
reproduce signals in all the audible spectrum, which includes frequencies of up to 20 kHz,
it is necessary to use DACs that operate at over 40 kHz. The CD standard samples audio at
44.1 kHz, thus, DACs of this frequency are often used. A common frequency in cheap
computer sound cards is 48 kHz — many work at only this frequency, offering the use of
other sample rates only through (often poor) internal resampling.
3. Monotonicity
This refers to the ability of DAC’s analog output to increase with an increase in digital
code or the converse. This characteristic is very important for DACs used as a low-
frequency signal source or as a digitally programmable trim element.
4. THD+N
This is a measurement of the distortion and noise introduced to the signal by the DAC. It
is expressed as a percentage of the total power of unwanted harmonic distortion and noise
that accompany the desired signal. This is a very important DAC characteristic for
dynamic and small-signal DAC applications.
5. Dynamic Range
This is a measurement of the difference between the largest and smallest signals the DAC
can reproduce expressed in decibels. This is usually related to DAC resolution and noise
floor.

Given a 3-bit DAC with a 1 V full-scale voltage and

Example 14.5 accuracy ±0.2%, find its resolution and accuracy in terms
of voltage.

An 8-bit D/A converter has +Vref = 5 V and –Vref = 0 V

Example 14.6
(Reference voltages). What is the output voltage when Bin =
10110100? Find also VLSB.
Solution

A 6-bit D/A converter has a reference voltage of 10 V.

Example 14.7 Calculate the minimum value of R such that the maximum
value of output current does not exceed 10 mA. Find also
the smallest quantised value of output current.
Solution
 A 6-bit D/A converter having 320 kW resistances is in LSB
Example 14.8 position. The converter is designed with weighted resistive
network. The reference voltage is 10 V. The output of the
resistive network is connected to an OP-AMP with a
feedback resistance of 5 kW. What is the output voltage for
a binary input of 111.010?
Solution

14.6 DIGITAL INPUT AND OUTPUT SUBSYSTEM

We saw that analog transducers sense continuous variables such as pressure and
temperature and send the output in a continuous form to the ADC (analog to digital
converter) via a signal conditioning device. In contrast to that, many transducers provide
an output that is one of two states: high or low, open or closed, on or off, etc. For example,
pressure might be too high or a temperature too low, triggering closure of a switch. This
kind of input which is provided to the computer by the transducer is known as the digital
input.
Outputs, too, are not always strictly analog. For example, solenoid valves typically are
opened or closed; many pumps and heaters are simply turned on or off. The output of a
printer is also purely digital in nature.
Digital I/O interfaces are commonly used in PC based DAQ systems to provide
monitoring and control for industrial processes, generate patterns for testing in the
laboratory and communicate with peripheral equipment such as data loggers and printers
which have parallel digital I/O capabilities.
It is clear that these types of digital, or discrete, inputs and outputs (I/O) are much easier
for microprocessor-based data acquisition systems to deal with than analog signals as the
computer has a fully binary environment. Similar to analog-to-digital converters used for
analog I/O, digital I/O is designed to deal directly with Transistor-to-Transistor Logic
(TTL) level voltage changes. TTL typically sets the low-voltage level between 0 and 0.8 V
and the high-voltage level between 2.0 and 5.0 V. Voltage levels between 0.8 and 2.0 V are
not allowed. A voltage change, then, from the high range to the low range (or vice versa)
represents a digital change of state from high to low, on to off, etc. and because acquiring
an analog signal is more complex than acquiring a digital one, analog I/O channels also
are more expensive. A clear comparison of the complexity in acquiring a signal in analog
and digital forms is shown in Figure 18.

Figure 14.18 Comparison of digital and analog input

14.6.1 Digital Inputs

Many types of digital input signals from switch closures, relay contacts, or TTL
compatible interfaces can be read directly by digital I/O cards (Figure 14.18). Other types
of inputs may require some signal-conditioning, most likely to reduce higher level voltage
changes to TTL levels. A variety of signal-conditioning modules are available to provide
isolation and other digital-conditioning functions. The most common type of digital input
is the contact closure (Figure 14.19). Essentially, a sensor or switch of some type closes or
opens a set of contacts in accordance with some process change. An applied electrical
signal then determines whether the circuit is open or closed. Current flows if the circuit is
closed, registering a “1” in a transistor at the computer interface. Conversely, an open
circuit retains a high voltage (and no current), registering a “0” at the transistor.

Figure 14.19 Contact type digital input

14.6.2 Digital Outputs

At its simplest, a digital output provides a means of turning something on or off.
Applications range from driving a relay to turning on an indicator lamp to transmitting
data to another computer. For latching outputs, a “1” typically causes the associated switch
or relay to latch, while a “0” causes the switch to unlatch. Devices can be turned on or off,
depending on whether the external contacts are normally open or normally closed.
Standard TTL level signals can be used to drive 5 V relay coils; a protective diode is used
to protect the digital output circuitry (Figure 14.20). Because data acquisition boards can
typically supply only 24 mA of driving current, they are intended primarily to drive other
logic circuits, not final control elements. Scaling may be needed so that logical voltage
levels are sufficient to cause switching in larger relays. Outputs intended to drive larger
solenoids, contactors, motors, or alarms also may require a boost.

Figure 14.20 Contact type digital input

14.6.3 Counter/Timer and Pulse I/O

A somewhat separate class of digital I/O is pulse inputs and outputs, which typically is
associated with frequency, counting or totalisation applications. Pulse inputs might be
used to count the rotations of a turbine flowmeter; pulse outputs might be used to drive a
stepping motor.
Pulse inputs are handled in much the same way as digital logic inputs, but the output of
the sensing circuit is normally connected to a counter rather than a specific bit position in
the input register. Successive pulses increment or decrement the counter. Add an elapsed
time measure and a frequency or pulse rate can readily be determined. Similar to an
analog-to-digital converter, a counter is characterised by its number of bits—an N-bit
counter can accumulate up to 2N discrete events. Thus, a 16-bit counter can count to 216 =
65,536.

14.7 IEEE 488 INTERFACE

In 1965, Hewlett-Packard designed the Hewlett-Packard Interface Bus ( HP–IB ) to
connect programmable instruments with computers. A high transfer rate around 1
Mbytes/second was possible to realise and due to this high transfer rate, this interface bus
quickly gained popularity. It was later accepted as IEEE Standard 488-1975, and has
evolved to ANSI/IEEE Standard 488.1-1987. Today, the name General Purpose Interface
Bus (GPIB) is more widely used than HP-IB. ANSI/IEEE 488.2-1987 strengthened the
original standard by defining precisely how controllers and instruments communicate.
Up to 15 devices can be connected in a single IEEE 488 bus by daisy-chaining. The
speed is determined by the slowest device participating in the control and data-transfer
handshakes. The GPIB bus is an 8-bit wide parallel interface system. The bus consists of 5
control lines, 3 handshake lines, 8 bi-directional data lines. It has a total of 24 lines, with
the remaining lines occupied by ground wires. Additional features include TTL logic
levels (negative true logic). It has the ability to communicate in a number of different
language formats, and no minimum operational transfer limit. The maximum data-transfer
rate is determined by a number of factors, often it is realised in 1 Mb/s.
Devices connected in the bus can be classified in the following category:
1. Controller
2. Talker
3. Listener
Figure 14.21 shows the connection of these three types of devices.

Figure 14.21 Connection diagram of different devices with IEEE GPIB bus

A single device connected can have all the three or any two or at least any one of these
features, but only one option will be active at a time. The first function of the bus
controller (which is only one at a time) is to determin which device is active on the bus.
There may be many numbers of active listeners existing on the bus with an active talker as
long as no more then 15 devices are connected to the bus. The controller sends interface
messages over the bus to a particular active instrument. Each individual device is
associated with a unique 5-bit BCD code (ID number). By using this code, the controller
can coordinate the activities on the bus and the individual devices can be made to talk,
listen (un-talk, unlisten) as determined by the controller.
1. Data Lines
The eight data lines, DIO1 through DIO8, carry both data and command messages. The
state of the Attention (ATN) line determines whether the information is data or commands.
All commands and most data use the 7-bit ASCII or ISO code set, in which case the eighth
bit, DIO8, is either unused or used for parity.
2. Handshake Lines
Three lines asynchronously control the transfer of message bytes between devices. The
process is called a 3-wire interlocked handshake. It guarantees that message bytes on the
data lines are sent and received without transmission error.
(a) NRFD (Not Ready For Data) This indicates when a device is ready or not ready to receive a
message byte. The line is driven by all devices when receiving commands, by Listeners
when receiving data messages, and by the Talker when enabling the HS488 protocol.
(b) NDAC (Not Data Accepted) This indicates when a device has or has not accepted a
message byte. The line is driven by all devices when receiving commands, and by
listeners when receiving data messages.
(c) DAV (Data Valid) This tells when the signals on the data lines are stable (valid) and can be
accepted safely by devices. The Controller drives DAV when sending commands, and the
Talker drives DAV when sending data messages.
3. Interface Management Lines
Five lines manage the flow of information across the interface:
(a) ATN (Attention) The Controller drives ATN true when it uses the data lines to send
commands, and drives ATN false when a Talker can send data messages.
(b) IFC (Interface Clear) The System Controller drives the IFC line to initialise the bus and
become CIC.
(c) REN (Remote Enable) The System Controller drives the REN line, which is used to place
devices in remote or local program mode.
(d) SRQ (Service Request) Any device can drive the SRQ line to asynchronously request
service from the Controller.
(e) EOI (End or Identify) The EOI line has two purposes—the Talker uses the EOI line to
mark the end of a message string, and the Controller uses the EOI line to tell devices to
identify their response in a parallel poll.
Figure 14.22 Pin-out description of GPIB bus

Figure 14.22 pin-out description of GPIB bus

4. GPIB Data Transfer Operation

The three lines (DAV, NRFD and NDAC) are used to form three handshake lines which
control the passage of data. The active talker controls the ‘DAV’ line (Data Valid) and the
listener(s) control the ‘NRFD’ (Not Ready For Data), and the ‘NDAC’ (Not Data
Accepted) line. In the steady state mode, the Talker hold ‘DAV’ high (no data available)
while the listener hold ‘NRFD’ high (ready for data) and ‘NDAC’ low (no data accepted.
After the talker placed data on the bus it then takes ‘DAV’ low (data valid). The
Listener(s) then send ‘NRFD’ low and send ‘NDAC’ high (data accepted). Before the
Talker lifts the data off the bus, ‘DAV’ is taken high signifying that data is no longer valid.
If the ‘ATN’ line (attention) is high while this process occurs, the information is
considered data but with the “ATN’ line low, the information is regarded as an interface
message. The other five lines on the bus (‘ATN’ included) are the bus-management lines.
These lines enable the Controller and other devices on the bus to enable, interrupt, flag,
and halt the operation of the bus.
All lines in the GPIB are tri-state except for ‘SQR’, ‘NRFD’, and ‘NDAC’ which are
open-collector. The standard bus termination is a 3K resistor connected to 5 volts in series
with a 6.2K resistor to ground — all values having a 5% tolerance.
The standard also allows for identification of the devices on the bus. Each device should
have a string of 1 or 2 letters placed somewhere on the body of the device (near or on the
GPIB connector). These letters signify the capabilities of the device on the GPIB bus.
Table 14.4 Device capabilities on the GPIB bus

C Controller
T Talker
L Listener
AH Acceptor Handshake
SH Source Handshake
DC Device Clear
DT Device Trigger
RL Remote Local
PP Parallel Poll
TE Talker Extended
LE Listener Extended

Devices are connected together on the bus in a daisy-chained fashion. Normally, the
GPIB connector (after being connected to the device with the male side) has a female
interface so that another connector may be attached to it. This allows the devices to be
daisy chained. Devices are connected together in either a linear or star fashion.

EXERCISE

Objective-type Questions
1. The function of data acquisition system is
(a) acquiring physical phenomena from the real world
(b) sending signal to real world
(c) processing and analysing of signal
(d) all of the above
2. Identify the element which is not part of a data acquisition system:
(a) Digital to analog converter
(b) Filter
(c) Display
(d) Timer
3. Which A/D converter has highest conversion time?
(a) Flash type
 (b) Dual slope integrating
(c) Successive approximation
(d) Ramp/Counting
4. How many devices can be connected in a single IEEE 488 bus?
(a) 15
(b) 16
(c) 32
(d) Infinite
5. A signal has minimum and maximum values of –5 V and +5 V respectively. To record a 0.01 V change of the
signal value, what bit length of A/D converter is required?
(a) 4 bit
(b) 8 bit
(c) 10 bit
(d) None of these
6. The function of notch filter is
(a) pass high frequency signal
(b) pass a particular band of signal
(c) pass low frequency signal
(d) none of these
7. If a signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz to 20 kHz, what will be the minimum sampling frequency to acquire the
signal so that the signal can be reproduced properly?
(a) 20 Hz
(b) > 20 Hz but < 20 kHz
(c) < 20 kHz
(d) > 20 kHz
8. The correct TTL logic levels are
(a) 0–0.8 V and 2.0–5.0 V
(b) 0–0.4 V and 2.4–5.0 V
(c) 0 V and 5 V
(d) 0–0.1 V and 4.9–5.0 V
9. An IEEE 488 bus contains
(a) 8 data lines and 1a Address lines
(b) 5 control lines, 3 handshake lines and 8 data lines
(c) 3 control lines, 5 handshake lines and 8 data lines
(d) 5 control lines, 3 hand shake lines, 8 data lines and 4 address lines
10. Which may not be the feature of a data acquisition application software?
(a) Manage the data stored in computer memory
(b) Plot acquired data
(c) Report relevant information such as the number of samples acquired
(d) Acquire data from real world
 Short-answer Questions
1. Define a data acquisition system and draw the functional block diagram of a typical DAQ.
2. What are the different components of a DAQ? Briefly discuss those.
3. What are the different signal-conditioning units a data acquisition system contains? Briefly discuss those.
4. What are the different processes for isolation of field instrument from DAQ hardware?
5. State the different functions of driver software of a typical DAQ system.
6. Compare successive approximation, flash, integrating and ramp ADC.
7. Compare R-2R DAC with a binary weighted DAC.
8. How are the digital input and output system connected with digital I/O pins of DAQ hardware?
9. How do the devices connected with IEEE 488 bus communicate with each other?
10. Write down the different functions of 5 control signals of IEEE 488 bus.

Long-answer Questions
1. An 8-bit ADC is converting a temperature signal which has a measuring range of 0 deg C to 800 deg C. Calculate
the resolution of the temperature-measuring instrument.
2. Suppose a 10-bit ADC has +Vref and –Vref of +5 V and –5 V respectively. If the ADC is being used to convert a
signal having minimum and maximum value of –1 V and +1 V then what amount of smallest voltage change can
the ADC distinguish?
3. A ramp-type ADC system uses a 20 MHz clock generator and a ramp voltage that increases from 0 V to 5 V in a
time of 0.5 sec. Determine the number of clock pulses counted into the register when V = 1 V, and when it is 2.5 V.
4. A 4-bit D/A converter has 320 kW resistances in LSB position. The converter is designed with weighted resistive
network. The reference voltage is +5 V. The output of the resistive network is connected to an OP-AMP with a
feedback resistance of 5 kW. What is the output voltage for a binary input of 101.110?
5. An 8-bit D/A converter has –Vref = –5 V and +Vref = +5 V respectively. Then calculate the output voltage when an
input of 14010 (decimal) is given in the input of DAC. Also, find the VLSB.
 15.1 INTRODUCTION

After collecting information about the state of some process, the next consideration is how
to present it in a form where it can be readily used and analysed. This chapter, therefore,
starts by covering the techniques available to either display measurement data for current
use or record it for future use. Following this, standards of good practice for presenting
data in either graphical or tabular form are covered, using either paper or a computer
monitor screen as the display medium.
Nowadays, a wide variety of recorders are used in industry, laboratory and various
fields Covering all these in a chapter is a formidable task. An attempt has therefore been
made to classify the more common types of chart recorders. The definition of a chart
recorder is “a device for producing, as a permanent record in analog form, the change of
a variable signal (x) against time (t) (whether this be continuous or intermittent)”. In this
section, only electrically actuated recorders will be considered, although in many
applications, such as the recording of pressure, mechanically actuated devices are used.
However, with the increasing requirement for display as well as recording at a remote
central point, where the information is also required to be passed for data processing, there
is a greater tendency nowadays to use electrical methods employing suitable transducers.
Many techniques now exist for recording measurement data in a form that permits
subsequent analysis, particularly for looking at the historical behaviour of measured
parameters in fault diagnosis procedures. The earliest recording instruments used were
various forms of mechanical chart recorders. Whilst many of these remain in use, most
modern forms of chart recorder exist in hybrid forms in which microprocessors are
incorporated to improve performance. The sections below discuss these, along with other
methods of recording signals including digital recorders, magnetic tape recorders, digital
(storage) oscilloscopes and hard-copy devices such as dot-matrix, inkjet and laser printers,
X-Y recorders, ultraviolet recorders and thermal array recorders.
Classification of Recorders
There are many ways for classifying recorders; the popular one is according to the type of
signal to be recorded, which is as follows:
1. Analog recorders
a. Graphic recorder
i. Strip chart recorder
• Galvanometer type
 • Null type
• Potentiometric recorders
• Bridge recorders
• LVDT recorders
ii. Circular chart recorders
iii. X-Y Recorders
b. Magnetic tape recorders
c. Oscillographic recorders
d. Others [hybrid, paperless, ultraviolet and thermal dot matrix recorder]
2. Digital recorders

15.2 ANALOG RECORDERS

These kinds of recorders are used to record analog signals in the form of a chart paper for
keeping the record permanently. Despite the present emphasis by the electronics industry
on digital instrumentation, the use of analog recorders is still popular. As they present an
instantaneous visual indication of the data being recorded, they it it in an analog way,
which is often more meaningful than digital indication to people in the laboratory or on
the production line. There are basically three types of analog recorders available: graphic,
oscillographic and magnetic tape recorders.
15.2.1 Graphic Recorders
A graphic recorder is basically a measuring device which is able to produce in real time a
hard copy of a set of time functions with the purpose of immediate and/or later visual
inspection. The curves/lines are mostly drawn on a (long) strip of paper (from a roll), often
called strip chart recorder. When the curves are drawn on a circular paper, it is called a
circular chart recorder, and when two independent variables are to be recorded on a piece
of paper with respect to each other, it is called an X-Y recorder.
1. Strip Chart Recorder
A strip chart recorder records physical variable with respect to the independent variable
time on a long paper kept in the form of a roll. The independent variable time (t) then
corresponds to the strip-length axis and the physical variables measured (y) are related to
the chart width. Tracings are obtained by a writing process at sites on the chart short axis
(y) corresponding to the physical variables magnitudes with the strip being moved at
constant velocity to generate the time axis. Graphs cannot be interpreted if essential
information is absent; scales and reference levels for each physical variable recorded and
for time are all necessities. Additional information concerning the experimental conditions
of the recording is also necessary and is preferably printed by the apparatus (data,
investigated item, type of experiment, etc.). Figure 15.1 shows different components of a
strip chart recorder. A typical industrial strip chart recorder is shown in Figure 15.2
Strip chart recorders consist of a roll or strip of paper that is passed linearly beneath one
or more pens. As the signal changes, the pens deflect producing the resultant chart. Strip
chart recorders are well suited for recording of continuous processes.

Figure 15.1 Strip chart recorder

Figure 15.2 Industrial strip chart recorder [Manf: Omega Corporation]

A strip chart consists of the following:

(a) Chart/Paper Long graph paper kept on two rollers, lower roller drags the paper vertically
with the help of a motor.
(b) Chart Speed Selector Controls the speed of the roller at some specified speed selected by
the operator and hence controls the time scale.
(c) Range Selector Amplifier or attenuator which is to be adjusted according to the
amplitude level of physical variable. If the physical variable to be recorded is of very low
amplitude then it needs to be amplified with proper gain. The gain value is adjusted by
selecting proper range.
(d) Stylus Driving System Moves the stylus in proportion to the physical variable to be
recorded, in most recorders, a synchronous motor is used for driving the paper.
(e) Stylus Create marking/impression on the moving graph paper [most recorders use a
pointer attached to the stylus, which (pointer) moves over a calibrated scale thus showing
instantaneous value of the quantity being measured].
The most commonly used mechanisms employed for making marks on the papers are
 (i) Pen and ink: Marking with ink-filled stylus

Thermal type: Marking with heated stylus on temperature sensitive paper (e.g. fax
(ii)
paper)

(iii) Impact type: Marking with pressure sensitive paper (e.g. carbon paper)

(iv) Electrostatic stylus: Marking with charged stylus on plain paper

(v) Optical type: Marking with light ray on photosensitive paper

Strip chart recorders are commonly used in laboratory as well as process measurement
applications. Modern strip chart recorders have the facility of

(i) Simultaneous recording and display of multipoint data

Universal input: The recorders accept wide range of dc voltage, all common
(ii)
thermocouple and RTD. Often these ranges can be programmed for each channel.

(iii) Universal power voltage of 100 V ac to 240 V ac, 50/60 Hz

(iv) Alarm Display/Printings

Chart illumination convenient to confirm printed signal in the night or in dark

(v)
places.

There are various kinds of strip chart recorders. According to their working principles,
these are divided in mainly two categories. One works on the principle of the
galvanometer and other is called null type.
(a) Galvanometric Type Galvanometric instruments usually use a d’Arsonval galvanometer
as the basic movement. This galvanometer consists of a moving coil (shown in Figure
15.3) suspended either on pivots or a taut ligament. The coil is then able to rotate in the
field produced by a permanent magnet. When a small current is applied to the coil, a field
is created which reacts with that of the permanent magnet, and the coil rotates. A control
spring in a pivoted instrument and the ligament with a taut suspension provide an
opposing torque. Thus, depending on the current applied, equilibrium will be established.
A pointer shows the deflection. In practice, this principle is applied in several ways. In
direct-writing moving-coil instruments, an arm with a pen attached, which is fed from an
ink reservoir, is directly connected to the moving coil. The pen then writes in sympathy
with the coil movement on a chart, which may be either in strip form or circular from.
Such instruments are capable of recording full-scale deflections from upwards of l00 mV
dc and 500 mV ac. Corresponding currents are 500 mA dc and 1 mA ac. Direct-writing
instruments can be fitted with a variety of chart-drive mechanisms ranging from an
alternating-current synchronous motor, with or without spring wound reserve (which
enables the recorder to continue to operate for a reasonable period), to a completely
mechanically driven clock mechanism. This latter feature, of course, makes the
instruments portable and for suitable for field use. There are many possible variations.
Some manufacturers offer up to as many as six movements writing independently on one
chart. With the use of shunts and current and voltage transformers, ranges may be
extended for higher values. On some types, control facilities for high and low alarms are
also fitted.
(b) Potentiometric Type With the development of ac amplifier techniques in the mid 1930s,
the requirement for increased sensitivity in process control could be satisfied by the use of
a closed-loop recorder. In addition, the mechanism, though more complicated, could be
made much less susceptible to vibration. The self-balancing potentiometer type of
instrument consists of a bridge circuit. Across one arm of the bridge is a reference voltage,
and across the other arm is a feedback network (shown in Figure 15.4). Initially, the bridge
is adjusted so that the servo amplifier and its motor are in balance and stationary. When a
signal is fed to the amplifier, the output causes the servomotor to drive a balancing
potentiometer, which in turn refers a feedback voltage to the amplifier input. When the
two signals are equal and opposite, the system balances and the servomotor stops. If a pen
unit is attached to the motor/ potentiometer mechanised drive, at the point of balance, the
pen will show the proportional value of the input signal. As with galvanometric
instruments, this principle may be applied in various ways.

Figure 15.3 Galvanometer type recorder

Figure 15.4 Potentiometric type recorder

This kind of recorders having very high input impedance, infinity at balance conditions,
and a high sensitivity.
The most common application of potentiometric recorder is for recording and control of
process temperatures. Self-balancing potentiometers are unduly used in industry because
of the following reasons:

(i)
 Their action is automatic and thus eliminates the constant operation of an operator.

They draw a curve of the quantity of being measured with the help of a recording
(ii)
mechanism.

They can be mounted on the switchboard or panel and thus act as mounting devices
(iii)
for the quantity under measurement.

(c) Single-Point and Multi-point Recorders

Instruments that record changes of only one
measured variable are called single-point recorders.
A multi-point recorder may have as many as 24 inputs, with traces displaced in six
colours.
2. Circular Chart Recorder
A circular chart recorder records data in a circular format. The paper is spun beneath one
or more pens as shown in Figure 15.5. The pens are deflected in proportion to the varying
signal resulting in a circular chart. Circular chart recorders are ideal for batch processes
where a set process time is known. The charts are normally designed to rotate in standard
time periods, such as 1 hour, 24 hours, 7 days, etc., although many recorders are flexible
enough to accommodate non-standard time periods.
These recorders were developed mainly to take advantage of the availability and
convenience of a spring-wound clock and synchronous motor movements to drive the
chart in a circular direction. The circular chart used here has concentric circles ruled on it
to form its scales as shown in Figure 15.5. In addition, there are printed arcs extending
from the centre of the chart to the paper’s edge. As the pen of the recorder is moved, it
swings along these arcs; these arcs are called the ‘time arcs’. The speed of the rotation of
the chart is usually one revolution per 24 hours or per seven days or any other speed,
which can be conveniently obtained by using a synchronous motor with suitable gear
assembly. The radial position of the pen at any time indicates the instantaneous value of
the quantity under measurement. A typical industrial circular recorder is shown in Figure
15.6.

Figure 15.5 Circular chart recorder

 Figure 15.6 Industrial circular chart recorder [Manf: Omega]

Chart diameter is limited to a maximum of 0.3 m. Speed of the chart is also limited,
resolution along the scale length is usually non-uniform and the charts do not run for a
long period. Magnitude of several variables can be recorded on a single chart which makes
it easy and convenient to analyse the interrelationship of various measurements and also
saves the panel mounting space.
The various drives for circular charts are classified as follows:
(a) Mechanical (spring clock drive)
(b) Pneumatic (air lock drive)
(c) Electric (synchronous regulated dc motor or motor wound spring)
(d) Dual powered drive (duplex), i.e. a synchronous motor and spring clock mechanical
drive
(e) Externally controlled drives
Circular chart recorders are particularly suitable for direct actuation by a number of
mechanical sensors such as bellows, bourdon tubes, etc.
3. X-Y Recorder
With the development of the potentiometric principle, users were aware that a record was
often required as the resultant of two varying signals, and thus the X-Y plotter was
introduced (Figure 15.7). Today, X-Y plotters are as flexible as conventional
potentiometric instruments, except that they have two completely independent servo-
systems to operate the X and Y channels. The two most popular sizes are A4 and A3 (297
mm × 210 mm, 420 mm × 297 mm, respectively). Sensitivities similar to those obtainable
with Y-t instruments are achieved, and, often, the more comprehensive instruments are
also fitted with a time axis t, which provides single or repetitive time sweeps against the Y
axis.
XY recorders accept two inputs and create a chart or graph of one input versus the other.
They are commonly used to determine the relationship between the two inputs. For
example, in a chemical process, an XY recorder might be used to monitor the effect
temperature has on the pressure of the process. A typical industrial XY recorder is shown
in Figure 15.7.

Figure 15.7 Industrial XY recorder [Manf: Omega]

This system has a pen which can be positioned along the two axes with the writing
paper remaining stationary. There are two amplifier units, one amplifier actuates the pen in
the Y-direction as the input signal is applied, while the second amplifier actuates the pen in
the X-direction. The movements of the pen in X-and Y-directions are automatically
controlled by means of a motor, pulleys and a linear potentiometer. Obviously, trace of the
marking pen will be due to the combined effects of two signals applied simultaneously. In
these recorders, an emf is plotted as a function of another emf There are many variations
of X-Y recorders. With the help of these recorders and appropriate transducers, a physical
quantity may be plotted against another physical quantity. Figure 15.8 shows a block
diagram of a typical analog X-Y recorder.
A signal enters in each of the two channels.
The signals are attenuated to the inherent full-scale range of the recorder (often 0.5
mA). The signal then passes to a balance circuit where it is compared with an internal
reference voltage.
The error signal (i.e. the difference between the input signal voltage and the reference
voltage) is fed to a “chopper” which converts dc signal to an ac signal.
The signal is then amplified in order to actuate a servomotor which is used to balance
the system and hold it in balance as the value of the quantity being recorded changes.
The action described above takes place in both the axes simultaneously. Thus, we get a
record of one variable with respect of another.
 Figure 15.8 Different components of an XY recorder

Advantages
1. The instantaneous relationship between two physical quantities can be recorded.
2. The relationship between either electrical or non-electrical quantities can be recorded.
3. In modem types of recorders, zero offset adjustments are available.
Applications A few examples in which use of X-Y recorders are used are as under:
1. Plotting of stress-strain curves, hysteresis curves and vibrations amplitude against
swept frequency
2. Pressure-volume diagrams for LC engines
3. Pressure-flow studies for lungs
4. Lift drag wind tunnel tests
5. Electrical characteristics of materials such as resistance versus temperature
6. Plotting the output from electronic calculators and computers
7. Speed-torque characteristics of motor
8. Regulation curves of power supplies
9. Plotting of characteristics of vacuum tubes, zener diodes, rectifiers and transistors,
etc.
4. Hybrid Recorders
Hybrid chart recorders represent the latest generation of chart recorder and basically
consist of a potentiometric chart recorder with an added microprocessor. The
microprocessor provides for selection of range and chart speed, and also allows
specification of alarm modes and levels to detect when measured variables go outside
acceptable limits. Additional information can also be printed on charts, such as names,
times and dates of variables recorded. Microprocessor-based, hybrid versions of circular
chart recorders also now exist. A typical industrial hybrid recorder is shown in Figure
15.9.
A hybrid recorder can function as a recorder or data logger. Like a standard recorder, the
hybrid recorder can generate a chart of the inputs. However, it can also produce a digital
stamp of the data similar to a data logger. They are commonly available in multichannel
designs although one print head normally handles all channels. This makes the hybrid
recorder a cost-effective solution for multichannel systems although the response time is
not as fast as recorders which have a unique pen for each channel.
5. Paperless Recorders
Paperless recorders are one of the latest types of recorders to emerge on the market.
Paperless recorders display the chart on the recorders’ graphic display rather than print the
chart on paper. The data can normally be recorded in internal memory or to a memory card
for later transfer to a computer. The major benefit of paperless recorders is conservation of
paper and easy transfer to a computer. A typical industrial paperless recorder is shown in
Figure 15.10.

Figure 15.9 Industrial hybrid recorder [Manf: Omega]

Figure 15.10 Industrial paperless recorder [Manf: Omega]

6. Ultraviolet Recorders
The limited bandwidth problem of galvanometric recorders are due to system moment of
inertia and spring constants can be reduced limited to the maximum bandwidth to about
100 Hz. Ultraviolet recorders work on very similar principles to standard galvanometric
chart recorders, but achieve a very significant reduction in system inertia and spring
constants by mounting a narrow mirror rather than a pen system on the moving coil. This
mirror reflects a beam of ultraviolet light onto ultraviolet sensitive paper. It is usual to find
several of these mirror-galvanometer systems mounted in parallel within one instrument to
provide a multi-channel recording capability, as illustrated in Figure 15.11. This
arrangement enables signals at frequencies up to 13 kHz to be recorded with a typical
inaccuracy of ±2% full scale, while it is possible to obtain satisfactory permanent signal
recordings by this method. Special precautions are necessary to protect the ultraviolet-
sensitive paper from light before use and to spray a fixing lacquer on it after recording.
Such instruments must also be handled with extreme care, because the mirror
galvanometers and their delicate mounting systems are easily damaged by relatively small
shocks. In addition, ultraviolet recorders are significantly more expensive than standard
chart recorders.

Figure 15.11 Internal recording components of UV recorder

7. Thermal Dot Array Recorders

Thermal dot array recorders have the advantage of not having any moving parts. The
writing mechanism is an array of equidistant writing points which covers the total width of
the paper. For writing, medium thermo-sensitive papers are generally used. In this array
the writing system consists of miniature electrically heated coils. Maximum writing
frequency is determined by thermal properties of the coils which are in close contact with
the chart paper and the electric activating pulse. Heating of the thermo-sensitive paper
results in a black dot with good long-term stability. The heating pulse is controlled in
relation to the chart velocity in order to obtain sufficient blackness at high velocities.
Tracing blackness or line thickness is seldom used for curve identification; and
alphanumeric annotation is mostly applied. Different types of grid patterns can be selected
by the user. Moreover, alphanumeric information can be printed for indicating
experimental conditions. Ordinate axis resolution is determined by the dot array:
primarily, 8 dots/mm; exceptionally, 12 dots/mm (as in standard laser printers). Most of
the dot array instruments are intended for high-signal-frequency applications: per channel
sampling frequencies of 100, 200, and even 500 kHz are used in real time. These sampling
frequencies largely exceed the writing frequencies; during the writing cycle, data are
stored in memory and for each channel within each writing interval, a dotted vertical line
is printed between the minimal and the maximal value. For example, a sine wave with a
frequency largely exceeding the writing frequency is represented as a black band with a
width equal to the sine amplitude. In this way, the graphs indicate the presence of a
phenomenon with a frequency content exceeding the writing frequency.
15.2.2 Magnetic Disk and Tape Type Recorder
At present, magnetic recording technology dominates the recording industry. It is used in
the forms of hard disk, floppy disk, removable disk, and tape with either digital or analog
mode. In its simplest form, it consists of a magnetic head and a magnetic medium, as
shown in Figure15.12. The head is made of a piece of magnetic material in a ring shape
(core), with a small gap facing the medium and a coil away from the medium. The head
records (writes) and reproduces (reads) information, while the medium stores the
information. The recording process is based on the phenomenon that an electric current i
generates a magnetic flux f as described by Ampere’s law. The flux f leaks out of the head
core at the gap, and magnetises the magnetic medium which moves from left to right with
a velocity V under the head gap. Depending on the direction of the electric current i, the
medium is magnetised with magnetisation M pointing either left or right. This pattern of
magnetisation is retained in the memory of the medium even after the head moves away.
Magnetic tapes are still popular in several areas such as
1. Medical research
2. Patient monitoring
3. Surveillance
4. Spying
5. Production control

Figure 15.12 Magnetic tape recording

1. The Magnetic Tape

Before actually going into the details of the magnetic tape recorder, it is better to know
about the tape which is used for this purpose. Actually, the tape is made out of a special
type of plastic material which is stable and can withstand continuous rubbing against the
head. Normally, this material is either PVC or Mylar which are quite resistant to wear and
stretching is necessary for the tape to remain useful for a long period of time. On top of
this plastic base, there is a thin layer of magnetic material, usually iron oxide. The
particles of this magnetic material are shaped in the form of tiny needles and occupy the
top portion of the plastic base. The typical thickness of the tape is of the order of 25
micrometres.
During recording, an electrical signal causes current to flow through the coil producing
a magnetic field in the gap, as shown by the blue lines of force in Figure 15.12. As the
electrical signal varies in amplitude and frequency, so does the magnetic field. The tape
consists of a plastic film coated with a material that is magnetised by the field as it passes
over the gap. As the magnetic field varies in strength, so does the magnetism stored on the
tape. During playback, the tape passes over the same head (it is called the record/playback
head). This time the magnetism stored on the tape induces a voltage in the head coil. This
voltage is amplified and used for retrieval of the recorded signal.
(a) Principle behind Magnetic Recording—Hysteresis Loop Those of you who have
studied physics must surely remember that there are two magnet types, namely permanent
magnet and temporary magnet. In a temporary magnet, the magnetism is induced as a
result of some force which aligns the magnetic particles along a specifi c axis. This force
could be due to rubbing of another magnetic material or an electromagnetic fi eld applied
using a varying current.
Take a look at the typical magnetisation curve in Figure 15.13, which shows the graph
of the magnetising force H against the flux density B. When a material is in purely non-
magnetised state and a magnetising force is applied, the fl ux density rises along the dotted
line OAC. But now if the current is brought to zero, the fl ux does not reduce to zero but a
residual fl ux remains and the current has to be extended into the negative region (opposite
direction) to bring B to zero again.
Hence, a loop is formed of the overall process as can be seen from the diagram and this
is known as the magnetisation curve for the material or is also known as the hysteresis
loop. Now this property may be undesirable in several situations but here you can
intuitively imagine a great use for the same. Once the signal is applied to the magnetic
tape via the recording head, the section of the tape gets magnetised in accordance with the
signal which leaves a residual flux on the tape. This acts to store that signal on the tape
which can be played back using the playback head.

Figure 15.13 Hysteresis loop

(b) The Basic Arrangement The basic circuit of a magnetic recording and playback
system is quite simple and can be understood by seeing Figure 15.14, which shows the
entire arrangement. Of course, this is a highly simplified sketch without the inside nuts
and bolts, yet it is useful to take a broad view of the system.
As you can see, the entire system consists of two portions—a mechanical arrangement
to make the magnetic tape move across two points, and an electrical system which does
the real job. The mechanical movement is achieved with the help of motor drive and a
combination of rollers and belts. The electrical part is taken care of by appropriate circuits
which do the work of recording, playback and amplification of sound. There are two heads
which are used for recording and playback of the signals respectively.
(c) Recording and Playback The basic principle of operation is quite simple. As the
tape rubs against the recording head, it applies a magnetic field which is proportional to
the input signal. This signal orients the magnetic particles in a specific format which acts
as indicators to the pattern of signal stored. When the playback head rubs against the tape,
the signal is reproduced since now the particles induce similar magnetic patterns in the
head. If you want to read more technical details about this process you can refer to the
next article on this topic (coming soon and will be linked here).

Figure 15.14 Magnetic tape recording mechanism

There are several types of recording techniques which are used for recording on
magnetic tapes and these can be
Direct recording
Frequency modulation recording
Pulse duration modulation recording
Digital recording
We will take a look at all these methods of recording on magnetic tapes
2. Direct Recording
If the signals are recorded in an analog manner in a way so that the amplitude and
frequency of the signal is recorded linearly as a variation of the amplitude, magnetisation
and wavelength on the magnetic tape, such a system of recording is known as direct
recording. Since low distortion is required on the playback signal, this is achieved by
adding a high-frequency ac bias signal to the signal being recorded.
This method of recording is most suited for audio signals rather than any other purpose.
This is so because the human ear has an in-built mechanism which averages the amplitude
variation errors.
3. FM Recording
We have learnt about frequency modulation in a previous article and know that frequency
modulation is all about using a sine wave carrier signal and modulating or modifying it as
per the signal to be loaded on that carrier signal. Similarly, in case of FM recording in
magnetic tapes, a frequency modulator is used to feed the input signal onto the carrier
signal. This signal is then recorded onto the magnetic tape either with or without the ac
bias signal as described in the previous section of direct recording.
Figure 15.15 shows a simplified view of such a recording system without showing the
internal details. As you can see, when the signal is now reproduced using the playback
head, it needs to be passed through a demodulator which separates the sine carrier wave
from the recorded signal and then reproduced.

Figure 15.15 FM recording mechanism

This system is more complicated in its construction and expensive to build because of
the various extra circuitries involved in it. Hence, normally it is only used in situations
where amplitude-variation errors are not acceptable, such as instrumentation where the
parameters of some delicate industrial process are recorded. Despite this advantage, this
system has a poor high-frequency response and requires a higher tape speed which needs
to be precisely controlled.
4. PDM Recording
In this type of magnetic tape-recording system, the input signal is converted into a pulse
signal. The duration of the pulse is in tune with the amplitude of the signal; hence the
name pulse duration modulation since the duration of the pulse varies with the input
signal.
Obviously, since the continuous input signal is divided into discrete pulses, this type of
recording system is even more complicated and expensive than the FDM system described
previously. Yet it is used in situations which require special quality recording such as
situations where a large number of variables are monitored and they change very slowly.
The advantages of such a system are
(a) Multi channel recording
(b) Great degree of accuracy
(c) Very low signal/noise ratio
5. Benefits of Magnetic Recording
Now we will take a look at some of the advantages and drawbacks of the magnetic tape
systems.
(a) The frequency range of the signals stored on the tape has a very wide range and
spectrum, and an equally good dynamic range.
 (b) here is very less distortion of signals stored on the tape. This is specifically useful
for audio/ video purposes
(c) Tapes can be used to store multiple signals along the same length, thus increasing
efficiency.
(d) Even though you might think that electronic memories are getting cheaper, the tape
still is a winner in terms of cost per bit of storage. This is mainly due to large
surface area of the tape and very high data density.
(e) Time base of the stored signal data can be varied as per requirement. This means
that signals recorded at fast speed can be played back at slower speed and vice
versa, which is useful in several applications
15.2.3 Oscillographic Recorders
Although, strictly speaking, oscillographs are direct-writing instruments, they also employ
a moving coil, but the writing element uses much more power and is fed from an ac
amplifier feeding a driver power amplifier. The writing element, usually referred to as a
“pen motor”, can consume more than 100 W. The angular deflection of the motor is often
restricted to as little as 17° with the result that response times of up to 150 Hz can be
obtained. Oscillographs are suitable for recording high transient signals such as occurring
in strain-gauge measurements and in medical applications such as measuring heartbeat and
brain-response (ECGs and EEGs). The recording is usually made on inkless paper using a
heated stylus.
Used primarily for applications in the test and research fields, the capabilities of
oscillographic recorders and the newer digital oscilloscopes have expanded greatly over
the past several years. An oscillograph is a device for determining waveforms by plotting
instantaneous values of a quantity such as voltage as a function of time. A decade ago, this
implied either a recording galvanometer or a CRT recorder—analog instruments that
afforded the needed bandwidths in excess of 20 kHz.
As in other recorder developments, however, digital is the buzzword today and Digital
Storage Oscilloscopes (DSOs) or simply digital oscilloscopes have proliferated. These
may be defined as oscilloscopes that digitise an input signal for storage in memory for
later display or analysis. It is a logical and relatively simple step to use the stored data to
provide a chart record, and many DSOs do just that, essentially acting as data loggers.
A recent survey lists some 30 different suppliers of DSOs, many of them PC-based.
They cover a range of bandwidths—some around 40 to 50 MHz while others go as high as
350 MHz. These are sophisticated electronic instruments that have capabilities far beyond
traditional analog CRT-based oscilloscopes, which have been around for many decades.

15.3 DIGITAL RECORDERS

Digital recorder record the data in the form of ‘1’ and ‘0’. There are several types of
digital recorders. The following section discusses data loggers and magnetic-type digital
recorders.
15.3.1 Data Logger
Data loggers are is a stand-alone devices that can record information electronically from
internal or external sensors or other equipment that provide digital or serial outputs.
1. Key Features of Data Loggers
(a) Stand-alone Operation Most data loggers are normally configured with a PC, some
models can be configured from the front panel provided by the manufacturer. Once the
data loggers are configured, they don’t need the PC to operate.
(b) Support for Multiple Sensor Types Data loggers often have universal input type
which can accept input from common sensors like thermocouple, RTD, humidity, voltage,
etc.
(c) Local Data Storage All data loggers have local data storage or internal memory unit,
so all the measured data is stored within the logger for later transfer to a PC.
(d) Automatic Data Collection Data loggers are designed to collect data at regular
intervals, 24 hours a day and 365 days a year if necessary, and the collection mode is often
configurable.
Data logging and recording are both analog terms in the field of measurement. Data
logging is basically measuring and recording of any physical phenomena or electrical
parameter over a period of time. The physical phenomena can be temperature, strain,
displacement, flow, pressure, voltage, current, resistance, power, and many other
parameters. Typical industrial data loggers are shown in Figure 15.16.

Figure 15.16 Typical data loggers [Manf: National Instrument and Omega Corp.]

The data logger collects information about the state of any physical system from the
sensors. Then the data logger converts this signal into a digital form with the help of an
A/D converter. This digital signal is then stored in some electronic storage unit, which can
be easily transferred to the computer for further the analysis, the schematic diagram of a
data-logging application in industrial environment is shown in Figure 15.17.

Figure 15.17 Industrial data logging and display

 A few basic components that every data logger must have are shown in Figure 15.17,
which are:
1. Hardware components like sensors, signal conditioning, and analog-to-digital
converter, etc.
2. Long-term data storage, typically onboard memory or a PC
3. Software for collecting data, analysing and viewing
2. Functions of Data Loggers
Beyond the acquiring and storing data, a data logger often performs various kinds of other
jobs like offline and online analysis, display, sharing data with other devices connected
with the network, reporting events and providing alarm whenever some critical situation
arises. A complete data-logging application typically requires most of the elements shown
in Figure 15.18.

Figure 15.18 Different components of data loggers

15.3.2 Digital Tape Recording

The very mention of the name digital tape recording brings the picture of hard drives,
flash memories, etc. to our mind, but this also refers to another method of recording on the
good old magnetic tape as well. Figure 15.19 shows the digital tape recording mechanism.

Figure 15.19 Digital tape recording mechanism

The only difference is that the signals are recorded in the form of 0s and1s which are
typical of the digital world. Obviously, it would require modulation of some form or the
other, to convert analog to digital signals and hence there are several methods of magnetic
tape recording which fall under the category of digital recording.
Some of these methods are
1. Return-to-bias method
2. Return-to-zero method
3. Non-Return-to-zero method
The detailed description of these methods would be a bit too complicated here so we
will just go through the basics of one of these, let us say the Return-to-Bias (RB) method.
Figure (15.19) schematically shows the digital recording/reproducing process. First, all
user data are encoded into a binary format—a serial of 1s and 0s. Then a write current i is
sent to the coil. This current changes its direction whenever a 1 is being written.
Correspondingly, a change of magnetisation, termed a transition, is recorded in the
medium for each 1 in the encoded data. During the reproducing process, the electric
voltage induced in the head coil reaches a peak whenever there is a transition in the
medium. A pulse detector generates a pulse for each transition. These pulses are decoded
to yield the user data. The minimum distance between two transitions in the medium is the
flux change length B, and the distance between two adjacent signal tracks is the track pitch
W, which is wider than the signal track width w. The flux change length can be directly
converted into bit length with the proper code information. The reciprocal of the bit length
is called linear density, and the reciprocal of the track pitch is termed track density. The
information storage area density in the medium is the product of the linear density and the
track density. This area density roughly determines how much information a user can store
in a unit surface area of storage medium, and is a figure of merit for a recording technique.
Much effort has been expended to increase the areal density. For example, it has been
increased 50 times during 90’s.

15.4 DISPLAY SYSTEM

The display system acts as a final link between the measuring process and the user. If the
display is not easy to see and easy to understand then that process is compromised. The
user’s sensory capabilities and cognitive characteristics, therefore, must both be addressed
in display-system selection. Furthermore, display technologies and performance
capabilities are easier to evaluate in the context of their intended application. The
following section discusses various kind of commonly used display system.
15.4.1 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) was developed for television in the 40s. Now it has wide
range of applications in oscilloscopes, radar and monitors, etc.
It consists of a glass envelope made from a neck and cone. All air has been extracted so
that it contains a vacuum. At the narrow end are pins which make connection with an
internal electron gun, as shown in Figure 15.20. Voltages are applied to this gun to
produce a beam of electrons. This electron beam is projected towards the inside face of the
screen.
Different basic component of CRTs are electron gun, electron accelerating anode,
horizontal and vertical electric field coils, electron beam and a screen coated with
phosphor. The electron gun generates a narrow beam of electrons. The anodes accelerate
the electrons. Deflecting coils produce an extremely low-frequency electric field that
allows for constant adjustment of the direction of the electron beam. There are two sets of
deflecting coils: horizontal and vertical. (In the figure, only one set of coils is shown for
simplicity). The intensity of the beam can be varied. The electron beam produces a tiny,
bright visible spot when it strikes the phosphor-coated screen. The screen is covered with
a fine layer of phosphorescent elements, called phosphors, which emit light by excitation
when electrons strike them, creating a lit-up dot called a pixel.

Figure 15.20 Internal components of a CRT

To produce an image on the screen, complex signals are applied to the deflecting coils,
and also to the apparatus that controls the intensity of the electron beam. This causes the
spot to race across the screen from right to left, and from top to bottom, in a sequence of
horizontal lines called the raster. As viewed from the front of the CRT, the spot moves in
a pattern similar to the way your eyes move when you read a single-column page of text.
But the scanning takes place at such a rapid rate that your eye sees a constant image over
the entire screen.
The illustration shows only one electron gun. This is typical of a monochrome, or
single-colour CRTs. However, virtually all CRTs today render colour images. These
devices have three electron guns, one for the primary colour red, one for the primary
colour green, and one for the primary colour blue. The CRT thus produces three
overlapping images: one in red (R), one in green (G), and one in blue (B). This is the so-
called RGB colour model.
In computer systems, there are several display modes, or sets of specifications
according to which the CRT operates. The most common specification for CRT displays is
known as SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array). Notebook computers typically use liquid
crystal display. The technology for these displays is much different than that for CRTs.
Cold Cathode Display
A cathode is any electrode that emits electrons as discussed in the section on CRT display.
Generally, the cathode is heated so that electron emission occur at lower potential
difference these cathode are called hot cathode and are widely used in vacuum tube CRT
monitor oscilloscope, etc. By taking advantage of thermionic emission, electrons can
overcome the work function of the cathode with lower electric field. But in the case of
cold cathode, sufficient voltage is provided so that electrons can overcome the work
function and come out from the cathode at ambient temperature. Because it is not
deliberately heated, such a cathode is referred to as a cold cathode. Although several
mechanisms may eventually cause the cathode to become quite hot once it is operating.
Most cold cathode devices are filled with a gas which can be ionised. A few cold cathode
devices contain a vacuum.
15.4.2 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
One of the cheapest and convenient ways to display information electronically is by using
Light-Emitting Diodes ( LEDs). It is basically a p-n junction photodiode when excited at
forward-bias condition emits light (basic theory of LEDs are discussed in chapter on
“Fibre Optic Measurements”). It can be easily interfaced with a simple electronic circuit
and is durable and reliable. These LEDs are often arranged in different formats to display
information. Among these, the seven segments configuration and dot matrix display are
very common and widely used. The seven-segment configuration of an LED arranged in
the form of the digit 8 can be restrictive in that it does not adequately allow the display of
some alphanumeric characters. By contrast, the versatility of a dot-matrix arrangement
allows an LED unit to display more complicated shapes. The following sections discuss
the about seven-segment and dot-matrix LED display.
1. The Seven Segment Display
One common requirement for many different digital devices is a visual display. Individual
LEDs can of course display the binary states, i.e. ‘ON’ or OFF’. But when some numbers
or characters are to be displayed then some arrangement of the LEDs are required. One
possibility is a matrix of LEDs in a 7 × 5 array. However, if only numbers are to be
displayed then this becomes a bit expensive. A much better way is to arrange the
minimum possible number of LEDs in such a way that it can represent a number requiring
only 7 LEDs. A common technique is to use a shaped piece of translucent plastic to
operate as a specialised optical fibre, to distribute the light from the LED evenly over a
fixed bar shape. The seven bars are laid out as a squared-off figure “8”. The result is
known as a seven-segment LED.
Seven-segment displays having a wide range of applications. They used in clocks,
watches, digital instruments, digital balances and many household appliances already have
such displays.
There are basically two type of seven-segment displays—common cathode and
common anode. The common-anode type is shown in Figure 15.21, where ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’,
‘e’, ‘f’ and ‘g’ represent individual LEDs which are arranged as shown in the figure. In
order to display numbers often decimal point have to be displayed. For that, another LED
has been added, which is represented by ‘dp’ (decimal point).
 Figure 15.21 Common anode connection of seven segment display unit

A typical seven-segment display unit is shown in Figure 15.22. Figure 15.23 shows the
pin diagram of a common anode type seven-segment display. That means that the positive
leg of each LED is connected to a common point which is the Pin 3 in this case. Each
LED has a negative leg that is connected to one of the pins of the device. To make it work,
you need to connect the pin 3 to 5 volts. Then to make each segment light up, connect the
ground pin for that LED to ground. A resistor is required to limit the current. Rather than
using a resistor from each LED to ground, you can just use one resistor from Vcc to the
pin 3 to limit the current.

Figure 15.22 Typical seven segment display unit

Figure 15.23 Pin diagram of seven segment display unit

Table 15.1 shows how to form the numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A, B, C, d, E, and F.
‘0’ means that pin is connected to ground. ‘1’ means that pin is connected to Vcc.
Table 15.1 Forming numbers and letters.
2. Dot Matrix Display
LEDs are arranged in matrix form—common configurations are 5 × 7, 5 × 8 and 8 × 8, as
shown in Figure 15.4. Based on the electrode connections, two kinds of LED matrices are
possible, one is common anode. All the LEDs in a row having the anode are connected
together. The other one is common cathode, having all LEDs in a row, the common
cathode or cathodes are shorted. It is easier to understand the construction and interface
capabilities of an LED matrix using an illustration. Figure 15.24 depicts a matrix
construction of the common-anode type. A single matrix is formed by thirty-five LEDs
arranged in five columns and seven rows (5 × 7). The anodes of the fi ve LEDs forming
one row are connected together. Similarly, the cathodes of the seven LEDs of a column are
connected together. In this arrangement of LEDs, the cathodes are switched to turn the
LEDs of a row on or off.
The matrix (unit) illustrated in Figure 15.25 can be used to display a single
alphanumeric character. Several such units can be placed next to each other to form a
larger panel to display a string of characters.
 Figure 15.24 LED Matrix with common-anode arrangement

Figure 15.25 5×7 and 8×8 dot matrix display

3. Display of Information using LED Matrix

From Figure15.26 it is clear that switching/multiplexing of rows is required to display a
character on the matrix unit. These are often done by using external hardware like latches.
Each row of the LED is driven for a brief period before switching to the next row. As the
human eye retains a visual impression of an object for a short duration after the object is
removed. Retention time depends on the brightness of the image. Due to this visual
phenomenon termed persistence of vision, the human eye considers that the LEDs are
glowing continuously and can visualise the characters.
Rapid switching between rows produces the illusion that all the rows are ON at the
same time. To function as intended, two additional requirements must be met:
1. The LEDs must be overdriven proportionately or they can appear dim. The dimness
occurs because a row is ON for only a fraction of time.
2. The rows must be updated often enough (e.g. each row is scanned about 30–40 times
per second), to avoid display flicker. For actual character display, it is necessary to
map the shape of the character to the 5x7 LED matrix. Figure 15.26 illustrates the
characters A and B.
 Figure 15.26 Illustration of the Characters A and B

For any given character, a corresponding pattern of LED ON and LED OFF must be
generated, for example, the character A, as displayed in the figure, is formed with the
pattern shown in Table 15.2.
Table 15.2 Display Pattern for the Character A

Other characters/objects can be developed in a similar manner and stored in the memory
to be used while displaying. By frequently switching the rows or columns with the proper
selection of LED ON/ OFF patterns, the human eye perceives the display as continuous.
15.4.3 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
The Liquid Crystal Display ( LCD) has been one of the enabling technologies of the
current electronic revolution. It is an essential part of every mobile phone, every laptop
and every personal organiser. Liquid crystal is an organic compound that polarises any
light that passes through it. A liquid crystal also responds to an applied electric field by
changing the alignment of its molecules, and in so doing changing the direction of the
light polarisation that it introduces. Liquid crystals can be trapped between two parallel
sheets of glass, with a matching pattern of transparent electrode on each sheet. Figure
15.27 shows different layers of a typical LCD display. When a voltage is applied to the
electrodes, the optical character of the crystal changes and the electrode pattern appears in
the crystal. A huge range of LCDs has been developed, including those based on seven-
segment digits or dot matrix formats, as well as a variety of graphical forms. Many
general-purpose displays are available commercially.
The liquid crystal fluid is the active medium that is used to create an image. It consists
of a very large number of elongated crystals suspended in a fluid. This reservoir is
sandwiched between two thin sheets of glass. Each piece of glass has a transparent
conductive pattern bonded to it. The crystals are aligned in a spiral pattern until an electric
field is impressed on the conductors.
 Figure 15.27 Different layers of a typical LCD display

A sheet of polarising material is bonded to the outside surfaces of both the front and
rear glass covers. As incident light of random polarisation enters the top polarizer, it is
stopped except for that which is polarised in the proper direction. With no electric field
applied, the light is twisted or its polarisation is changed by the spiral pattern of the
crystals. The bottom polariser is aligned opposite of the top one but the “twisted” light is
now aligned with the bottom polariser and passes through. The display is now transparent
and appears light.
A simple black-or-white LCD display works by either allowing daylight to be reflected
back out at the viewer or preventing it from doing so—in which case the viewer sees a
black area. The liquid crystal is the part of the system that either prevents light from
passing through it or not.
The crystal is placed between two polarising filters that are at right angles to each other
and together block light. When there is no electric current applied to the crystal, it twists
light by 90°, which allows the light to pass through the second polariser and be reflected
back. But when the voltage is applied, the crystal molecules align themselves, and light
cannot pass through the polariser: the segment turns black, this phenomena is shown in
Figure 15.28.
Many other types of LCD displays are being developed for the laptop and CRT
replacement market including full colour versions. These include double and Triple
Twisted Nematic (DSTN and TSTN) displays and the Active-matrix Thin-film Twisted
Nematic and Metal-Insulated-Metal Twisted Nematic (TFT-TN and MIM-TN) displays.
Unfortunately, these advanced display are too expensive for most of the calculator market.
TN LCDs almost completely dominate today’s calculator market due to their extremely
low power requirements, thin size and low cost.
 Figure 15.28 Working principle of LCD
Table 15.3 Comparison of CRT and LCD

Cathode Ray Tubes Liquid Crystal Displays

Advantages
Small in size
Light weight (typ. 1/5 of CRT)
Low power consumption (typ. 1/4 of
Advantages
CRT)
Fast response and high resolution possible Completely fl at screen—no
Full colour (large modulation depth of E-beam) geometrical errors
Saturated and natural colors Crisp pictures—digital and uniform
Inexpensive, matured technology colours
Wide angle, high contrast and brightness No electromagnetic emission
Fully digital, signal processing
possible
Large screens (>20 inch) on
desktops

Disadvantages
Disadvantages
High price (presently 3 × CRT)
Large and heavy (typ. 70 × 70 cm, 15 kg)
Poor viewing angle (typ. +/– 50
High power consumption (typ. 140W)
degrees)
Harmful dc and ac electric and magnetic fi elds
Low contrast and luminance (typ.
Flickering at 50–80 Hz (no memory effect)
1:100)
Geometrical errors at edges
Low luminance (typ. 200 cd/m2)

15.4.4 Flat Panel Display

Flat-screen monitors, often termed Flat Panel Displays (FPDs), are becoming more and
more popular, as they take up less space and are less heavy than traditional CRT monitors.
Other greater advantages of FPDs are they consume less energy when compared to CRT
monitors, and also have less electromagnetic radiation. There are basically two types of
Flat Panel Display (FPD)—the popular one is Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and the other
one is Plasma Display Panel (PDP).
The theory of Liquid Crystal Displays was discussed in the LCD section. Here, Plasma
Display Panel (PDP) will be discussed in brief.
Plasma Display Panel (PDP)
A Plasma Display Panel ( PDP) is a type of flat panel display now commonly used for
large TV displays (typically above 32 ¢¢). It is often used in the home environment and is
becoming increasingly popular in modern cultures.

Figure 15.29 Working principle of plasma display

A plasma display panel is based on emitting light by exciting gases. The gas used in
plasma screens is a mixture of argon (90%) and xenon (10%). Gas is contained within
cells, each one corresponding to a pixel that corresponds to a row electrode and column
electrode, which excite the gas within the cell. A typical green colour cell is shown in
Figure 15.29, where red and blue colour cells are located nearby. By modulating the
voltage applied across the top and bottom electrodes and by changing the frequency of
excitation, the inert gas can be excited. The gas excited this way produces ultraviolet
radiation (which is invisible to the human eye). With blue, green, and red phosphors
distributed among the cells, the ultraviolet radiation is converted into visible light, so that
pixels (made up of 3 cells) can be displayed in up to 16 million colors (256 × 256 × 256).
Plasma technology can be used to create large-scale high-contrast screens, but plasma
screens are still expensive. What’s more, power consumption is more than 30 times higher
than for an LCD screen. A typical plasma TV of SAMSUNG Corp. is shown in Figure
15.30.
 Figure 15.30 Plasma TV [Manf. SAMSUNG Corp.]

15.4.5 Nixie Tube

Nixie tubes are nonplanar electronic devices that use the principles of glow discharge for
displaying numerals or other information. These are actually gaseous glow tubes made of
glass that contain two electrodes. The anode is in the form of a wire mesh and multiple
cathodes that are shaped as numerals or other symbols that are to be displayed. When the
cathode corresponding to the numeral to be displayed is activated, it gets surrounded by an
orange gaseous glow discharge. The glass tube is generally filled with neon gas at low
pressure, with a little mercury. The photograph of a Nixie tube is shown in Figure 15.31.
When a sufficient potential of around 170 volts is applied between the selected cathode
and the anode plate, the gas surrounding the selected cathode gets ionised and emits an
orange glow. A Nixie tube should not be confused with a vacuum tube since operation of
the Nixie tube does not depend on thermionic emissions of electrons from a heated
cathode. The operating temperature of Nixie tube rarely exceeds 40°C. Nixie tubes are
thus also called cold-cathode tube.
The most commonly available Nixie tube has ten cathodes in the shapes of the numerals
0 to 9, and may be a decimal point. These cathodes displaying different numbers are
arranged one behind another. Thus, when the characters glow one at a time, each character
appears at a different depth.
 Figure 15.31 Nixie tube (Courtesy, [Link])

Nixie tubes were used in earlier days as display units in voltmeters, ammeters and other
electrical and electronic measuring instruments.

EXERCISE

Objective-type Questions
1. A strip chart recorder is a/an
(a) analog recorder
(b) magnetic tape recorder
(c) oscillographic recorder
(d) none of the above
2. Printing mechanism of a FAX machine is of
(a) thermal type
(b) impact type
(c) electrostatic type
(d) optical type
3. Which is not the function of data loggers?
(a) Display
(b) Online analysis
(c) Reporting
(d) Control
4. The bandwidth of a magnetic tape recorder is
(a) higher than electronic recorder
(b) higher than strip chart recorder
(c) lower than strip chart recorder
(d) higher than ultraviolet recorder
5. Power consumption of an LED display is
(a) higher than LCD display
(b) lower than LCD display
 (c) almost equal to LCD display
(d) Approximately two lines higher than same size LCD
6. In a CRT, the electron beam is deflected by
(a) electric field
(b) magnetic field
(c) both magnetic and electric field
(d) gravitational field
7. Servo mechanism is used in
(a) potentiometric type recorder
(b) galvanometric type recorder
(c) magnetic tape type recorder
(d) ultraviolet recorder
8. The response time of CRT display is
(a) higher that LCD display
(b) lower than LCD display
(c) higher than plasma display
(d) lower than plasma display
9. The gas used in plasma screens is a mixture of
(a) nitrogen and oxygen
(b) nitrogen and xenon
(c) argon and nitrogen
(d) argon and xenon
10. Time scale of a strip chart recorder is controlled by
(a) controlling speed of the chart paper
(b) controlling the stylus drive mechanism
(c) controlling the range selector
(d) controlling the stylus

Short-answer Questions
1. Classify different types of recorders.
2. What are the different components of a strip chart recorder? Briefly discuss those.
3. Compare a potentiometric with galvanometric recorder.
4. State the working principle of ultraviolet recorders.
5. What are the advantages of a magnetic tape recorder over the other recording system?
6. Draw a functional block diagram of a data logger. Also discuss about each element.
7. Compare cold cathode display with hot cathode display.
8. How Does a simple black-and-white LCD display work?
9. State the working principle of plasma display.
10. How are characters displayed in an LED dot matrix display unit?
 16.1 INTRODUCTION

Rising costs and the inflexibility of hard-wired relay systems have stimulated the
development of Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) as an alternative. The PLC can
be defined as a user-friendly; microprocessor-based specialised equipment that carries out
control functions of many types and levels of complexity for use in industry. Its purpose is
to monitor crucial process parameters and adjust process operations accordingly. It can be
programmed, controlled, and operated by users. PLCs use a programmable memory to
store instructions and to implement functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting
and arithmetic in order to control machines and processes. PLCs are designed to be
operated by users with perhaps a limited knowledge of computer and computing
languages. Generally, a PLC’s operator draws the lines and devices of ladder diagrams
with a keyboard into a display screen. Then, the resulting drawing is converted into
computer machine language and run as a user program.
In a traditional industrial control system, all control devices are wired directly to each
other according to how the system is supposed to operate. The PLC replaces the wiring
between the devices. Thus, instead of being wired directly to each other, all equipment is
wired to the PLC. Then, the control program inside the PLC provides the wiring
connection between the devices. The control program is the computer program stored in
the PLC’s memory that tells the PLC what’s supposed to be going on in the system. If
anybody wants a PLC system to behave differently or to control a different process
element, just the control program is required to change. In a traditional system, making
this type of change would involve physically changing the wiring between the devices, a
costly and time-consuming endeavour.
The existing push buttons, limit switches, and other command components continue to
be used, and become input devices to the PLC. In like manner, the contactors, auxiliary
relays, solenoids, indicating lamps, etc., become output devices controlled by the PLC. If
one understands the interface between the hardware and the software, the transition to
PLCs is relatively easy to accomplish.

16.2 ADVANTAGES OF PLCs

PLCs have been gaining popularity on the factory floor and will probably remain
predominant for some time to come. Most of this is because of the advantages they offer.
Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
 Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily.
Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.
Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before failure.
Expandability.
Ability to withstand harsh environments.
Small space requirements.
PLC circuit’s operation can be seen during the operation directly on a monitor.

16.3 THE CONTROL PROGRAM

A person knowledgeable in relay logic systems can master the major PLC functions in a
few hours. These functions include coils, contacts, a timer and counters. The same is true
for a person with a digital-logic background. For a person unfamiliar with digital and relay
logics, however, the learning process takes more time. PLCs are not designed so that only
computer programmers can set up or change the programs. Thus, the designers of the PLC
have pre-programmed it so that the control program can be entered using a simple, rather
intuitive form of language. So, the control program instructs the PLC system how to react
to each input signal from, say, switches and give the required outputs to, say, lamps,
motors and valves. A program might have a form as follows:
If switch A or B close
Then output to lamp circuit
If switch A and B close
Output to motor circuit

Figure 16.1 Contacts and coils

In a PLC, switches, sensors or input devices are realised as contacts and output circuits
as coils. The term logic in a PLC is used because programming is primarily concerned
with implementing logic and switching operations. Input devices such as sensors, switches
and output devices in the system being controlled, e.g. lamp, motor etc., are connected to
the PLC. The operator then enters a sequence of instructions, i.e. a control program, into
the memory of the PLC. The controller then monitors the inputs ( contacts) and outputs (
coils) according to this control program and carries out the control rule for which it has
been programmed.

16.4 FUNCTION OF EACH PART IN PLC

A PLC consists of the CPU, memory and circuits for inputs and outputs. Input and output
circuits deal with receiving input data and sending data to output devices respectively. A
PLC may be considered to be a collection of a large number of relays, counters, timers and
data-storage locations. These components (timers, counters, etc.) do not exist physically
but, are used as logical components. The block diagram of the internal structure of a PLC
is shown in Figure 16.2.
1. Input Relays (Contacts)
These components are actually transistors, exist physically and are meant for receiving
signal from sensors, switches, etc.
2. Internal Utility Relays (Contacts)
They are logical (simulated) relays and are the main tools of a PLC which eliminate the
use of conventional physical relays and finally, hard-wired relay control circuits. These are
useful components to implement control logic programs.
3. Output Relays (Coils)
They do exist physically, made of transistors, conventional relay, etc., depending upon
applications and are used to send on/off signals to lamps, solenoids etc.
4. Counters
These are programmed to count the number of events (pulses). They do not exist
physically. These logical components are used for the sake of implementing control
programs containing the need of counting up or down or both, a series of events.
5. Timers
These exist logically. These are used to introduce time delay between the occurrence of
two events. Timers are of different types, like, on-delay timers, off-delay timers, retentive
type, etc.
6. Data Storage
These are basically a group of registers, used to store data to carry out arithmetic and
logical operations with them. This is a very essential part of a PLC.

Figure 16.2 Block diagram of the internal structure of PLC

16.5 HARDWARE OF PLC

Typically, a PLC system has three basic functional components. The three major parts are
central processing unit (CPU), Input/output module and programming terminals. Figure
16.3 shows how these three parts are interconnected.

Figure 16.3 Block diagram of PLC hardware

16.5.1 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU controls and processes all the operations within the PLC. It is supplied with a clock
frequency of typically between 1 and 8 MHz. This frequency decides the operating speed
of a PLC and provides the timing and synchronisation for all elements in the system. The
CPU acts as the “brain” of the system, which has three subparts:
1. Processor
It contains the microprocessor. This interprets the input signals and carries out mathematic
and logic operations to set the control actions, according to the program stored in the
memory, and finally, communicates the decisions as action signals to the output. This part
does the following functions:
(a) Updating Inputs and Outputs This function allows a PLC to read the status of its
input terminals and activate or de-activate its output terminals.
(b) Performing Logic and Arithmetic Operations For this an Arithmetic and Logic
Unit (ALU) is there. It is responsible for data manipulation and carrying out arithmetic
operations of addition and subtraction and logic operations of AND, OR, NOT, XOR.
(c) Communicating with Memory As data and programs are stored in the memory, the
CPU needs to communicate with the memory throughout the operation.
(d) Scanning Application Programs The scanning function allows the PLC to execute
the application program as specified by the programmer.
(e) Communicating with a Programming Terminal The programming terminal is used
to load programs and data into the CPU. So, in PLC programming mode, the CPU has to
constantly communicate with the programming terminal.
A PLC uses four buses to carry out communication process when binary information is
transferred from one location to another. Those buses are data bus, address bus, control
bus and system bus.
Data bus carries the data used in the processing carried out by the CPU. This is a
bidirectional bus as the CPU has to perform both data/instruction read and write
operation through this bus.
Address bus used to carry the address of memory locations or I/O devices to identify
a particular memory register or I/O device with which the read/write operation is
 conducted by CPU.
Control bus carries the signals used by the CPU for control actions, e.g. to inform
memory devices whether they are to receive data from an input device or to send data
to an output device. This bus is employed to carry timing signals used to synchronise
actions.
System bus is used for communications between the input/output ports and
input/output units.
2. Memory
It is the area of the CPU in which data and information are stored and retrieved. It is there
to hold the system software and user programs. As shown in Figure 16.4, the memory is
used to store different files. File is the collection of words and a word has two bytes, lower
byte and higher byte. Eight bits make a word. Bit is the smallest unit of information, either
high or low. To store a bit, the smallest unit of memory is known as a memory cell. A
register is a group of memory cells. For example, eight memory cells connected in parallel
forms an eight-bit register. So, to store a word (2 bytes), two such registers are to be used.
To identify memory locations, it is very essential to adopt an addressing scheme which
may be octal or hexadecimal.

Figure 16.4 Bit, byte, word, fi le relationships

A PLC memory system has both ROM and RAM. PLC operating-system programs are
stored permanently into ROM, whereas information can be stored and retrieved into/from
the RAM. The programs and data in RAM can be changed by the user. However, to
prevent the loss of programs when the power supply is switched off, a battery is used in
the PLC to maintain the RAM contents for a period of time. User programs (say, ladder
logic program) can be written into the RAM and a new program can overwrite previously
written programs in the same locations. Apart from these possibly, as a bolt-on extra
module, erasable and programmable read-only-memory (EPROM) is available and it can
be programmed and then the program made permanent. After a program has been
developed in RAM, it may be loaded into an EPROM memory and made permanent. In
addition, there are temporary buffer storage for input/output modules. Memory capacity,
often expressed in terms of kilo-bytes, can vary from PLC to PLC.
3. Power Supply
It is a section of CPU which converts ac line voltage to various operational dc values. The
power supply makes regulated dc voltage with proper filtering circuit to ensure the supply
of desired low dc voltage levels to the processor and circuits in the input and output
modules.
16.5.2 The Input/Output (I/O) Modules
The input/output module provides the interface between the system and the outside world,
allowing for connections to be made through input/output channels to input and output
devices. The input module has terminals into which outside process electrical signals,
generated by sensors or transducers, are fed. The output module has terminals to which
output signals are sent to activate relays, solenoids, various solid-state switches, motors,
indicators and displays. A very simple control scheme using a PLC has been shown in
Figure 16.5.

Figure 16.5 Input and output schemes in a PLC

It is also through the input/output module that programs are entered from a
programming terminal. Every input/output point has a unique address which can be used
by the CPU for identifying the device. The input/output channels provide isolation and
signal-conditioning functions so that sensors and actuators can often be directly connected
to them without the need for other circuitry. Electrical isolation from the external world is
usually by means of opto-isolators (opto-coupler).
An electronic system for connecting I/O modules to remote locations can be added if
needed. The actual operating process under PLC control can be hundreds of meters from
the CPU and its I/O modules. Input and output devices can be classified as giving signals
which are discrete or digital or analog as shown in Figure 16.6. Analog devices give
signals whose size is proportional to the size of the variable being monitored. For
example, a variable potential divider has no definite on-state, i.e. signals coming from
these types of devices may have any value in between off or zero (minimum) and on or
one (maximum). Digital devices have two distinct states on and off and they can give a
sequence of on-off signals.
Outputs are specified as being of relay type, transistor type or triac type.
For faster switching operation or response, transistor-type output is preferred over
relay-type output. Off Relay-type output isolates the PLC from the external circuit. But in
the transistor type, opto-isolators are used to provide isolation. Triac output with opto-
isolator can be used to control external loads which are strictly connected to ac power
supply.

Figure 16.6 Digital and analog devices

Outputs to actuators allow a PLC to cause something to happen in a process. Few

popular actuators are solenoid, valves, lights/indicator (normally, to test designed logic
circuits), motor starters, servomotors, etc. Typical examples of sensors used as inputs to
PLC are switches, potentiometers, LVDTs (Linear Variable Differential Transformers),etc.
The way in which dc devices are connected to a PLC can be described with the terms
sourcing and sinking. With sourcing, using the conventional current-flow direction as from
positive to negative, an input device receives current from the input module, i.e. the input
module acts as the source of the current (Figure 16.7(a)). If the current flows from the
output module to an output device or load, the output module is referred to as sourcing.
[Figure 16.7(b)]. With sinking, using the conventional current-flow direction as from
positive to negative, an input device is the sink for the current [Figure 16.7(c)]. If the
current flows to the output module from an output device or load then the output module
is referred to as sinking [Figure 16.7(d)].

Figure 16.7 Sourcing and sinking of I/O devices

There are two common types of mechanical design for PLC systems; a single box, and
the modular/ rack types. The single-box type (sometimes called brick) is commonly used
for small programmable controllers and is supplied as an integral compact package
complete with power supply, processor, memory, and input/output units. Typically, such a
PLC might have 6, 8, 12 or 24 inputs and 4, 8 or 16 outputs. Some box or brick PLC
systems have the options to extend more input and output by linking input/output boxes.
Systems with larger numbers of inputs and outputs are likely to be modular and
designed to fit in racks. Rack is an enclosure with slots on which the CPU, power supply
and I/O modules are mounted. The rack type can be used for all sizes of programmable
controllers and has various functional units packaged in individual modules which can be
plugged into slots according to requirement. Thus, it is comparatively easy to expand the
number of inputs/outputs by just adding more I/O modules or to expand the memory by
adding more memory units as shown in Figure 16.8.
Figure 16.8 Rack and I/O module arrangement

16.5.3 PLC Programming Terminal

The programming terminal connects PLC programmer/monitor (PM) to CPU by a cable.
PLC programming equipment exists to allow the user to write, edit and monitor a
program, as well as perform various diagnostic procedures. PLC programming
arrangements can be a hand-held device, a desktop console or a personal computer.
Hand-held programming will normally contain enough memory to allow the unit to
retain programs while being carried from one place to another.
Desktop consoles are likely to have a visual display unit with a full keyboard.
Personal computers are widely configured as program development workstations. Some
PLCs only require the computer to have appropriate software; others require special
communication cards to interface with the PLC.
Every brand of PLC has its own programming hardware. Sometimes, it is a small hand-
held device that resembles an oversised calculator with a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).
Computer-based programmers typically use a special communication board, installed in an
industrial terminal or personal computer, with the appropriate software program installed.
Computer-based programming allows offline programming, where the programmer
develops his her logic, stores it on a disk, and then downloads the program to the CPU at
his her convenience. In fact, it allows more than one programmer to develop different
modules of the program. Programming can be done directly to the CPU if desired. When
connected to the CPU, the programmer can test the system, and watch the logic operate as
each element is intensified in sequence on the CRT when the system is running. Since a
PLC can operate without having the programming device attached, and one device can be
used to service many separate PLC systems. The programmer can edit or change the logic
online in many cases.

16.6 SYSTEM ADDRESSING

The knowledge of addressing systems or schemes is a must to implement and executie a
control program in a PLC. Input devices like push buttons, limit switches, etc., are to be
connected with the controller to feed input commands and then execution of the control
program brings the results out through output devices like motor starters, solenoids, and
light bulbs, etc., connected with the system. Inputs and outputs are wired to interface
modules, installed in an I/O rack. Normally, each rack has a two-digit address, each slot
has its own address, and each terminal point is numbered.
16.6.1 I/O Addresses
At the time of relay logic or ladder-diagram implementation, all input and output devices
connected with the PLC are identified by unique addresses. As it has already been
discussed, I/O modules are kept in the rack. In a PLC system, each rack can be identified
by a two-digit address. In each rack, slots are there to place input and output cards. Again,
the slots are numbered (say, 0 to 7). For example, assuming an input card has eight input
channels which are numbered (00 to 07). Now, as shown in Figure 16.9, in a typical PLC,
to connect two switches (one push button and another temperature switch) with the input
card, placed in slot 3 of rack 01, two channels or terminals of that input card are to be used
(say, 01 and 03). So, the assigned address to the push-button switch becomes I:013/01 and
for the temperature sensor, is I:013/03. More precisely, in an input/output device address,
the first alphabet indicates device type (‘I’ for input device or ‘O’ for output device)
followed by a colon (:) and then, the next two digits indicate the rack number followed by
the slot number and after a slant (/), the terminal number or bit number.

Figure 16.9 An input card and ladder logic

16.6.2 Image Table Addresses

As shown in Figure 16.10, in a PLC system, one file is reserved as an input image table.
Every word in that file has a three-digit octal address beginning with 1:, which can be
interpreted as the letter I for input. The word addresses start with octal 1:000 to 1:017 (or
higher). This number is also followed by a slant (/) and the 2-digit bit number.
Figure 16.10 Solution of one line of logic

In Figure 16.10, the input address I:000/04, becomes memory address I:000/04, and the
output address 0:007/14 becomes memory address 0:007/14. In other words, type of
module, rack address, and slot position identify the word address in memory. The terminal
number identifies the bit number.
16.6.3 Remote I/O
So far it has been assumed that a PLC consists of a CPU, power-supply unit, and a
collection of I/O cards mounted in the local rack. In the early days, PLCs did tend to be
arranged like this, but in a large and scattered plant with this arrangement, all signals have
to be brought back to some central point using expensive multicore cables. It will also
make commissioning and fault finding more difficult, as signals can only be monitored
effectively at a point possibly some distance from the device being tested.
PLC manufacturers, therefore, provide the ability to mount I/O racks remote from the
processor, and link these racks with simple and cheap screened pair of fibre optic cables.
If remote I/O is used, provision should be made for a program terminal to be connected
local to each rack. Remote I/O allows complete units to be built, wired to a built-in rack,
and tested offsite prior to delivery and installations. Figure 16.11 shows three remote
racks, and connects to the controlling PLC mounted in a substation far away, via a remote
I/O cable, plus a few power supplies and hardware safety signals.
Figure 16.11 Remote I/O racks

16.7 PLC OPERATION AND PROGRAM SCAN

A PLC program can be considered to behave as a permanent running loop as shown in
Figure 16.12(a). The actions carried out by a PLC shown in Figure 16.12(a) is called
program scan, and the period of the loop is called program scan time. This depends on the
size of the PLC program and the speed of the processor.

Figure 16.12 Three steps in PLC operation

At start, the PLC scans the state of all the connected inputs and stores their states in the
PLC memory. When PLC program accesses an input, it reads the input state as it was at
the start of the program scan. A zone of PLC memory corresponding to the outputs is
changed by the execution of the program, and then, all the outputs are updated
simultaneously at the end of the scan. The action is thus read inputs, execute program,
update outputs. Therefore, a PLC does not communicate continuously with the outside
world.
PLC memory can be considered to consist of four zones or areas as shown in Figure
16.12(b). The inputs are read into the input mimic area at the start of the scan called input
image word (explained earlier), and the output updated from the output mimic zone or area
called output image word at the end of the scan. There will be an area in the memory
reserved for internal signals which are used by the program but are not connected directly
to the outside world (timers, counters, latches, etc.). These three areas are often referred to
as data table or database. As indicated in Figure 16.13, total response time is the sum of
input response time, program execution time and output response time.
Figure 16.13 PLC response time

16.8 IMPLEMENTATION OF CONTROL PROGRAMS IN PLC

PLCs from different manufacturers can be programmed in various ways. Popular
programming languages for PLCs are ladder diagrams, Function Block Diagrams (FBD),
and statement list. With a few exceptions, a program written in one format can be viewed
in another.
16.8.1 Ladder Diagrams
As an introduction to ladder diagram, consider the simple relay circuit which contains a
coil and contacts as shown in Figure 16.14. When a voltage is applied to the input coil, the
resulting current creates a magnetic field. The magnetic field pulls a metal switch (or reed)
towards it and the contacts touch, closing the switch. The contact that closes when the coil
is energised is called normally open (NO). The Normally Closed (NC) contacts touch
when the input coil is not energised. When the input coil is not energised, the normally
closed contacts will be closed (conducting). The relay shown in the figure has two
contacts; one NO another NC. When the relay coil is energised, contacts of the relay
change their state, i.e. NO contacts get closed and NC contacts get opened. The relay
arrangement can be shown with the help of different schematic circuits as shown in Figure
16.14. Relays are normally drawn in a schematic form using a circle to represent the input
coil. The output contacts are shown with two parallel lines. NO contacts are shown as two
lines, and will be open (nonconducting) when the input is not energised. NC contacts are
shown with two lines with a diagonal line through them. Now, if it is required to operate
NO (C) contact of this relay, connected to an ac source, through two input relay contacts,
A (NC) and B (NO) then the relay logic diagram shown in Figure 16.15 is the most
appropriate for a typical logic. According to the relay logic diagram shown in the figure,
activation of the input relay coil corresponds to the contact B, makes C (output) closed and
activation of the input relay coil corresponds to the contact A, makes C (output) to get
opened. This sort of arrangement is normally employed in conventional hard-wired relay
logic circuit.
Figure 16.14 Simple relay layouts and schematics

The same scheme can be implemented following ladder logic as shown in Figure 16.15.
The ladder logic-diagram is the most commonly used method of programming PLCs. The
ladder diagram consists of two vertical lines representing the power rails. Circuits
connected as horizontal lines between two rails are called rungs of the ladder. Few
symbols used to denote ladder logic inputs and outputs are shown in Figure 16.16 and
16.17 respectively. Taking into consideration these ladder logic symbols, the ladder logic
implemented in Figure 16.15 mimics the same hard-wired relay logic. Finally, this ladder
logic is inserted as a control program to a PLC where, input devices, and output devices
are arranged in a fashion as illustrated in Figure 16.18. So, the ladder-logic programs are
loaded into the PLC, the input and output devices are connected to I/O modules and then
the execution of the program updates outputs according to the status of inputs.

Figure 16.15 A simple relay controller and corresponding ladder-logic

Figure 16.16 Ladder logic inputs

Figure 16.17 Ladder logic Normal Output

 Figure 16.18 A PLC illustrated with relays

Many relays also have multiple outputs and this allows an output relay to also be an
input simultaneously. The circuit shown in Figure 16.19 is an example of this and it is
called a seal-in circuit. In this circuit, the current can flow through either branch of the
circuit, through the contacts labelled A or B. The input B will only be on when the output
B is on. If B is off, and A is energised then B will turn on. If B turns on then the input B
will turn on, and keep output B on even if input A goes off. After B is turned on, the output
B will not turn off.

Figure 16.19 A seal-in circuit

Another example of ladder logic can be seen in Figure 16.20. To interpret this diagram,
imagine that the power is on the vertical line on the left-hand side, called hot rail. On the
right-hand side is the neutral rail. In the figure there are two rungs, and on each rung there
are combinations of inputs (two vertical lines) and outputs (circles). If the inputs are
opened or closed in the right combination, the power can flow from the hot rail, through
the inputs, to power the outputs, and finally to the neutral rail. An input can come from a
sensor, switch, or any other type of sensor. An output will be some device outside the PLC
that is switched on or off, such as lights or motors. In the top rung, the contacts are
normally open and normally closed, which means if input A is on and input B is off then
power will flow through the output and activate it. Any other combination of input values
will result in the output X being off.
 Figure 16.20 A simple ladder logic diagram

Try to develop (without looking at the solution) a relay-

Example 16.1 based controller that will allow three switches in a room to
control a single light.
Solution There are two possible approaches to this problem. The first assumes that any
one of the switches on will turn on the light, but all three switches must be off for the light
to be off. The ladder logic is shown in Figure 16.21.

Figure 16.21 Ladder logic to controlling one light with three switches

The second solution assumes that each switch can turn the light on or off, regardless of
the states of the other switches. This method is more complex and involves thinking
through all of the possible combinations of switch positions. You might recognise this
problem as an exclusive or problem. The ladder logic is as shown in Figure 16.22.

Figure 16.22 Ladder logic to controlling one light in a different way with three switches

Note: It is important to get a clear understanding of how the controls are expected to
work. In this example, two radically different solutions were obtained based upon a simple
difference in the operation.
16.8.2 Function Block Diagram
Function Block diagram (FBD) is used for PLC programs described in terms of graphical
blocks. It is described as being a graphical language for depicting signal and data flows
through Inputs blocks, these being reusable software elements. A function block is a
program instruction unit which, when executed, yields one or more output values. Thus, a
block is represented in a manner shown in Figure 16.23 with the function name written in
the block. Functional blocks can have standard functions, such as those of the logic gates
or counter or timers or have functions defined by the user, e.g. a block to obtain an
average value of inputs.

Figure 16.23 Function block

16.8.3 Statement List

In statement-list programming approach, an instruction set similar to assembly language
for a microprocessor is used. Statement lists, available on few brands of PLCs, are the
most flexible form of programming for the experienced user but are by no means as easy
to follow as ladder diagrams or logic symbols.
Figure 16.24 shows a simple operation in ladder-diagram form for a Mistsubishi PLC.
The equivalent statement list would be as shown in Table 16.1.

Figure 16.24 Mitsubishi ladder diagram

Table 16.1 Equivalent statement list for Figure 16.24

Line Instruction Comment

0 LD X405 LD starts rung or branch
1 AND X406 Xnnn are inputs (AND-ing is for series connection)
2 ANI X407 ANI is AND with not
3 LD Y430 LD starts a new branch leg
4 ANI M100 Mnnn are internal storage
5 ORB OR the two branch legs (OR-ing for parallel connection)
6 AND M101
7 OUT Y430 End of rung with output

16.8.4 Logic Functions

There are many control situations requiring actions to be initiated when a certain
combination of conditions is realised. Thus, for an automatic drilling machine, there might
be a condition that the drill motor is to be activated when limit switches are activated that
indicate the presence of the workpiece and the drill position as being at the surface of the
workpiece. Such situation involves the AND logic function, condition A and condition B
having both to be satisfied for an output to occur. Similarly, other situations may demand
to implement logics like OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR. The electric circuit, truth table,
ladder diagram and functional block diagram for different logics are presented in Table
16.2.
Table 16.2 Characteristics for different logics

16.9 MORE IN LADDER LOGIC

Combinational logic alone is not enough to implement control programs for more complex
systems, especially, those with event-based devices. The example of such event-based
system is illustrated in Figure 16.25 with a timing diagram. The input to the device is a
push button. When the push button is pushed, the input to the device turns on. If the push
button is then released and the device turns off, it is a logical device. If when the push
button is released and the device stays on, it will be a type of event-based device. To
reiterate, the device is event based if it can respond to one or more things that have
happened before. If the device responds only one way to the immediate set of inputs, it is
logical. To implement such event-based devices in ladder logic diagrams, some
components are available in PLC programming approach. Latches, timers, counters are the
most frequently used components used in ladder diagrams.

Figure 16.25 An event driven device

16.9.1 Latches or Set-reset Coils

Another function which is often available is the ability to latch and unlatch (set and reset)
an internal relay. A latch is just like a sticky switch—when pushed, it will turn on and will
continue with its on-state, it must be pulled to release it and turn it off. A latch in ladder
logic uses one instruction to latch, and a second instruction to unlatch, as shown in Figure
16.26. The output with an L inside will turn the output D on when the input A becomes
true. D will stay on even if A turns off and this makes C to turn off. Output D will turn off
if input B becomes true and the output with a U inside becomes true. If an output has been
latched on, it will keep its value, even if the power has been turned off.

Figure 16.26 A ladder logic latch

16.9.2 Timers
The most commonly used process-control device after coils and contacts is the timer.
There are four fundamental types of timers as illustrated in Table 16.3. A single input
timer, called a non-retentive timer, is used in some PLCs. An example of such a timer is
shown in Figure 16.27. Energising IN001 causes the timer to run for 8 seconds. At the end
of 8 seconds, the output goes on. An on-delay timer will wait for a set time after a line of
ladder logic has been true before turning on, but it will turn off immediately. An off-delay
timer will turn on immediately when a line of ladder logic is true, but it will delay before
turning off. An on-delay timer can be used to allow an oven to reach a certain temperature
before starting production. An off-delay timer can keep cooling fans on for a set time after
the oven has been turned off.
Table 16.3 Four basic timer types

On-delay Off-delay
Non-retentive On-delay timer (TON) Off-delay timer (TOF)
Retentive Retentive on-delay timer (RTO) Retentive off-delay timer (RTF)

Figure 16.27 Single-input timer

A retentive timer will sum all of the on or off time for a timer, even if the timer is never
finished. A nonretentive timer will start timing the delay from zero each time. Typical
applications for retentive timers include tracking the time before maintenance is needed. A
non retentive timer can be used for a start button to give a short delay before a conveyor
begins moving.

Figure 16.28 Example of TON timer

An example of a TON timer is shown in Figure 16.28. The rung has a single input A
and a function block for the TON. (Note: This timer block will look different for different
PLCs, but it will contain the same information.) The information inside the timer block
describes the timing parameters. The first item is the timer number T4:0 (or address). This
is a location in the PLC memory that will store the timer information. The T4: indicates
that it is timer memory, and the 0 indicates that it is in the first location. The time base is
1.0 indicating that the timer will work in 1.0 second intervals. Other time bases are
available in fractions and multiples of seconds. The preset is the delay for the timer, in this
case it is 4. To find the delay time, multiply the time base by the preset value 4*1.0 s = 4.0
s. The accumulator value gives the current value of the timer as 0. While the timer is
running, the accumulated value will increase until it reaches the preset value. Whenever
the input A is true, the EN output will be true. The DN output will be false until the
accumulator has reached the preset value. The EN and DN outputs cannot be changed
when programming, but these are important when debugging a ladder-logic program. The
second line of ladder logic uses the timer DN output to control another output B.
16.9.3 Counters
There are two basic counter types: count-up and count-down. When the input to a count-
up counter goes true, the accumulator value will increase by 1 (no matter how long the
input is true.) If the accumulator value reaches the preset value, the counter DN bit will be
set. A count-down counter will decrease the accumulator value until the preset value is
reached.
A count-up (CTU) instruction is shown in Figure 16.29. The instruction requires
memory in the PLC to store values and status, in this case, it is C4:0. The C4: indicates
that it is counter memory, and the 0 indicates that it is the first location. The preset value is
4 and the value in the accumulator is 2. If the input A goes from false to true, the value in
the accumulator would increase to 3. If A is turned off, then on again the accumulator
value would increase to 4, and the DN bit would turn on. The count can continue above
the preset value. If input B goes true the value in the counter accumulator will become
zero.

Figure 16.29 CTU counter

16.9.4 Master Control Relays (MCRs)

Master Control Relay (MCR) function is a powerful programming tool. When MCR is
enabled, the ladder diagram functions normally. When it is not enabled, a specific number
of coils and functions are frozen in the off position. Coils in the frozen section will remain
off even if their corresponding enable lines are turned on. In an electrical control system, a
master control relay is used to shut down a section. A section of ladder logic can be put
between two lines containing MCRs. When the first MCR coil is active, all of the
intermediate ladder logic is executed up to the line with another MCR coil. When the first
MCR coil is inactive, the ladder logic is still examined, but all of the outputs or coils are
forced off.
Take the example in Figure 16.30. If A is true then the ladder logic is executed
normally. But, if A is false, the following ladder logic will be examined, but all of the
outputs will be forced off. The second MCR function appears on a line by itself and marks
the end of the MCR block. After the second MCR, the program execution returns to
normal mode. In this example, while A is true, condition of X will equal to B. As Y is a
latch, it can be turned on by C, and can be turned off by D. But, if A becomes false, X will
be forced off, and Y will continue with its last state. Using MCR blocks to remove sections
of programs will not increase the speed of program execution significantly because the
logic is still examined.
Figure 16.30 MCR instructions

16.9.5 More Examples on Timers and Counters

Develop the ladder logic that will turn on an output light,

Example 16.2
15 seconds after the switch A has been turned on.

Solution The ladder diagram for this problem is shown in Figure 16.31. An on-delay
timer block with 15-seconds delay has been used and it is being activated by the switch A,
and the contact present in the second rung is closed to turn on the light when the 15-
second delay is elapsed.

Figure 16.31 A simple timer example

Develop the ladder logic that will turn on a light, after the
Example 16.3 switch A has been closed 10 times. Push button B will reset
the counters.
Solution The ladder diagram to implement this logic is shown in Figure 16.32 where the
up-counter block keeps the count of pressing the switch A. When the count reaches the
preset value of the counter, the contact C5 in the second rung, corresponding to the
counter, is closed and the light is turned on. To reset the counter the reset coil of the
counter is energised by the switch B present in third rung.
Figure 16.32 A simple counter example

EXERCISE

Objective-type Questions
1. PLCs are ___________ designed for use in the control of a wide variety of manufacturing machines and systems.
(a) special-purpose industrial computers
(b) personal computers
(c) electromechanical systems
(d) all of the above
2. The first company to build PLCs was
(a) general motors
(b) Allen Bradley
(c) square D
(d) Modicon
3. Which of the following statements is not correct?
(a) The PLC rung output [-( )-] is a discrete output instruction or bit in memory.
(b) Each rung of the ladder logic represents a logical statement executed in software—inputs on the right and
outputs on the left.
(c) Input and output instructions in ladder logic do not directly represent the switches and actuators.
(d) PLC input instructions are logical symbols associated with voltage at the input module terminals.
4. Which of the following statements is NOT correct?
(a) The status of each input can be checked from one location and outputs can be forced on and off.
(b) All symbols in the RLL represent actual components and contacts present in the control system.
(c) PLCs are not as reliable as electromechanical relays in RLL.
(d) Input (-| |-) and output (- ( ) -) instruction symbols in the ladder logic represent only data values stored in PLC
memory.
5. When a relay is NOT energised,
(a) there is an electrical path through the NO contacts
(b) there is an electrical path through the NC contacts
(c) neither the NO or the NC contacts have an electrical path
(d) both the NO and the NC contacts have an electrical path
 Short-answer Questions
1. Can a PLC input switch a relay coil to control a motor?
2. Develop a simple ladder logic program that will turn on an output X if any one of the inputs A, B and C is on.
3. Develop a simple ladder logic program that will turn on a motor operated by the output X if the input A is on and
motor will turn off if the input B is on.
4. What are the benefits of input/output modules of a PLC?
5. How do input and output cards act as an interface between the PLC and external devices?

Long-answer Questions
1. Give a concise description of hardware of a PLC.
2. Draw a block diagram showing in very general terms the main units in a PLC.
3. Why would relays be used in place of PLCs? Give an example of where a PLC could be used. List the advantages
of a PLC over relays.
4. Explain why ladder logic outputs are coils. Develop a simple ladder logic program that will turn on an output X if
inputs A and B, or input C is on.
5. Can a PLC input switch a relay coil to control a motor? How do input and output cards act as an interface between
the PLC and external devices? What are the benefits of input/output modules?
6. Explain why a stop button must be normally closed and a start button must be normally open. Explain the trade-
offs between relays and PLCs for control applications.
 INTRODUCTION TO RF AND WIRELESS
17.1 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Radio frequency (RF) is any frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum associated
with radio-wave propagation. When an RF current (input signal) is supplied to an antenna,
an electromagnetic field is created that is then able to propagate through space. RF field
propagation technology is used in many wireless technologies.

Figure 17.1 Different forms of RF based wireless communication systems

RF is similar to that of wireless and high-frequency signals. However, RF has

frequencies ranging from a few kHz to roughly 1 GHz. This range extends to 300 GHz by
considering microwave frequencies as radio frequency.
Many of the wireless devices make use of RF fields, for example satellite
communications systems, cordless and cellular telephone, radio and television broadcast
stations, all operate in the RF spectrum. Some wireless devices operate at IR or visible-
light frequencies, whose electromagnetic wavelengths are shorter than those of RF fields.
Wireless communication can be defined as the transfer of information over a distance
without the use of electrical conductors or wires. The distance for wireless communication
may be small or large depending on the distance of communication. For example, a
television remote control requires a shorter distance whereas radio communications
requires a longer distance and may be thousands of kilometres long.
 In wireless communication systems, wider bandwidths, larger signal dynamics and
higher carrier frequencies are applied in order to fulfill the demand for higher data rates.
Since the RF technology is, consequently, pushed to its operation boundaries, the intrinsic
imperfections of the RF IC technology are more and more about governing the system
performance of wireless modems. For RF based wireless communication, higher and even
higher frequencies are always desired. This is due to the reason that higher frequencies
include efficiency in propagation, immunity to some forms of noise and impairments as
well as the size of the antenna required. The height of the antenna is determined on the
basis of wavelength of the signal and is usually selected as one fourth of the wavelength of
the signal.
During transmitting of the signal, there are always losses due to spreading of the RF
energy as it propagates through free space. This space loss can be represented as

where, Pt is the power of transmitter antenna,

Pr is the power of receiving antenna

R is the distance between two antennas.

Figure 17.2 The simplified block diagram of the wireless communication system

The purpose of using of high frequencies in communication is to reduce the antenna

size, increase efficiency in propagation and improve the signal-to-noise ratio. According
to the following relation,

As frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional, we require high frequencies to

reduce the antenna size.

RADIO FREQUENCY AND MICROWAVE SPECTRAL

17.2 ANALYSIS

The display of electromagnetic radiation as a function of wavelength is termed as
electromagnetic spectrum. Based upon the wavelengths, the spectrum is divided into
various frequency bands as shown in Figure 17.3.
Figure 17.3 Different electromagnetic wave spectra

From Figure 17.3, Radio Frequency (RF) are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths
of 100 km to 1 mm, which is a frequency of 300 Hz to 3000 GHz. The microwave
frequencies are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from as long as one
metre to as short as one millimetre, or with frequencies between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and
300 GHz.
With the rapid advance of wireless technology and satellite sensor technology, there is a
need for more and more accurate field measurements to complement overhead data in
providing higher spectral resolution over progressively broader wavelength. In spectral
analysis, the following factors are considered.
Power in band
Occupied bandwidth
Adjacent channel power
Resolution bandwidth
Harmonic distortion
Noise specification
17.2.1 Power in Band
It is the measurement of total power within any specified frequency range or band. Power
in band is calculated by the following equation:

Power in band=

where, X is the input power spectrum from a specified band, fl is the low bound of the
frequency band, and fh is the high bound of the frequency band. The low and high bounds
of this band can be determined from the centre frequency.
17.2.2 Occupied Bandwidth
It is the measurement of frequency band or bandwidth that contains a specified percentage
of the total power of the signal. Occupied bandwidth is the inverse of power in band.
For example, if the specified percentage is 99 then the occupied bandwidth is the
bandwidth that contains 99% of the total power of the signal. That is the frequency range
in between the vertical lines, as shown in Figure 17.4.

Figure 17.4 Spectrum of an RF signal

17.2.3 Adjacent Channel Power

It basically measures the way a particular channel and its two adjacent channels distribute
power. This measurement is performed by calculating the total power in the channel and
also the total power in the surrounding upper and lower channels.
17.2.4 Resolution Bandwidth
It is determined by the smallest frequency that can be resolved. In Fourier-transform-based
spectrum analysers, the resolution bandwidth is inversely proportional to the number of
samples acquired or the length of the window function. By taking more samples in the
time domain or making the acquisition time longer, while keeping the sampling rate the
same, the RBW will be lowered, meaning higher frequency resolution.
17.2.5 Harmonic Distortion
It is a measure of the amount of power contained in the harmonics of a fundamental
signal. Harmonic distortion is inherent to devices and systems that possess nonlinear
characteristics—the more nonlinear the device, the greater its harmonic distortion. When a
signal of a particular frequency f1 passes through a nonlinear system, the output of the
system consists of f1 and its harmonics f2 and f3. Figure 17.5 demonstrates this
relationship.
Harmonic distortion is expressed as either power or as percentage ratio, where harmonic
power distortion is PHD, which is obtained from

where, PHD is the power of the harmonic distortion in dBc, Pfund is the fundamental signal
power in dB or dBm, and Pharm is the power of the harmonic of interest in dB or dBm.
Figure 17.5 Fundamental frequency f1 with second and third harmonics

To represent in the form of percentage ratio, it is converted into voltage, and calculated
using the following equation.

where Vharm and Vfund are the harmonic voltage and fundamental voltage respectively,
In some applications, the harmonic distortion is measured as a Total percentage
Harmonic Distortion (THD). This measurement requires the power summation of all the
harmonics in the spectrum band, as defined in the following equation:

17.2.6 Phase Noise

There are various sources of noise. When the carrier signal contain noise due to phase and
frequency modulation of the signal then the noise is termed phase noise. The spectrum of
phase noise is normally close to the carrier spectrum, and is measured in decibels relative
to the carrier frequency (dBc).
Noise floor is a specified noise level below which signals cannot be detected, under a
specific measurement conditions.

17.3 RADIO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM ANALYSER

Analysing signals in terms of their frequencies is called spectrum analysis. The spectrum
analyser can measure the frequencies present in a complex signal or the frequencies
resulting from modulation on a carrier.
The spectrum analyser is a measuring instrument that displays frequency components of
a signal. Each frequency component contained in the input signal is displayed as a signal
level corresponding to that frequency. The vertical scale displays the amplitude of each
component, and the chosen frequency band is displayed horizontally.
Spectrum Analysers (SA) are useful as electronic test equipment used in design test and
maintenance of radio-frequency circuitry and equipment. A spectrum analyser works
similar to that of an oscilloscope, as a basic tool used for observing signals. The only
difference between the two is that where an oscilloscope looks at signals in the time
domain, spectrum analyser looks at signals in the frequency domain.
A common spectrum analyser has the following features:
Frequency tuning range—Measurement range of the analyser so that all of the
frequency components of the signal can be measured.
Frequency accuracy and stability—To be more stable and accurate than the signal to
be measured.
Sweep width—The frequency band over which the unit can sweep without
readjustment.
Resolution bandwidth—Need to be strong enough to resolve different spectral
components of the signal.
Sensitivity and/or noise figure—To observe very small signals or small parts of large
signals.
Sweep rate—Maximum sweep rate is established by the settling time of the filter that
sets the resolution bandwidth.
Dynamic range—The difference between the largest and smallest signal the analyser
can measure without readjustment.
Phase noise—A signal with spectral purity greater than that of the analyser
conversion, oscillators cannot be characterised.
There are basically two types of spectrum analysers—analog type and is digital-type
spectrum analysers:
An analog spectrum analyser—uses either a variable band-pass filter whose mid-
frequency is automatically tuned (shifted, swept) through the range of frequencies of
which the spectrum is to be measured or a super-heterodyne receiver where the local
oscillator is swept through a range of frequencies.
A digital spectrum analyser computes the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), a
mathematical process that transforms a waveform into the components of its
frequency spectrum.
Super-Heterodyne Analyser (SPA)
The working principle of a super-heterodyne type analyser is very similar to an AM or FM
radio receiver. In SPA, the incoming RF signal is first moderately amplified with user-
adjustable gain factor and then sent to the one input of a mixer which acts like an analog
multiplier. The output signal of a local oscillator as shown in Figure 17.6, goes to other
input of the mixer and then the output of the mixer is the sum and difference frequency
between RF and local oscillator. This signal then goes to the Intermediate Frequency (IF)
port of the mixer. This IF signal is subsequently band filtered, rectified and sent to the
vertically deflecting plates of the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) in the SPA. The functional
block diagram of a simple Super-Heterodyne Analyser (SPA) is shown in Figure 17.6.
Figure 17.6 Functional block diagram of a simple super-heterodyne (SPA) analyser

17.4 RF SCALAR AND VECTOR NETWORK ANALYSER

The RF network analyser is an active test instrument which generates a signal that is
applied to the device under test, and then it measures the response.
The different functional elements of a common RF network analyzer are the following:
(a) Signal Separation The signal separation element is often called test set. It provides two
functions:
Measure a portion of incident signal for rationing. This may be accomplished using a
splitter or directional coupler.
Separate the incident (forward) and reflected (reverse) travelling waves at the input
of DUT.
(b) Receiver and Signal Detection When the signal is passed through the device under test and
separated from the source signal, it is processed in the RF network analyser so that the
results can be gained. The first stage consists of a radio receiver with a demodulator or
detector. Typically, a tuned radio receiver is used to provide the best sensitivity, dynamic
range as well as harmonic/spurious signal rejection.
(c) Processor and Display The processed RF signals from the receiver and detector section
are displayed in a format that can be interpreted.
17.4.1 Different Types of RF Analysers
There are different types of network analysers which are able to measure the parametres of
the RF components and devices in different ways. Based on this network, analysers can be
classified as
1. Scalar network analyser
2. Vector network analyser
1. Scalar Network Analyser (SNA)
The Scalar Network Analyser (SNA) is used to measure frequency response of any device
or a system. It basically consists of two components: (i) sweep generator, and (ii) spectrum
generator. The sweep generator generates constant amplitude sinusoid with varying
frequency starting from low to high. The minimum (low) and maximum (high) value of
the frequency and the time to increase from minimum to maximum frequency are user-
configurable. The spectrum analyser plots the frequency contents of the input signal. Now,
if the output of the sweep generator is connected to the input of the spectrum analyser then
the spectrum analyser will show a constant horizontal line on the screen. As the amplitude
of all the harmonics of the sweep generator output signal are same, the line will shift
vertically if the amplitude of the sweep generator output signal is increased. Now if a
device under test whose frequency responses are to be obtained is placed in between the
sweep generator and spectrum analyser, meaning output of sweep generator is connected
to the input of the device and output of the device is connected to the input of the
spectrum analyser, the spectrum analyser will directly display the frequency response of
the device. The straight line cannot be seen on the spectrum analyser screen if the
response of the device changes the sweep generator output according to the frequency and
the response of the device at that frequency.
2. Vector Network Analyser (VNA)
A Vector Network Analyser ( VNA) works in similar fashion as the scalar network
analyser, the difference being that it can measure amplitude as well as phase of an RF
signal. That is why it is called VNA. The sweep frequency range can be adjusted by the
user. The VNA measures the frequency response of the device under test over the adjusted
range of sweep frequency. First, the VNA is used to measure the incident test signal from
the sweep generator (which is a constant line on the screen), then the reflected signal from
the test device, by using directional coupler as shown in Figure 17.7, and after that the
transmitted signal from the RF device under test. Then the VNA automatically reverses
the connections to measure the same quantities looking into the device from the opposite
direction. After completion of the process, the VNA displays these measured quantities as
a function of frequency.

Figure 17.7 Functional block diagram of a Vector Network Analyser (VNA)

The VNA is a common device required for RF design applications. The device is often
used to characterise RF device performance in terms of network scattering parametres, or
S parametres.
 17.5 MODULATION

Modulation is defined as the process in which some characteristic parametres of a high-
frequency signal is varied according to the message signal. The lower frequency signal is
called the modulating signal, the higher frequency signal is called the carrier, and the
output signal is called the modulated signal.
According to the modulation process, modulation is of two types—analog modulation
and digital modulation, discussed in the following subsections
17.5.1 Analog Modulation
In analog modulation, characteristic parametres of a high-frequency sinusoidal signal
(called carrier signal) is varied according to the message signal, called analog modulation.
Generally, the carrier is represented as

where Ac is the amplitude, fc is the frequency and j is the phase.

The three characteristic parametres of the carrier signal are amplitude, phase and
frequency, and these can be varied according to the message signal. So, analog modulation
techniques are classified into three types. They are
Amplitude modulation
Phase modulation
Frequency modulation
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Amplitude modulation means modulating the amplitude of the given signal. In amplitude
modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal. The complex envelop of an AM signal is given by

where, the constant A has been included to specify the power level and m(t) is the
modulating signal (may be analog or digital). This equation reduces to the following for
AM signal:
Figure 17.8 (a) Original message signal (b) modulating signal and (c) the signal after AM

Figure 17.8 shows the modulating signal and the signal after AM.
2. Phase Modulation (PM)
The phase modulation is defined as a process in which the phase of the carrier is varied
linearly according to the message signal. If m(t) is the message signal (or the modulation
signal) to be transmitted with the help of a carrier signal of amplitude ac, frequency wC
and phase angle fC, then the time domain equation of the phase modulated signal will
become

and the message signal, carrier signal and modulated signal are shown in Figure 17.9.

Figure 17.9 Message signal, carrier signal and modulated signal

3. Frequency Modulation (FM)

Frequency modulation means modulating the frequency of the signal, by change in carrier
frequency. Frequency of carrier signal is varied by the amplitude of message signal.
Frequency modulation has many attractive improvements over amplitude modulation. It
offers the advantage of almost total im-munity from noise interference as it eliminates the
problem of fading, which is pronounced in ampli-tude modulation.

Information signal = m(t)

Carrier signal = AC cos(2πct)
k is the frequency deviation constant (Hz/volt) that represents the maximum shift of
signal frequency from the carrier frequency in one direction
Figure 17.10 shows the time domain frequency modulated signal. The figure
demonstrates how a message signal modifies the frequency of a carrier signal in FM.

AM modulation requires less bandwidth when compared to FM modulation. But FM

modulation requires less power when compared to AM modulation.
Figure 17.10 Carrier wave with message signal, (b) Frequency modulated signal

17.5.2 Digital Modulation

The digital-modulation process involves switching or keying the amplitude, frequency or
phase of the carrier according to the incoming data. The input to the digital modulators is
in binary digits based upon the keying these techniques are divided into three types:
1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
By digital modulation, we can convey a large amount of information as compared to
analog modulation and they also provide more information capacity, compatibility with
digital data services, higher data security, better quality communications, and quicker
system availability.
1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
In ASK, the amplitude of the carrier is changed according to the modulating waveform
which is a digital signal (bit). The level of amplitude can be used to represent binary logic
0s and 1s. Here, two states of the carrier signal is considered, i.e. ON or OFF. In the
modulated signal, logic 0 is represented by the absence of a carrier, thus it is said to be an
OFF/ON keying operation. ASK demonstrates poor performance, as it is heavily affected
by noise and interference. Mathematically it can be represented as;

Figure 17.11 ASK modulated signal

2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

In FSK, the frequency of the carrier is changed according to the modulating waveform
which is a digital signal. The simplest FSK is binary FSK ( BFSK). BFSK literally implies
using a couple of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information. With this
scheme, the “1” is called the mark frequency and the “0” is called the space frequency.
Mathematically it can be represented as;

Early telephone-line modems used audio frequency-shift keying to send and receive
data, up to rates of about 300 bits per second. Figure 17.12 shows the FSK message signal,
carrier signal and modulated signal

Figure 17.12 (a) Message signal (b) carrier signal (c) FSK modulated signal

3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

In PSK, the phase of the carrier is changed according to the modulating waveform which
is a digital signal. PSK uses a finite number of phases; each assigned a unique pattern of
binary bits. Usually, each phase encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits
forms the symbol that is represented by the particular phase.
Mathematically it can be represented as;
where fc is the frequency of the carrier wave, and Eb and Tb are energy per bit and bit
duration respectively.. Figure 17. 13 shows the message signal and PSK modulated signal
PSK has better power and frequency efficiencies compared to ASK and FSK.
PSK achieves small Bit Error Rate (BER) for the same C/N(carrier-noise ratio).
PSK has constant envelope, and is robust to time-varying fading channel.
PSK is popularly used in many communication systems such as satellite and mobile
communication systems.

Figure 17.13 Message signal and PSK modulated signa

17.5.3 Modulation Measurement

Two different types of modulation measurements are developed in order to take into
account both the amplitude, and phase noise on the carrier. They are Modulation Error
Ratio (MER) and Error Vector Magnitude (EVM). Error vector magnitude and modulation
error ratio express same kind of information and are closely related to each other. In other
words, we can say that there is a one-to-one relationship between the two types of
measurements.
In a digital system, Modulation Error Ratio (MER) is similar to Signal-to-Noise or
Carrier-to-Noise used in analog systems. As compared to EVM, MER is easier to
understand as it relates directly to the S/N(signal to noise). The amount of the margin the
system has before failure can be determined by determining the MER (modulation error
ratio) of a digital signal. At the time of system failure, MER is more advantageous as
compared to analog systems as poor MER is not noticeable on the picture right up. On the
other hand, in analog systems degradations in carrier to noise performance can be seen.
In analog systems, carrier-to-noise ratio is simply a measure of the ratio of peak video
carrier power over the noise in the channel, over the system bandwidth expressed in dB.
For this type of measurement, we can also use digital channels, but unfortunately they do
not provide the complete picture and due to this reason, we have to go for MER and EVM.
MER and EVM can be directly correlated with each other since they are essentially the
same measurement; the only difference is on specification and performance. MER and
EVM can be considered a figure of merit for the QAM signal that includes all types of
impairments, not just noise as in carrier-to-noise in analog systems.
Figure 17.14 shows the ideal and measured location, where, v is the ideal symbol
vector, w is the measured symbol vector, q is the phase error, (e = w – v) is the magnitude
error vector, and e/v is the EVM.
This quantifies, but does not necessarily reveal, the nature of the impairment. To
remove the dependence on system gain distribution, EVM is normalized by |v|, which is
expressed as a percentage. Analytically, rms value of EVM over a measurement window
of N symbols is defined as

Figure 17.14 Ideal and measured location

MER is defined as follows:

MER = 10 log (rms error magnitude / average symbol magnitude) measured in dB

17.6 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Communication is the process of transferring information from one place to an other. The
information generated at source is transferred to the receiver through communication
channel.
The basic electronic communication system can be shown in Figure 17.15 as follows;

Figure 17.15 Block diagram of a basic communication system

On the source side, there is a transmitter device that makes the input electrical
information suitable for efficient transmission over a given channel. In general, a
transmitter modulates amplitude or frequency of a high-frequency carrier wave by an
original electrical information signal which is known as the baseband signal. On the
destination side, the receiver is the device that receives information from the channel and
demodulates the electrical signal from it. The receiver also amplifies and removes noise
and distortion from the noise contaminated received signal. The output transducer
converts electrical signal from the receiver output to a form of message as required by the
user. Communication can be made in two forms—analog communication and digital
communication.
RF Communication System Components
The RF communication system consists of various components and each performs
different functions as listed below:
PLO: Generates the RF carrier at the required frequency
Modulator: Varies the frequency, amplitude, or phase of an IF carrier to put
information onto it
Upconverter: Shifts the modulated IF signal to RF signal
Power amplifier: Increases the power level of the modulated RF carrier
TX antenna: Transmits the RF carrier in the direction of the receiver
RX antenna: Collects the transmitted RF signal at the receiver
RF filter: Allows only a specified range of RF frequencies to pass and blocks all
other frequencies
LNA: Amplifies the weak received RF carrier
Mixer and IF amplifier: Shifts the RF carrier to a lower frequency below the RF band
and amplifies it to a level where it can be demodulated
Demodulator: Removes the information from the low-frequency carrier
An RF communication system block diagram is shown in Figure 17.16.

Figure 17.16 RF communication system

It applies to any type of wireless RF communication system: cellular phone, wireless

LAN, satellite communications system. Any RF communication system must contain all
of the devices shown though performance requirements of each device vary from system
to system.

17.7 RF VOLTAGE AND POWER MEASUREMENT

A system’s output power level is frequently the critical factor in the design, and ultimately
the performance of almost all radio frequency and microwave equipment. Measurement
uncertainties cause ambiguities in realisable performance of a transmitter.
For the measurement of average power, a sensor along with a calibrated power metre is
connected with the RF transmitter. Initially, if the output of the sensor is switched off/not
allowed to enter into the power metre, the pointer of the power meter is set to zero. Then
the sensor is switched on and the indication on the power meter is observed, which
indicates the average power of the transmitter.
For design and application of an RF and microwave system, it is necessary to determine
the power. Average power is very popular and used in specifying almost all RF and
microwave systems. It is necessary to determine power level. Generally, there are three
methods for measuring power at RF and microwave frequencies. Each of these methods
uses different kinds of devices to convert RF power to measurable dc or low frequency
signal. The methods are as follows:
1. By using a thermistor
2. By using a thermocouple
3. By using a diode detector
17.7.1 Power Measurement Using a Thermistor
From early times, for the measurement of RF/microwave power, bolometer sensors,
especially thermistors, are being used. Presently, thermocouple and diode technologies
have captured the bulk of those applications because of their increased sensitivities, wider
dynamic ranges and higher power capabilities. For certain applications, a thermistor is still
the sensor of choice due to its power substitution capability.
The bolometer is a temperature—sensitive resistive element, whose resistance varies
due to change in temperature. The change in temperature results from converting RF or
microwave energy into heat within the bolometric element. Basically, two types of
bolometers are used—one is the barretter and the other is the thermistor. A barretter is a
thin wire that has a positive temperature coefficient of resistance, which is not commonly
used now. Thermistors are semiconductors with negative temperature coefficient.
17.7.2 Power Measurement Using a Thermocouple
Thermocouples work on the principle based on dissimilar metals generating a voltage due
to temperature differences at hot and a cold junction of the two metals.
The two main reasons for evolution of thermocouples are
1. They exhibit higher sensitivity than previous thermistor technology
2. They feature an inherent square-law detection characteristic (input RF power is
proportional to dc voltage out).
Since thermocouples are heat-based sensors, they are true “averaging detectors.” This
recommends them for all types of signal formats from CW to complex digital-phase
modulations. They are more rugged than thermistors, make useable power measurements
down to 0.3 mW (–30 dBm, full scale), and have lower measurement uncertainty because
of better SWR.
17.7.3 Power Measurement Using a Diode Detector
Diodes convert high-frequency energy to dc by way of their rectification properties, which
arise from their nonlinear current-voltage (I-V) characteristic.
Rectifying diodes have been used as detectors and for relative power measurements at
microwave frequencies. For absolute power measurement, however, diode technology had
been limited mainly to RF and low microwave frequencies.
17.7.4 Measuring RF Voltages with a Voltmeter
To measure RF voltages ranging from few hundred millivolts to several hundred
millivolts, a voltmeter uses diode detectors. Generally diode detectors fallow inverse
square law below 100V. So by taking the advantage of inverse square law, power detectors
or voltage detectors are designed.
To achieve best sensitivity, a diode should be matched as closely as possible to source
impedance. Simple diode detectors are used for designing RF voltmeter to measure
voltages from 100 mV to several hundred mV. In the design of voltmeter , two types of
diode detectors are used .
1. Series detector
2. Shunt detector
Out of these, shunt detectors are mostly suitable for measuring RF and microwave
voltages. In this case, diodes are directly connected to ground as shown in Figure 17.17.

Figure 17.17 Circuit diagram of a shunt type detector

In Figure 17.17 (shunt detector), the diode is connected in shunt and it is grounded. The
design components should have short leads to avoid any error readings and a termination
resister is connected across the input to measure output of amplifier and signal sources. A
small silicon diode is readily available but germanium diodes will give low offset
voltages. In order to remove these offset voltages, a battery and resister (high value) is
connected in the circuit.

EXERCISE

Objective-type Questions
1. The bandwidth of RF including microwave is approximately
(a) 20 Hz to 20 kHz
(b) 1 kHz to 300 GHz
(c) 3 GHz to 3000 GHz
(d) 3 Hz to 300 MHz
2. Identify the wrong statement.
(a) Power in band is the measure of total power within a specified frequency range.
(b) Occupied bandwidth measures bandwidth that contains total power of the signal.
(c) Adjacent channel power measures the way a particular channel and its two adjacent channels distribute
power.
(d) Resolution bandwidth measures the smallest frequency that can be resolved.
3. In Fourier transform-based spectrum analysers, the resolution bandwidth is
 (a) proportion to the length of window function
(b) inversely proportional to the sampling frequency
(c) inversely proportional to the length of the window function
(d) proportional to the sampling frequency
4. Phase noises are due to
(a) modulation of the signal with carrier signal
(b) noise from other signals
(c) noise due to change of phase during reflection
(d) noise due to change of phase during transmission in different medium
5. In the sweep generator, if the output is connected to the input of a spectrum analyser then
(a) a single vertical can be observed
(b) a single horizontal line can be observed
(c) a sawtooth wave can be observed
(d) lot of random lines can be observed
6. Identify the correct statement.
(a) Carrier frequencies of FM signals are relatively lower than AM signals.
(b) Antennas for FM signals are larger in size than AM antennas.
(c) FM signals can travel longer distance than AM signals
(d) FM signals are more immune to noise than AM signals
7. This is not a digital modulation technique:
(a) Amplitude shift keying
(b) Phase shift keying
(c) Frequency shift keying
(d) Pulse shift keying
8. The sensor used for RF power measurement
(a) Thermocouple
(b) Microphone
(c) Strain gauge
(d) Photodiode

Short-answer Questions
1. Why is spectral analysis important in RF communication system? What are the main different factors being
measured? Define each factor.
2. How are the power in band and occupiedband width interrelated? Explain in brief. How is the adjacent channel
power measured?
3. How is the harmonic distortion calculated? State the possible sources of phase noise.
4. What are different features a typical spectrum analyser must have? What are the different types of spectrum
analyser being used?
5. State the working principle of a super-heterodyne-type spectrum analyser.
6. How does a vector network analyser work? Write down some of its applications
 7. What are the different analog-modulation techniques used in communication? Compare each of them with one
another.
8. What are the different digital-modulation techniques used in communication? Compare each of them with one
another.
9. How can a diode be used for measurement of RF power? Compare the bolometer with thermocouple based RF
power. metre
10. Explain the RF voltage measurement techniques with a proper circuit diagram.
 18.1 INTRODUCTION

Kaol first suggested the possibility that low-loss optical fibres could be competitive with
coaxial cable and metal waveguides for telecommunications applications. It was not,
however, until 1970 when Corning Glass Works announced an optical fibre with loss less
than the benchmark level of 10 dB/km. After that, commercial applications began to be
realised. The revolutionary concept which Corning incorporated and which eventually
drove the rapid development of optical fibre communications was primarily a materials
one—it was the realisation that low doping levels and very small index changes could
successfully guide light for tens of kilometres before reaching the detection limit. The
ensuing demand for optical fibres in engineering and research applications spurred further
applications. Today, we see a tremendous variety of commercial and laboratory
applications of optical fibre technology.

18.2 HOW DOES AN OPTICAL FIBRE WORK?

The optical fibre works on principles similar to other waveguides, with the important
inclusion of a cylindrical axis of symmetry.
When light is travelling from one medium (n0) into a medium of different density (n1), a
certain amount of incident light is reflected. This effect is more prominent where the light
is travelling from a high-density medium into a lower-density medium. The exact amount
of light that is reflected depends on the degree of change of refractive index and on the
angle of incidence. If the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction is
increased at a greater rate. At a certain incident angle (qC), the refracted ray will have an
angle of refraction that has reached 90° (that is, the refracted ray emerges parallel to the
interface). This is referred to as the critical angle. For rays that have incident angles
greater than the critical angle, the ray is internally reflected totally. In theory, total internal
reflection is considered to reflect 100% of the light energy but in practice, it reflects about
99.9% of the incident ray.

Figure 18.1 shows the generic optical fibre design, with a core of high refractive index
surrounded by a low-index cladding. This index difference requires that light from inside
the fibre which is incident at an angle greater than the critical angle be totally internally
reflected at the interface.
 A simple geometrical picture appears to allow a continuous range of internally reflected
rays inside the structure; in fact, the light (being a wave) must satisfy a self-interference
condition in order to be trapped in the waveguide. There are only a finite number of paths
which satisfy this condition; these are analogous to the propagating electromagnetic
modes of the structure. Fibres which support a large number of modes (these are fibres of
large core and large numerical aperture) are called multimode fibres, whereas a fibres
allowing only one mode of propagation are called single-mode fibres.

Figure 18.1 (a) Generic optical fibre design (cross-section view) (b) Path of a ray propagating at the
geometric angle for total internal reflection

18.3 SOURCES AND DETECTORS

This section will examine the operation of the optical sources and their associated
detectors used with fibre optic systems.
18.3.1 Optical Sources
Effective optical sources for fibre optic systems need the following features:
To be able to effectively couple light into small fibre core, as small as 8.5
micrometres for single-mode fibres
Easily modulated by electrical signals to convey data, with good linearity to prevent
harmonics and inter-modulation distortion
Provide high optical output power
Have high reliability
Small size and weight
Low cost
Light emitting junction diodes (LED) and laser diodes (LD) fulfill many of these
requirements and we will now examine their properties in detail.
1. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
LED is basically a specially designed p-n junction diode. LEDs can provide light output in
the visible spectrum as well as in the 850 nm, 1350 nm and the 1500 nm windows.
Compared with the laser, the LED has a lower output power, slower switching speed and
greater spectral width, hence there is more dispersion. These deficiencies make it inferior
for use with high-speed data links and telecommunications. However, it is widely used for
short- and medium-range systems using both glass and plastic fibres because it is simple,
cheap, reliable and is less temperature dependent. It is also unaffected by incoming light
energy from Fresnel reflections, etc. Although the lower power makes it safer to use, it can
still be dangerous when the light is concentrated through a viewing instrument. Typical
LED is shown in wires Figure 18.2.

Figure 18.2 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Basic LED Operating Principles

When a positive voltage is applied to the p-region and a negative voltage applied to the n-
region, electrons and holes flow towards the junction of the two regions where they
combine. When an electron combines with a hole, the atom returns to its neutral state and
energy is released, having been converted into optical energy in the form of photons. In its
simplest form, the radiated energy from the LED is caused by the recombination of the
electrons and holes, which are injected into the junction by the forward bias voltage.
Figure 18.3 illustrates this process.

Figure 18.3 Basic LED Operation

The size of the band gap determines the energy of the emitted photon. Different
semiconductor materials have different band-gap energies and the gap energy (W) in
electronvolts (eV) can be related to the wavelength (l) by the equation:
 The usual LEDs applied in fibre optic systems use gallium aluminum arsenide
(GaAlAs) for 800 to 900 nm wavelengths and gallium arsenide (GaAs) for 930 nm. LEDs
for use with plastic fibres need to operate at about 660 nm and are produced with gallium
arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) compounds. Various indium gallium arsenide phosphide
(InGaAsP) compounds are used for longer wavelengths of 1300 and 1550 nm.
2. Lasers
Another form of LED is the laser diode. The most common form of laser diode is called
an Injection Laser Diode (ILD) or just Injection Diode (ID). The word injection is not of
interest—it merely refers to part of the process occurring inside the semiconductor
material. A laser provides a light of fixed wavelength which can be in the visible region
around 635 nm or in any one of the three infrared windows. The light has a very narrow
bandwidth, typically only a few nanometres wide. This ensures that chromatic dispersion
is kept to a low value and this, together with fast switching, allows high data-transmission
rates. As the laser device itself is barely visible to the unaided eye, it must be contained in
some form of package. Two typical examples are shown in Figure 18.4.

Figure 18.4 Typical laser diode

Basic Principles of Laser Operation LASER stands for Light Amplification by the
Stimulated Emission of Radiation. LEDs and lasers use very similar principles of
operation. In the earlier section of LED, it has been discussed that light is emitted from an
LED when an electron drops from a high energy level to a lower one. When this occurs
without outside influence, it is known as spontaneous emission. This occurs in some
radioactive material. With the LED discussed in the previous section, a forward-bias
voltage was used to stimulate the emission. An electron sitting at the upper energy level
can also be stimulated to drop to the lower level by a photon with the right amount of
energy. In this way, the external photon can stimulate the emission of a second photon at
the same wavelength. Laser action takes place through optical resonance. The laser
structure is very similar to an edge LED, having a thin, narrow active region with the
addition of reflective-end facets and reflective sides as shown in Figure 18.5. In this
resonator, the light is confined and reflected backward and forward through the excited
medium. The laser is biased to begin the emission of photons. The photons reflect
backward and forward and stimulate further emission of photons from electrons waiting to
recombine. The light travelling back and forth along the axis of the resonator continues
this action and builds up in strength until it is strong enough to break through the
reflective end and thus, a laser beam is formed.

Figure 18.5 LASER source

18.3.2 Optical Detectors

The function of the optical detector is to efficiently convert the small amount of light
energy received from the fibre, as photons, into electrical signals. The detector needs to be
a low inherent noise device, incorporating appropriate amplification to generate useful
output signals from low level inputs. Two main types of devices are used for practical
detectors: PIN diodes and avalanche photodiodes.
1. PIN Diodes
The PIN diode is very widely used as a detector for converting light energy received from
the optical fibre into an electronic signal. The PIN diodes look like LEDs. The difference
is in its construction. The name ‘PIN’ stands as ‘P’ for p-type semiconductor, ‘I’ for
intrinsic semiconductor and ‘N’ stands for n-type semiconductor. In this case, the intrinsic
layer is in the middle position and one side covers the p-type semiconductor whereas the
other side covers the n-type semiconductor. Hence, it is called P-I-N or PIN diode.
The Theory of its Operation The PIN photodiode has a wide intrinsic semiconductor
layer separating the p- and n-regions, as shown in Figure 18.6. The diode is reverse biased
(4.5–18 volts) and this helps draw the current carriers away from the intrinsic region. The
width of the intrinsic layer ensures that there is a high probability of incoming photons
being absorbed in it rather than in the p- or n-regions. The intrinsic layer has a high
resistance because it has no free charges. This results in most of the diode voltage
appearing across it, and the resultant electrical field raises the response speed and reduces
noise. When light of suitable energy strikes the intrinsic layer, it creates electron-hole pairs
by raising an electron from the valence band to the conduction band and leaving a hole
behind in the process. The bias voltage causes these current carriers (electrons in the
conduction band) to quickly drift away from the junction region, producing a current
proportional to the incident light, as shown in Figure 18.6.
Figure 18.6 Theory of operation, PIN photodiode

2. Avalanche Diode/Avalanche PhotoDiode (APD)

Avalanche photodiodes are used where very weak light signals have to be amplified, and
converted into a strong electrical signal. These diodes work on higher operating voltages,
i.e. reverse-bias voltage is very high, now whenever a small amount of light energy falls
on the intrinsic region, avalanche breakdown occurs and hence large reverse bias current
flows through the circuit. The main advantages of APD are good output at low light levels
and a wide dynamic range—it can handle high and low light levels. The disadvantages of
APDs are higher noise levels, higher cost, requires higher operating voltages and its
decrees of gain with an increasing temperature.
Operating Principles Avalanche photodiodes use semiconductor junction detectors with
internal gain through avalanche current multiplication. A very high reverse bias voltage
(50–300 volts) is applied to a p-n junction. A photon is absorbed in the depletion region,
creating a free electron and a free hole. These charges accelerate in the strong electric
field. When they
collide with neutral atoms in the crystal lattice, their kinetic energy is sufficient to raise
electrons across the band gap and create additional electron-hole pairs. These secondary
charges also accelerate creating more electron-hole pairs. In this way, the current produced
by one photon is multiplied.
The p+ and n+ layers are highly doped regions with very small voltage drops as shown
in Figure 18.7. The depletion region is lightly doped, almost intrinsic. Most of the photons
are absorbed in this area, forming electron-hole pairs. The electrons move to the p – region
that has been depleted of free charge by the large reverse voltage. The depletion region at
the p + n+ junction effectively reaches right through the p-layer. The strong electric fields
across the p-layer cause avalanche multiplication of the electrons. The holes produced
drift across the p layer to the p+ electrode but do not cause further multiplication. Because
this structure limits the charge carrier multiplication to electrons only, it has better noise
performance.
Figure 18.7 Theory of operation, avalanche photodiode

18.4 FIBRE OPTIC POWER MEASUREMENT

18.4.1 Optical Power
The fundamental unit of measure used in fibre optics is light power. As with electric
power, optic power is measured in watts.
For light, the total energy Q is given by
Q = NQp
where, Qp is the energy of a single photon and N is the number of photons
Therefore,

Power Meter
Power in a fibre optic system is like voltage in an electrical circuit—it’s what makes
things happen. It is important to have enough power, but not too much. Too little power
and the receiver may not be able to distinguish the signal from noise; too much power
overloads the receiver and causes errors too.
Measuring power requires only a power metre (most come with a screw-on adapter that
matches the connector being tested) and a little help from the network electronics to turn
on the transmitter. During the measurement of power, the metre must be set to the proper
range (usually dBm, sometimes microwatts, but never “dB” a relative power range used
only for testing loss) and the proper wavelengths matching the source being used. Figure
18.8 shows the technique used in the measurement of optical power.

Figure 18.8 Measurement of optical power

To measure power, attach the metre to the cable that has the output you want to
measure. That can be at the receiver to measure receiver power, or to a reference test cable
(tested and known to be good) that is attached to the transmitter, acting as the “source”, to
measure transmitter power. A typical power metre is shown in Figure 18.9. Turn on the
transmitter/source and note the power the metre measures. Compare it to the specified
power for the system and make sure it has enough power but not too much.
For the power metre as shown in Figure 18.9, the wavelength is adjustable over the
three windows and some offer a facility to step up and down by small increments. This
allows the fibre characteristics to be quoted at any required wavelength. It is a ‘nice to
have’ rather than an essential feature. The power levels can be indicated in mW or in
decibels as dBm, relative to one milliwatt or as dBr, relative to a previously noted value.
They are available with internal memories to store the day’s work and a thermal printer for
hard copies.
If the light source and power metre are to be used to Measured power check an installation or
repair on a commercial basis, the customer will need assurance that reading of the power
metre is correct. The proof of this is provided by a calibration certificate for each
instrument which must be renewed at intervals, usually annually. The calibration must be
carried out by an authorised company whose instruments themselves are calibrated against
the appropriate national standards. In this way, we can trace the accuracy back to its
source.

Figure 18.9 Typical power metre

18.4.2 Measurement of Loss

It is basically the difference between the power coupled into the cable at the transmitter
end and what comes out at the receiver end. Testing for loss requires measuring the optical
power lost in a cable (including connectors, splices, etc.) with a fibre optic source and
power metre by connecting the cable being tested to a known good reference cable.
For loss measurement, a power metre along with a test source is required. The test
source should match the type of source (LED or laser) and wavelength (850, 1300, 1550
nm).
There are two methods that are used to measure loss, which we call “single-ended loss”
and “doubleended loss”. Single-ended loss uses only the launch cable, while double-ended
loss uses a receive cable attached to the metre.
Single-ended loss is measured by mating the cable under test to the reference launch
cable and measuring the power output at the far end with the metre. By doing this, total
loss is being measured that is loss of the connector mated to the launch cable and the loss
of any fibre, splices or other connectors in the cable under test. This method is described
in Figure 18.10. Reverse the cable to test the connector on the other end.
For the measurement of double-ended loss attach the cable to test between two
reference cables, one attached to the source and one to the metre. In this way, two
connectors’ losses are being measured one on each end, plus the loss of all the cable or
cables in between. This method is shown in Figure 18.11.
We also need one or two reference cables, depending on the test. The accuracy of the
measurement will depend on the quality of your reference cables. Reference cables always
need to be tested by the single-ended method discussed earlier, to ensure they are good
before starting the test of other cables.

Figure 18.10 Single ended loss measurement

Figure 18.11 Double ended loss measurement

Calculate the approximate loss at wavelengths of 1300 nm

Example 18.1 and 1550 nm for a optical system having 2 connectors, 2
splices and a single-mode optical fibre with a length of 10
km.
Solution
For each connector, loss is 0.5 dB.
For each splice, loss is 0.2 dB
For the single-mode fibre, the loss is about 0.5 dB per km for 1300 nm sources, and
0.4 dB per km for 1550 nm.
So approximate loss is
(0.5 × 2 + 0.2 × 2 + 10 × 0.5 ) dB for 1300 nm wavelength
= 6.4 dB
and
(0.5 × 2 + 0.2 × 2 +10 × 0.4) dB for 1550 nm wavelength
= 5.4 dB
18.4.3 Optical Time Domain Reflectometre (OTDR)
The most commonly used and best recognised method of analysing the state of a fibre
optic link is to test it with an Optical Time domain Reflectometre (OTDR). The OTDR
uses backscattered light of the fibre to imply loss. The OTDR works like RADAR,
sending a high power laser light pulse down the fibre and looking for return signals from
backscattered light in the fibre itself or reflected light from the connector or splice
interfaces. By measuring the time it takes for the reflected light to return to the source and
knowing the refractive index of the fibre, it is possible to calculate the distance to the
reflection point.
When this instrument is connected to one end of any fibre optic system up to 250 km in
length, within a few seconds, it is able to measure the overall loss, or the loss of any part
of a system, the overall length of the fibre and the distance between any points of interest.
1. Operating Principle
As light travels along the fibre, a small proportion of it is lost by Rayleigh scattering. As
the light is scattered in all directions, some of it just happens to return back along the fibre
towards the light source. This returned light is called backscatter. The backscatter power
is a fixed proportion of the incoming power and as the losses take their toll on the
incoming power, the returned power also diminishes as shown in Figure 18.12.

Figure 18.12 Loss due to Rayleigh scattering

The OTDR can continuously measure the returned power level and hence deduce the
losses encountered on the fibre. Any additional losses such as connectors and fusion
splices have the effect of suddenly reducing the transmitted power on the fibre and hence
causing a corresponding change in backscatter power. The position and the degree of the
losses can be ascertained.

An optical fibre has a core of refractive index of 1.5. When

Example 18.2 the fibre is being tested with an OTDR system, it shows a
sharp fault peak after with delay of 1.4 μs. Find the possible
distance of fault.
Solution Travelling speed of light through the core is

This means that it will take 5 ns to travel the distance of 1 m.

If the OTDR measures a time delay of 1.4 ms then the distance travelled by the light is
 The 280 metres is the total distance travelled by the light and is the ‘onwards and return’
distance. The fault location is therefore only 140 m.
2. Inside the OTDR
In general, an OTDR system has the following inside components:
(a) Timer The timer produces a voltage pulse which is used to start the timing process in
the display at the same moment as the laser is activated.
(b) Pulsed Laser The laser is switched on for a brief moment, the ‘on’ time being
between 1 ns and 10 ms. The wavelength of the laser can be switched to suit the system to
be investigated.
(c) Directive Coupler The directive coupler allows the laser light to pass straight through
into the fibre under test. The backscatter from the whole length of the fibre approaches the
directive coupler from the opposite direction. In this case, the mirror surface reflects the
light into the avalanche photodiode (an APD). The light has now been converted into an
electrical signal.
(d) Amplifying and Averaging The electrical signal from the APD is very weak and
requires amplification before it can be displayed. The averaging feature is quite interesting
and we will look at it separately towards the end of this chapter.
(e) Display The amplified signals are passed on to the display. The display is either a
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) like an oscilloscope or a computer monitor, or a liquid crystal as
in calculators and laptop computers. They display the returned signals on a simple XY plot
with the range across the bottom and the power level in decibels up the side.
(f) Data Handling An internal memory or a floppy disk drive can store the data for later
analysis. The output is also available via an RS232 link for downloading to a computer. In
addition, many OTDRs have an onboard printer to provide hard copies of the information
on the screen. This provides useful ‘before and after’ images for fault repair as well as a
record of the initial installation. Inside components of a typical OTDR system are shown
in Figure 18.13.

Figure 18.13 Functional block diagram of an OTDR system

3. Measurement Using OTDR

Impurities in the glass will cause a continuous low level reflection as the light travels
through the glass fibre. This is referred to as backscatter. The correct technical term of this
is Rayleigh scattering. The strength of the backscatter signal received at the source
gradually drops, as the pulse moves away from the source. This is seen on an OTDR as a
near linear drop in the received reflected signal and the slope of this linear drop is the
attenuation of the fibre (dB per km). Figure 18.14 illustrates a typical reflection curve for
an OTDR and notes the backscatter. Generally, an OTDR will not provide accurate
readings of irregularities and losses in the fibre for the first 15 m of the cable. This is
because the pulse length and its rise time from the OTDR are comparatively large when
compared to the time it takes for the pulse to travel the short distance to the point of
reflection within this 15 m and back. To overcome this problem, a reel of cable is inserted
between the OTDR and the link to be tested. When reading the OTDR screen, the first
length of cable is ignored and is referred to as the dead band. With reference to the OTDR
plot in Figure 18.14, the Y-axis of the plot shows the relative amplitude of the light signal
that is reflected back to the source and the X-axis represents time. The time base is directly
translated and displayed as distance by the OTDR.
The sudden peaks that appear along the slope are the points where reflections have
occurred and the light that has reflected back to the source is stronger than the backscatter.
There are five main reflection points illustrated in Figure 18.14. In their order of
decreasing magnitude, they are
1. Reflection from the unterminated end of the fibre
2. Reflection from a connector
3. Reflection from a splice
4. Reflection from a hairline crack in the fibre
5. Backscatter
After each of the reflections, the slope of the attenuation curve drops suddenly. This
drop represents the loss introduced by the connector, splice or imperfection in the fibre.
Point (6) noted in Figure 18.14 illustrates a splice where the cores of fibres are well
matched for light travelling in the direction away from the source. This splice has no
reflection but just a loss introduced by the splice. The type of drop at the point (6) in the
attenuation curve could also be caused by a sharp bend in the fibre where light escapes out
of the fibre at the bend and is not reflected back. Some types of faults in the fibre will also
cause similar results.
Point (7) noted in Figure 18.14 shows the noise floor of the instrument. This is the
lowest sensitivity of a received signal that the device can accept. Measurements made
close to this level are not very accurate. OTDR testing can provide very accurate fault
analysis over almost any length of fibre. It is important that the deadband roll of cable is
always inserted between the OTDR and the link before making the measurement. On the
better quality instruments, a resolution of 1 m for fault location and .01 dB for in-line
losses can be obtained. Some instruments will operate with a range of up to 400 km.
Figure 18.14 Trace from an OTDR

EXERCISE

Objective-type Questions
1. Light passes through the fibre due to phenomena of
(a) total internal reflection
(b) reflection from the interface of two medium
(c) transmission to the second medium
(d) both transmission and reflection at the interface of two medium
2. LEDs operating in the wavelength of 800–900 nm are mainly made of
(a) GaAs
(b) GaAlAs
(c) GaAsP
(d) InGaAsP
3. The width of active region of LASER diode is comparatively
(a) wider that LEDs
(b) almost equal to LEDs
(c) much wider that LEDs
(d) narrower than LEDs
4. PIN photodiodes are kept in
(a) forword bias
(b) reverse bias
(c) connected circuit and no bias voltages are given
(d) initially forword biased and then reverse biased
5. Avalanche photodiodes have output voltage comparatively
(a) lower that PIN photodiode
(b) higher than PIN photodiode
(c) higher than normal photodiode
(d) higher than normal and PIN photodiode
6. In OTDR response, the peaks of the reflected waveform do not occur due to
(a) reflection from the unterminated end of the fibre
 (b) reflection from a connector
(c) backscatter
(d) reflection from the interface of core and cladding

Short-answer Questions
1. How do light waves travel through an optical fibre? Explain with a proper diagram.
2. State the working principle of a p-n junction photodiode.
3. How are LASER diodes different from LEDs? How do LASER diodes generate LASER light?
4. How do PIN diodes work? What are the benefits of avalanche diodes and how do they work?
5. How is the optical power in a fibre optic network measured? Explain in brief.
6. State the procedures adopted during the measurement of fibre loss.
7. How does the OTDR work? Explain in brief with a diagram.
8. Draw the functional block diagram of a typical OTDR system and explain in brief about each element.
9. How are different reflective components measured using an OTDR system?
10. Calculate the approximate loss at wavelengths of 800 nm and 900 nm for an optical system having 1 connector, 4
splices and a single-mode optical fibre with a length of 10 km.
 Table I. Basic units
Table II. Derived units with assigned names
Table III a. SI Units prefixes
Table III b. Binary prefixes for bytes
Table IV. Accepted non-SI units
Table V. Accepted non-SI units with experimental values
Table VI. Units deprecated by the SI
Table I Basic Units

Table II Derived units with assigned names

Table IIIa SI Units prefixes
Table IIIb Binary prefixes for bytes

Table IV Accepted non-SI units

Table V Accepted non-SI units with experimental values

Table VI Units deprecated by the SI

UNIT CONVERSION TABLE

HOW TO READ THIS TABLE: The table provides conversion factors to SI units. These
factors can be considered as unity multipliers. For example:
Length: m/X
0.0254 in 0.3048 ft
means that
1 = 0.0254 (m/in)
1 = 0.3048 m/ft
The SI units are listed immediately after the quantity; in this case: Length: m/X. The m
stands for metre, and the “X” designates the non-SI units for the same quantity. These
non-SI units follow the numerical conversion factors.

Example A.1 To calculate how many metres are in 10 ft, the table
provides the conversion factor as 0.3048 m/ft.

Hence, multiply
10 ft X {0.3048 m/ft} = 3.048 m

Convert thermal conductivity of 10 kcal/h-m-°C to SI units.

Example A.2
Select the appropriate conversion factor for these units,

10 (kcal/h-m-°C) X {1.163 (w/m-K)/(kcal/h-m-°C)} = 11.63 w/m-K

Length: m/X

Mass: kg/X

Time: s/X

Temperature: K/X (difference)

Area: m2/X

Volume: m3/X

Flow Rate, Volume: (m /s)/X

Specific Volume: (m3/kg)/X

Velocity: (m/s)/X
Acceleration: (m/s2)/X

Momentum: (kg-m/s)/X

Angular Velocity: (rad/s)/X

Angular Acceleration: (rad/s2)/X

Momentum, Angular: (kg-m2/s)/X

Mass Moment of Inertia: (kg-m )/X

Flow Rate, Mass: (kg/s)/X

Density: (kg/m3)/X

Flow Rate, Mass/Volume: (kg/m -s)/X

Specific Volume: (m3/kg)/X

Force: N/X

Surface Tension: (N/m)/X

Pressure, Stress: (N/m2)/X

Torque: N-m/X

Dynamic Viscosity: (Kg/m-s)/X

Dynamic Viscosity: (g/cm-s)/X

Energy: J/X

Power: W/X

Specific Heat, Gas Constant: (J/kg-K)/X

Thermal Conductivity: (W/m-K)/X

Heat Transfer Coefficient: (W/m2-K)/X

 B.1 INTRODUCTION

Although many students know the decimal (base 10) system, and are very comfortable
with performing operations using this system, it is important for students to understand
that the decimal system is not the only system. By studying other number systems such as
binary (base 2), octal (base 8), and hexadecimal (base 16), students will gain a better
understanding of how number systems work in general. When discussing how a computer
stores information, the binary number system becomes very important since this is the
system that computers use. It is important that students understand that computers store
and transmit data using electrical pulses, and these pulses can take two forms: “on” (1) or
“off” (0).
The following topics treat the manipulation of numbers represented in different bases as
well as the binary representation of negative integers and floating-point numbers.

B.2 DIFFERENT BASES

The following are a series of examples that should help students understand how numbers
are represented using different bases.
1. The Decimal System
In everyday life, we use a system based on decimal digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) to
represent numbers and refer to the system as the decimal system. Consider what the
number 83 means. It means eight tens plus three:
83 = (8 × 10) + 3
The number 4728 means four thousands, seven hundreds, two tens, plus eight:
4728 = (4 × 1000) + (7 × 100) + (2 × 10) + 8
The decimal system is said to have a base, or radix, of 10. This means that each digit in
the number is multiplied by 10 raised to a power corresponding to that digit’s position:
83 = (8 × 101) + (3 × 100)
4728 = (4 × 103) + (7 × 102) + (2 × 101) + (8 × 100)
The same principle holds for decimal fractions but negative powers of 10 are used.
Thus, the decimal fraction 0.256 stands for 2 tenths plus 5 hundredths plus 6 thousandths:
0.256 = (2 × 10–1) + (5 × 10–2) + (6 × 10–3)
 A number with both an integer and fractional part has digits raised to both positive and
negative powers of 10:
472. 256 = (4 × 102) + (7 × 101) + (2 × 100) + (2 × 10–1) + (5 × 10–2) + (6 × 10–
3)

In general, for the decimal representation of X = { … d2d1d0.d–1d–2d–3 …}, the value of

X is

2. The Binary System

In the decimal system, 10 different digits are used to represent numbers with a base of 10.
In the binary system, we have only two digits, 1 and 0. Thus, numbers in the binary
system are represented to the base 2.
To avoid confusion, we will sometimes put a subscript on a number to indicate its base.
For example, 8310 and 472810 are numbers represented in decimal notation, or more
briefly, decimal numbers. The digits 1 and 0 in binary notation have the same meaning as
in decimal notation:
02 = 010
12 = 110
To represent larger numbers, as with decimal notation, each digit in a binary number has
a value depending on its position:
102 = (1 × 21) + (0 × 20) = 210

112 = (1 × 21) + (1 × 20) = 310

1002 = (1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (0 × 20) = 410

and so on. Again, fractional values are represented with negative powers of the radix:
1001.1012 = 23 + 20 + 2–1 + 2–3 = 9.62510
In general, for the binary representation of Y = { … b2b1b0.b–1b–2b–3 …}, the value of Y
is

3. Converting between Binary and Decimal

It is a simple matter to convert a number from binary notation to decimal notation. In fact,
we showed several examples in the previous subsection. All that is required is to multiply
each binary digit by the appropriate power of 2 and add the results.
(a) Binary to Decimal
For the integer part, recall that in binary notation, an integer represented by
 bm–1bm–2…b2b1b0 bi = 0 or 1
has the value
(bm–1 × 2m–1) +(bm–2 × 2m–2) + … + (b1 × 21) + b0

(b) Decimal to Binary

Suppose it is required to convert a decimal integer N into binary form. If we divide N by 2,
in the decimal system, and obtain a quotient N1 and a remainder R0, we may write
 To find b–2, we repeat the process. Therefore, the conversion algorithm involves
repeated multiplication by 2. At each step, the fractional part of the number from the
previous step is multiplied by 2. The digit to the left of the decimal point in the product
will be 0 or 1 and contributes to the binary representation, starting with the most
significant digit. The fractional part of the product is used as the multiplicand in the next
step.
This process is not necessarily exact; that is, a decimal fraction with a finite number of
digits may require a binary fraction with an infinite number of digits. In such cases, the
conversion algorithm is usually halted after a pre-specified number of steps, depending on
the desired accuracy.
4. Hexadecimal Notation
Because of the inherent binary nature of digital computer components, all forms of data
within computers are represented by various binary codes. However, no matter how
convenient the binary system is for computers, it is exceedingly cumbersome for human
beings. Consequently, most computer professionals who must spend time working with
the actual raw data in the computer prefer a more compact notation.
What notation to use? One possibility is the decimal notation. This is certainly more
compact than binary notation, but it is awkward because of the tediousness of converting
between base 2 and base 10.
Instead, a notation known as hexadecimal has been adopted. Binary digits are grouped
into sets of four. Each possible combination of four binary digits is given a symbol, as
follows:

Because 16 symbols are used, the notation is called hexadecimal, and the 16 symbols
are the hexadecimal digits.
A sequence of hexadecimal digits can be thought of as representing an integer in base
16.
In hexadecimal system, the possible digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E,
F
(Note: In base 10, A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15)
Thus,

Hexadecimal notation is used not only for representing integers. It is also used as a
concise notation for representing any sequence of binary digits, whether they represent
text, numbers, or some other type of data. The reasons for using hexadecimal notation are
the following:
1. It is more compact than binary notation.
2. In most computers, binary data occupy some multiple of 4 bits, and hence some
multiple of a single hexadecimal digit.
3. It is extremely easy to convert between binary and hexadecimal.
 As an example of the last point, consider the binary string 110111100001. This is
equivalent to

This process is performed so naturally that an experienced programmer can mentally

convert visual representations of binary data to their hexadecimal equivalent without
written effort
5. Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion
Since one hexadecimal digit can be represented using four binary digits, we can convert
each hexadecimal digit into a group of four binary digits.
2 A 4 E
2A4E16 = 0010 1010 0100 1110
= 101010010011102
As the name suggests, the Weston frequency meter is an instrument using which unknown
frequency of a signal can be measured. It is basically a moving-iron-type instrument
which works on the principle that whenever the frequency changes, the current
distribution changes between two parallel circuits, one of which is inductive and the other
non-inductive. Any change in frequency changes the inductive impedance of the inductive
arm causing current distribution to change between the two parallel paths. Figure C.1
shows the constructional details of a Weston frequency meter.

Figure C.1 Weston Frequency meter

The axes of the two coils A1–A2 and B1–B2 are mutually perpendicular. A soft iron
needle that carries a pointer is placed at the central location within the coils. Coil A is
connected in series with an inductance LA across a non-inductive resistance RA. Coil B is
connected in series with a non-inductive resistance RB across an inductance LB. The other
inductor L acts as a filter to remove any harmonics that may be present in the signal.
As supply is given to the system, the magnetic fields developed by the two coils are at
right angles to each other. Depending on the strength of these two magnetic fields, a
deflecting torque is developed that moves the soft iron needle and hence the pointer on a
calibrated scale. The deflecting torque and hence the amount of deflection of the pointer
thus depends on the magnitude of currents in the two coils.
Once the frequency deviates from a certain present value, the inductance values LA and
LB change, but the resistances RA and RB remain the same. This makes the current
distribution in the two coils to change from their initial preset values. Depending on the
frequency, one coil becomes stronger than the other. Thus, the deflecting torque under
such condition will be different from that in the normal case and the pointer will deviate
either towards left or to the right indicating lower or higher frequency than the preset
value respectively.
 Solved Sample Question Papers
SOLVED QUESTION PAPER-1
1. Answer the following questions:
(2 × 10)
(a) Give two examples of each: (i) Absolute instrument (ii) Secondary instrument
(i) Absolute instruments—Tangent galvanometer, Absolute electrometer
(ii) Secondary instruments—Moving-coil instrument, Moving-iron instrument
(b) A wattmeter has a current coil of 0.03 Ω resistance and a pressure coil of 6000
Ω resistance. Calculate the percentage error if the wattmeter is so connected
that (i) the current coil is on the load side, and (ii) the pressure coil is on the
load side. The load takes 20 A at a voltage of 220 V and 0.6 power factor in
each side.
Load specified is 20 A at 250 V with 0.6 power factor.
(i) Current Coil (CC) on load side

Figure 1

True power = VI cos φ

= 250 × 20 × 0.6
= 3000 W
Power lost in CC = I2 × rC (where rC is the resistance of CC)
= 202 × 0.03
= 12 W
The wattmeter will thus read total power = 3000 + 12 = 3012 W 12
Hence, error in measurement
(ii) Pressure Coil (CC) on load side
 Figure 2

True power = 3000 W

Power lost in PC = V2/RP (where RP is the resistance of PC)
= 2502/6000
= 10.42 W
The wattmeter will thus read total power = 3000 + 10.42 = 3010.42 W
Hence, error in measurement

(c) What is creep and how are creep adjustments made in a single-phase
induction-type energy meter?
Refer Section 8.3.3 in Chapter 8 on Measurement of Energy.
(d) What are the advantages of an instrument transformer?
Refer Section 3.2 in Chapter 3 on Instrument Transformers.
(e) If ‘J’ is the inertia constant, ‘D ’ is the damping constant and ‘K’ is the control
constant of a D’arsonaval galvanometer, write down the condition for
underdamped, critically damped and overdamped cases.
Underdamped: D2 < 4 kJ
Critically damped: D2 = 4 kJ
Overdamped: D2 > 4 kJ
(f) A simple slide-wire is used for measurement of current in a circuit. The
voltage drop across a standard resistor of 0.1 Ω is balanced at 75 cm. Find the
magnitude of current if the standard cell emf of 1.45 V is balanced at 50 cm.
Refer Example 5.3 in Chapter 5 on Potentiometers.
(g) Write down four applications of a dc potentiometer.
Refer Section 5.4 in Chapter 5 on Potentiometers.
(h) Draw the circuit diagram of Owen’s bridge. What does it measure?
Refer Section 6.4.5 in Chapter 6 on AC Bridges.
(i) Write down the expression for the gauge factor of a strain gauge in terms of
Poisson’s ratio (µ).
[Refer Equation (11.6) in Section 11.4 of Chapter 11 on Sensors and Transducers]
The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per-unit change in resistance to per-unit
change in length.
 where = strain, ρ is the resistivity of the wire, and µ is the Poisson’s ratio.

(j) What are the different forms of thermistors available? Draw them.
Thermistors are ceramic semiconductors and have either large positive
temperature coefficient of resistance (PTC devices) or large negative temperature
coefficient of resistance (NTC devices).
NTC Thermistors
Bead type
• Bare beads
• Glass coated beads
• Ruggedised beads
• Miniature glass probes
• Glass probes
• Glass rods
• Bead-in-glass enclosures
Metallised surface-contact type
• Disks
• Chips (wafers)
• Surface mounts
• Flakes
• Rods
• Washers

Figure 5

2. (a) What are the different forces acting on an indicating type of instrument?
Discuss them.
(6)
Refer Section 2.4 in Chapter 2 on Analog Meters.
 (b) A weight of 5 g is used as the controlling weight in a gravity-controlled
instrument. Find its distance from spindle if the deflecting torque
corresponding to a defection of 60° is 1.13 × 10–3 Nm.
(4)
For gravity control, the control torque is given by
Tc = Wl sin θ = mgl sin θ

Thus, as per the given data, 1.13 × 10–3 = 5 × 10–3 × 9.81 × l × sin 60°
Hence, distance of weight from spindle l = 26.6 mm
3. Construct the different parts of an Electrodynamometer wattmeter and explain its
theory for measurement of power. Discuss the shape of scale also.
(10)
Refer Sections 7.4.1, 7.4.2, and 7.4.3 in Chapter 7 on Power Measurement.
4. (a) Derive the steady–state deflection of a ‘D’arsonaval galvanometer. What are
intrinsic constants of a galvanometer? Explain these.
(6)
Let,
l, d = dimensions of vertical and horizontal sides of the coil (m)
N = number of turns in the coil
B = air-gap flux density
I = moving-coil current
k = suspension spring constant
θF = final steady-state deflection of the galvanometer coil
 Figure 7

Force on each side of coil = NBIl sin α

where α is the angle between the conductor and the direction of magnetic field.
Since the magnetic field is radial (due to the stationery core), α = 90°
Hence, force on each side of coil = NBIl
Thus, deflecting torque Td = Force × Distance = NBIld
= NBAI
where A = ld = area of coil
The quantities N, B, and A are constant for a given galvanometer.
Hence, deflecting torque Td = GI
where G = NBA = Displacement constant of the galvanometer
The controlling torque is provided by the suspension. At a deflection of θF, the
deflecting torque is given by Tc = kθF
For final steady deflection, Td = Tc
or, kθF = GI
Hence, final steady deflection θF = GI/k
The intrinsic constants of a D’arsonaval galvanometer are
1. Displacement Constant: The deflecting torque is given by Td = GI, this G is
called the displacement constant and it has a value G = NBA
2. Inertia Constant: While the moving system moves in the space between the two
magnets, a retarding torque is produced due to inertia of the moving system. The
value of this torque is given by Tj = J (d2θ/dt2); J is the moment of inertia of the
moving system and θ is the deflection at time t. The moment of inertia J is also
called the inertia constant.
3. Damping Constant: Damping torque is provided on the moving system either by
air friction or by the action of eddy current. In either case, the damping torque is
given by TD = D(dθ/dt); this D is called damping constant.
 4. Control Constant: The control torque provided by the suspension, that tends to
control the movement of the moving system and also tries to restore the system to
its initial position is given by Tc = kθ ; this k is called the control constant.
(b) A D’arsonaval galvanometer has the following data: Flux density = 8 × 10–3,
Wb/ m2. Number of turns = 300, Length of coil = 15 mm. Width of coil = 30
mm, Spring constant = 2.5 × 10–3 Nm/rad. Calculate (a) the deflection of
galvanometer for a current of 1 μA, and (b) current sensitivity in mm/μA if
the scale is kept 1 m away from the mirror.
(4)
(i) Displacement constant = G = NBld = 300 × 8 × 10–3 × 15 × 10–3 × 30 × 10–3
= 1.08 × 10–3 Nm/A
Deflection of galvanometer

(ii) Deflection in mm when the scale is kept at a distance of 1 mm from the mirror
= 2000 θF = 864 mm
Hence, current sensitivity S = 864 mm/μA
5. Draw the equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of a current transformer. Derive
the expression for ratio and phase angle error.
(10)
Refer Sections 3.4, 3.4.1, 3.4.2, 3.5.1, and 3.5.2 in Chapter 3 on Instrument
Transformers.
6. Describe the working of Maxwell’s inductance-capacitance bridge for
measurement of inductance. Derive the equation for balance and draw the phasor
diagram under balance condition. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
this bridge circuit?
(10)
Refer Section 6.4.1 in Chapter 6 on AC Bridges.
7. (a) Explain the function of a time-base generator in a CRO.
(5)
Refer Section 9.4 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
(b) Explain how voltage and current are measured with the help of CRO?
(5)
Refer Section 9.7 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
8. Write short notes on any two of the following:
(5 × 2)
(a) Electrical Resonance type Frequency Meter
 In an electrical resonance–type frequency meter, an unknown frequency is
measured with the help of an R-L-C resonating circuit.

Figure 8

The unknown frequency ac source, whose frequency is to be measured is used as

the voltage source in the driving circuit as shown in the figure. Voltage supply to
the resonating circuit is given by coupling the coil L with the output coil of the
signal ac source. Resonance in the RLC circuit is obtained by varying the
capacitance. An electronic voltmeter connected across the capacitor is used as the
primary detector for checking resonance condition in the RLC circuit. With certain
value of R, L, and C, when resonance is obtained at the unknown frequency, the
voltage indicated by the electronic voltmeter will be maximum. The unknown
frequency can be calculated by using the mathematical condition for resonance in
a series RLC circuit.
(b) Slide-wire dc Potentiometer
Refer Section 5.2 in Chapter 2 on Potentiometers.
(c) LVDT
Refer Section 11.3 in Chapter 11 on Sensors and Transducers.
Capacitive Transducer
(d) Refer Section 11.7.4 in Chapter 11 on Sensors and Transducers
 SOLVED QUESTION PAPER-2
1. Attempt any four parts of the following:
(4 × 4 = 16)
(a) Define and explain briefly the static performance parameters of instruments.
Refer Section 1.7 in Chapter 1 on Concepts of Measurement Systems.
(b) A source having an open circuit voltage of 20 V and an output impedance of
(1.5 j4) Ω is connected through a transmission network of impedance (0.5 +
j1)Ω. What should be the load impedance so that the maximum power will be
delivered to it? Calculate the maximum deliverable power.
For maximum power transfer, load impedance must be equal to the complex
conjugate of Source impedance
Thus, load impedance = (2 – j5)Ω
Maximum deliverable power = 202/(4 × 2) = 50 W
(c) Derive the equations for capacitance and dissipation factor of a low-voltage
Schering bridge. Draw the phasor diagram of the bridge under conditions of
balance.
Refer Section 6.5.2 in Chapter 6 on Schering Bridge.
(d) Explain the function and working of a Wagner earth Device.
Refer Section 6.7 in Chapter 6 on Schering Bridge
(e) Describe the phenomenon of synchronization of vertical input signal-to-sweep
generator in CRO.
Refer Section 9.5 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
(f) Discuss delay sweep in CRO.
When short-duration pulses are displayed in the CRO, proper synchronisation is
achieved by internal triggering in the ac trigger mode. However, due to the finite
delay of the trigger amplifiers used internally, the initial build-up of the pulse may
not be observable in the display. To avoid this, a delay line producing a typical
delay in the range of 100 ns to 1 ms is often incorporated in the Y amplifier.
The “delayed sweep” is an additional facility available in some oscilloscopes,
enabling enhanced resolution in time measurements. The “delaying sweep” allows
the operator to select any specific delay time by means of a 10-turn calibrated dial.
This delay is generated by applying a sweep ramp to a voltage comparator that
produces a trigger pulse at a later point in time. The delayed sweep starts at the
selected time, and is usually a decade or two faster than the delaying sweep. Using
a very high speed for the delayed sweep, considerable magnification is achieved so
that short duration phenomena occurring after a delay period following a trigger
can be conveniently observed.
 Figure 1

2. Attempt any four parts of the following:

(4 × 4 = 16)
(a) Write a technical note on loading effects of instruments
Refer Section 1.9 in Chapter 1 on Concepts of Measurement Systems.
(b) Explain with the help of a block diagram, the various parts of an electronic
multimeter.
Refer Section 10.4 in Chapter 10 on Electronic Instruments.
(c) Describe the methods of measurement of voltage and power a radio
frequencies.
Refer Section 17.7 in Chapter 17 on Microwave and RF Measurement.
(d) What are the various factors taken into consideration while selecting an
electronic type analog voltmeter.
Refer Section 10.3 in Chapter 10 on Electronic Instruments.
(e) A sawtooth voltage has a peak value of 40 V and a time period of 5.0 seconds
as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2

Calculate the error when measuring this voltage with an average reading
voltmeter, calibrated in terms of rms value of sinusoidal waves.

Error = (True value – Actual value)/Actual value =

(f) Describe the circuit diagram and operation of a dc voltmeter using a direct
coupled amplifier.
dc voltmeter using direct coupled amplifier
 Figure 3 Direct coupled amplifier DC voltmeter using cascade transistor

This type of voltmeter is very common because of its low cost. This instrument
can be used only to measure voltages of the order of millivolts owing to limited
amplifier gain. The circuit diagram for a direct coupled amplifier dc voltmeter
using cascaded transistors is shown in Figure 3. An attenuator is used in input
stage to select voltage range. A transistor is a current-controlled device; so
resistance is inserted in series with the transistor Q1 to select the voltage range. It
can be seen from the figure that sensitivity of the voltmeter is 200 kiloohms/volt,
neglecting the small resistance offered by the transistor Q1. Other values of range-
selecting resistors are also so chosen that sensitivity remains the same for all
ranges. So current drawn from the circuit is only 5 microamperes.
Two transistors in cascaded connections are used instead of a single transistor
for amplification in order to keep the sensitivity of the circuit high. Transistors Q1
and Q2 are taken complementary to each other and are directly coupled to
minimise the number of components in the circuit. They form a direct coupled
amplifier. A variable resistance R is put in the circuit for zero adjustment of the
PMMC. It controls the bucking current from the supply E to buck out the quiescent
current. The drawback of such a voltmeter is that it has to work under specified
ambient temperature to get the required accuracy; otherwise excessive drift
problem occurs during operation.
 Figure 4 Direct coupled amplifier transistorised dc voltmeter using FET

DC Voltmeter using FET

Another circuit diagram of a direct coupled amplifier dc voltmeter using FET in
input stage is shown in Figure 4. In this voltmeter, the voltage to be measured is
first attenuated with the range selector switch to keep the input voltage of the
amplifier within its level. A FET is used in the input stage of amplifier because of
its high input impedance so that it does not load the circuit of which the voltage is
to be measured and it also keeps the sensitivity of the voltmeter very high. As the
FET is a voltage controlled device, so the resistance network of attenuator is put in
shunt in the circuit. Transistors Q2 and Q3 form the direct coupled dc amplifier
whose output is finally supplied to the PMMC meter. When transistors work
within their dynamic region, the deflection of the meter remains proportional to
the applied input voltage. This voltmeter can be used for measurement of voltages
of the order of millivolts because of sufficient gain of the amplifier.
Apart from the high input impedance, this circuit has another advantage that
when input voltage exceeds its limit, the amplifier gets saturated which limits the
current passing through the PMMC meter. So the meter does not burn out.
3. Attempt any two parts of the following:
(4.5 × 2 = 9)
(a) Describe the working of an inter-modulation distortion meter with the help of
a block diagram.
Refer Section 13.17 in Chapter 13 on Signal Generators and Analysers.
(b) What are different types of distortions caused by amplifiers?
Frequency distortion, phase distortion, amplitude distortion, intermodulation
distortion, crossover distortion, total harmonic distortion.
 (c) Describe the basic circuit of a spectrum analyser.
Refer Section 13.18 in Chapter 13 on Signal Generators and Analysers.
4. Attempt any two parts of the following:
(4.5 × 2 = 9)
(a) Explain frequency measurement using Schmitt trigger with the help of a
diagram.
Refer Section 10.5 in Chapter 10 on Electronic Instruments.
(b) Sketch the block diagram for time-interval measurement mode of operation
using DDAs and DCAs.
Readers can refer to reference material.
(c) Explain the operation of digital phase meters with the help of block diagram.
Readers can refer to reference material.
 SOLVED QUESTION PAPER-3
1. (a) Compare between spring and gravity-control methods.
Refer Section 2.5.2 in Chapter 2 on Analog Meters.
(b) The deflecting torque of an ammeter varies as the square of the current
passing through it. If a current of 5 A produces a deflection of 90 degrees,
what will be the deflection for a current of 10 A when the instrument is
i. Spring
controlled?
ii. Gravity
controlled?
(8 + 8)
Deflecting torque varies as the square of the current, thus Td = KdI2
(i) For spring control, the controlling torque (TC) is related to the angle of deflection
(θ) by the relation TC = kθ
Under steady deflection condition, Td = TC

KdI2 = kθ
θ = (Kd/k)I2 = K1I2

Given that the deflection is 90° when the current is 5 A.

Thus, 90 = K1.52
K1 = 3.6

Hence, for a current of 10 A, the deflection is θ = K1I2 = 3.6 × 102 = 360°

(ii) For gravity control, the controlling torque (TC) is related to the angle of deflection
(θ) by the
relation TC = kg . sin θ
Under steady deflection condition, Td = TC

KdI2 = kg .sin θ
θ = sin–1[(Kd/kg)I2] = sin–1[K2I2]

Given that the deflection is 90° when the current is 5 A.

Thus, 90 = sin–1[K2 .52]
K2 = 1/25
Hence, for a current of 10 A, the deflection is
 θ = K2I2 = sin–1[(1/25) × 102] = sin–1[4]
[Note: There is a mathematical error in this question]
2. (a) Draw and explain the equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of a current
transformer.
Refer Section 3.4 in Chapter 3 on Instrument Transformers.
(b) A 1000/5 A current transformer, bar primary type, has the loss component of
exciting current equal to 0.7% of the primary current. Find the ratio error
i. When turn ratio is equal to nominal ratio
ii. When the secondary turn is reduced by 0.5%
(8+8)
For a CT, Percentage ratio error
Given, nominal ratio n = 1000/5 = 20
(i) When turns ratio (T) is equal to the nominal ratio (n),
T = n
When the loss component of exciting current primary current, and secondary
current are represented by IC, IP, and IS respectively, then

Actual ratio

Hence, percentage ratio error

(ii) When secondary turns is reduced by 0.5% then the new modified turns ratio is
given by T1 = 0.995 × n

Actual ratio

Hence, percentage ratio error

3. (a) With a neat figure, explain the construction and working principle of an
electrical resonance frequency meter.
In an electrical resonance-type frequency meter, an unknown frequency is
measured with the help of an R-L-C resonating circuit.

Figure 1

The unknown frequency ac source, whose frequency is to be measured is used as

 the voltage source in the driving circuit as shown in Figure 1. Voltage supply to the
resonating circuit is given by coupling the coil L with the output coil of the signal
ac source. Resonance in the RLC circuit is obtained by varying the capacitance. An
electronic voltmeter connected across the capacitor is used as the primary detector
for checking resonance condition in the RLC circuit. With certain values of R, L,
and C, when resonance is obtained at the unknown frequency, the voltage
indicated by the electronic voltmeter will be maximum. The unknown frequency
can be calculated by using the mathematical condition for resonance in a series
RLC circuit.
(b) Explain the working of a single-phase dynamometer-type power-factor meter.
(8 + 8)
Single-phase dynamometer-type power factor meter is schematically shown in
Figure 2.

Figure 2

It has two fixed coils that are connected in series with the load and thus act as the
current coils. Current coils, thus, carry the same current as the load. Two identical
coils A and B that are connected to the spindle and placed in the space between the
two fixed coils are the moving coils. Coil A has a high value non-inductive
resistance R connected with it and the coil B has a highly inductive choke coil L
connected to it. Both the coils along with their respective series connected R and L
are connected parallel to the supply, and are called the pressure coils, since current
through these two coils, A and B are proportional to the supply voltage. Values of
R and L are so selected that at normal frequency, their impedances become equal
(R = ωL) and hence the two coils, A and B carry the same current. Coil A being
highly resistive, its current is almost in phase with the supply voltage B. Similarly,
the coil B being highly inductive, its current is almost at an angle δ ≈ 90° with the
supply voltage V. The axes of the coils A and B are also kept at the same angle δ ≈
90° with respect to each other.
There will be two deflecting torques, one acting on the coil A and the other on
B. These two coil windings are so arranged that they experience torque in the
opposite direction. The pointer which is attached to these two coils jointly, will
 thus attain a steady deflection when these two opposite torques on coils A and B
are equal. Let us consider a lagging power factor cos φ of the load.
Deflecting torque on the coil A,

where θ = angular deflection from the reference horizontal plane

M = mutual inductance between the fixed coils and coil A
Deflecting torque on the coil B

At equilibrium, TA = TB

Therefore, the deflection (θ) of the instrument is a measure of the power-factor angle.
By proper calibration, the scale can be made to show the value of the power factor
directly.
4. (a) What is energy-meter testing? Explain phantom load testing.
Refer Sections 8.4, and 8.4.1 in Chapter 8 on Measurement of Energy.
(b) A 220, 5 A, dc energy meter is tested at its marked ratings. The resistance of
the pressure circuit is 8800 ohms and that of the current coil is 0.1 ohm.
Calculate the power consumed when testing the meter with phantom loading
with a current circuit excited by a 6-volt battery.
(8 + 8)
Follow the procedure similar to Example 8.5 in Chapter 8 on Energy Meters.
5. A current of 10 A, at a frequency of 50 Hz, was passed through the primary of a
mutual inductor having a negligible phase defect, the voltage of primary and
secondary terminals were measured on a co-ordinate potentiometer and are given
below:
With secondary open circuited; secondary voltage Iq = –2.72 + j1.57 volts.
Primary voltage = –0.211 + j0.352 volts.
With secondary short-circuited: primary voltage = –0.051 + j0.329 volts.
The phase primary current relative to the potentiometer current was same in
both the tests. Determine the resistances and self-inductances of the two windings.
Find also the mutual inductance.
(16)
The voltage equations in the phasor form can be written as
E1 = I1 (R1 + jX1) + I2 (jXm) E2 = I2 (R2 + jX2) + I1 (jXm)
where
 E1 = Voltage of primary winding, E2 = Voltage of secondary winding,
I1 = Current of primary winding, I2 = Current of secondary winding,
R1 = Resistance of primary winding, R2 = Resistance of secondary winding,
X1 = Self-reactance of primary X2 = Self-reactance of secondary
winding, winding,
and Xm = Mutual reactance.

Under open-circuit conditions:I2 = 0 E2 = I1 (jxm).

Let I1 = Ip + jIq’ where Ip and Iq are the phase and quadrature components of I1.
Therefore, we can write E2 = (Ip + jIq)(jXm) = (–Iq + jIp) Xm
From the data given, we have –2.72 + j1.57 = –IqX + jIpX

At open circuit, E1 = I1(R1 + jX1)= j (Ip + jIq) (R1 + jX1)

= (IpR1 – IqX1) + j(IpX1 + IqR1).
Putting the numerical values, we get – 0.211 + j0.352 = (5R1 – 8.66X1) + j(5X1 +
8.66R1).
Equating real and the imaginary terms, we have 5R1 – 8.66 X1 = – 0.211
(i)
and 5X1 + 8.66 R1 = 0.352
(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), we get R1 = 0.02 Ω, and X1 = 0.0359 Ω.
Self-inductance of primary winding
At short circuit of secondary winding E2 = 0,
E2 – I2 (R2 + jX2) + I1(jXm) = 0

Now at short circuit, E1 = 0.051 + j0.329

 Self-reactance of secondary winding
Resistance of secondary winding R2 = 2.27 W.
6. (a) Describe any one method of measuring a very high value of resistance.
Refer Section 4.4.4 in Chapter 4 on Measurement of Resistance
(b) A Lissajous pattern on the oscilloscope is stationary and has 6 vertical
maximum values and 5 horizontal maximum values. The frequency of
horizontal input is 1500 Hz.
Determine the frequency of vertical input.
(8 + 8)
In a Lissajous pattern on an oscilloscope,

where fv and fh are frequencies of the signals applied in vertical and horizontal
plates respectively.
Given, fh = 1500 Hz
Thus, frequency of vertical input

7. Describe how an unknown capacitance can be measured with the help of

D’Sauty’s bridge. What are the limitations of the bridge and how are they
overcome by using a modified form of D’Sauty’s bridge.
(16)
Refer Section 6.5.1 in Chapter 6 on AC bridges.
8. (a) Explain the double-bar method of measuring the flux density of an iron
specimen.
Refer Section 12.11.2 in Chapter 12 on Magnetic Measurements.
(b) A solenoid is 60 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter. It is uniformly wound with
600 turns of wire. Find the magnetic field strength at the centre of the
solenoid when carrying a current of 2 A. If the secondary coil is would round
the central part of the solenoid, calculate the flux passing through it.
(8 + 8)
For the given solenoid as shown in Figure 3.
 Figure 3

The magnetic field strength at any point x on the central axis of the solenoid is given
by

Given
L = 60 cm = 0.6 m
R = 2.5/2 = 1.25 cm = 0.0125 m
N = 600
I = 2 A

Similarly,
Thus,
Flux density B=µ0 × H =4 × 10-7 × 1998 = 2.51mWb/m2
Hence, flux passing through the central part of the solenoid is given by
φ=B×A= 2.51×4 (0.0125) 2 =4.93 mWb
 SOLVED QUESTION PAPER-4
PART A (10 × 2 = 20)
1. A set of independent current measurements were recorded as 10.03, 10.10, 10.11
and 10.08 A. Calculate the range of an error.
Range of error = Imax – Imin = 10.11 – 10.03 = 0.08 A
2. How is the international standard of length defined?
The metre (or meter), is the fundamental unit of length in the International System of
Units (SI). Originally intended to be one ten-millionth of the distance from the earth’s
equator to the North Pole (at sea level), its definition has been periodically refined to
reflect growing knowledge of metrology. Since 1983, it has been defined as “the
length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1/299,792,458 of a second.”
3. Compare and contrast analog and digital storage oscilloscope.
Refer Section 9.11 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
4. Distributed capacitance of a coil is measured by changing the capacitance of the
turning capacitor. The values of the tuning capacitors are C1 and C2 for the
resonant frequencies f1 and 2f1. What is the value of the distributed capacitance?
Reader may refer to reference materials
5. In a sweep frequency generator, two oscillators, one with frequency range of 3
GHz to 5 GHz is heterodyned with a second oscillators having a fixed frequency
output of 3 GHz. How does the output frequency vary?
Output frequency varies between 0 to 8 GHz.
6. What is intermodulation distortion?
Intermodulation distortion results when two different frequencies are simultaneously
passed through an amplifier (or other audio component). Two new frequencies are
created from the sum and difference of the original frequencies. If a 100 Hz and 150
Hz tone are passed through an amplifier , the sum of the original frequencies (150 +
100 = 250 Hz) and the difference (150 – 100 = 50 Hz) will be generated, resulting in
intermodulation distortion. IM distortion is measured as a percentage of the original
frequencies and a lower specification is better.
7. Why is a Schmitt trigger used in a digital frequency meter?
Schmitt trigger is used in a digital frequency meter to convert the input signal (whose
frequency is to be measured) to a square-wave signal of same frequency. This square-
wave signal is TTL compatible and can be used directly as one input to the count
gate.
8. Draw the block diagram of integrating type DVM.
Refer Section 10.6.3 in Chapter 10 on Electronic Instruments.
9. List the elements of a digital data acquisition system.
The basic elements of a data acquisition system are as follows:
(a) Sensors and transducers
(b) Field wiring
(c) Signal conditioning
(d) Data acquisition hardware
(e) PC (operating system)
(f) Data acquisition software
10. What is the need for data loggers?
Refer Section 15.3.1 in Chapter 15 on Recording, Storage and Display Devices.
PART B (5 × 16 = 80)
11. (a) (i) How can you convert the PMMC meter into a voltmeter and ammeter?
How can you extend the range of these meters?
(8)
Refer Section 2.7 in Chapter 2 on Analog Meters.
(ii) Explain the types of errors with an example?
(8)
Refer Section 1.8.1 in Chapter 1 on Concepts of Measurement Systems.
OR
(b) (i) What are the conditions for bridge balance?
(8)
Refer to Section 6.3 in Chapter 6 on AC Bridges.
(ii) How can you measure the unknown inductance using Maxwell’s LC
Bridge? Draw the phasor diagram also.
(8)
Refer to Section 6.4.2 in Chapter 6 on AC Bridges.
12. (a) (i) Draw the block diagram of a sampling oscilloscope. How does the
sampling oscilloscope increase the apparent frequency response of an
oscilloscope?
(8)
Refer Section 9.10 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
(ii) How can you measure large capacitors and small coils using Q-meters?
(8)
 Reader may refer to reference materials
OR
(b) (i) Explain the vector impedance meter with a neat block diagram.
(8)
Reader may refer to reference materials
(ii) How can you measure the RF voltage and power using RF
millivoltmeter?
(8)
Refer Section 17.7 in Chapter 17 on Microwave and RF Measurement.
13. (a) (i) Draw the block diagram of the frequency divider type of signal
generator with frequency modulation and explain.
(8)
Refer Section 13.14 in Chapter 13 on Signal Generators and Analysers.
(ii) What are the basic elements of a function generator? Explain how to
generate the square wave, triangular wave and sine wave using function
generator.
(8)
Refer Section 13.13 in Chapter 13 on Signal Generators and Analysers.
OR
(b) (i) Explain the working of frequency-selective wave analyzer with a neat
block diagram.
(8)
Refer Section 13.16 in Chapter 13 on Signal Generators and Analysers.
(ii) How is the fundamental frequency suppressed using the fundamental
suppression distortion analyser.
(8)
Refer Section 13.17 in Chapter 13 on Signal Generators and Analysers.
14. (a) (i) Draw the block diagram of a multiplexed display used in a frequency
counter and explain.
(8)
(ii) Explain how can you extend the frequency range of the counter.
(8)
OR
(b) (i) How can you make automatic polarity indication and automatic ranging
in a digital instrument?
 (8)
(ii) Explain the need for virtual instrument with an example.
(8)
Reader may refer to reference materials.
15. (a) (i) Draw the schematic of an isolation amplifier and explain the need for an
isolation amplifier in interfacing transducers.
(8)
(ii) With neat diagrams explain digital to analog multiplexing.
(8)
Reader may refer to reference materials.
OR
(b) (i) Explain the IEEE 488 electrical interface system.
(8)
Refer Section 14.7 in Chapter 14 on Data Acquisition Systems.
(ii) How can you measure the power using optical instrument? Draw the
auto-ranging power meter and explain.
(8)
Refer Section 18.4 in Chapter 18 on Fibre Optic Measurements.
 SOLVED QUESTION PAPER-5
PART-A (10 × 2 = 20)
1. Answer the following
(a) Sketch a simple diagram of an electronic dc voltmeter.
Refer Section 10.6 in Chapter 10 on Electronic Instruments.
(b) Enumerate application of CRO for measurement of electrical quantities.
Refer Section 9.7 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
(c) How many cycles of a 6 kHz sinusoidal signal appear on the CRO screen if
the sweep frequency is 3 kHz?
Two cycles.
(d) For what measurement is an LCR meter used?
Self-inductance, capacitance, loss tangent, resistance.
(e) A wave analyser is used for what type of analysis?
A wave analyser is an instrument designed to measure relative amplitude of
single frequency components in a complex waveform. Basically, the instrument
acts as a frequency-selective voltmeter which is turned to the frequency of one
signal while rejecting all other signal components. The desired frequency is
selected by a frequency-calibrated dial to the point of maximum amplitude. The
amplitude is indicated either by a suitable voltmeter or a CRO.
(f) For what applications can CT and PT be used?
Reducing high current and voltage to smaller values measurable with easily
available low-range ammeters and voltmeters.
(g) Define a transducer and distinguish between active and passive transducers.
A transducer is a device, usually electrical, electronic, electro-mechanical,
electromagnetic, photonic, or photovoltaic that converts one type of energy or
physical attribute to another (generally electrical or mechanical) for various
measurement purposes including measurement or information transfer (for
example, pressure sensors). An active transducer is a transducer whose output is
dependent upon sources of power, apart from that supplied by any of the
actuating signals, which power is controlled by one or more of these signals.
Passive transducers are those which do not need an external source. Passive
transducers directly produce electric signals without an external energy source.
(h) What are necessities of recorders?
After collecting information about the state of some process, the next
consideration is how to present it in a form where it can be readily used and
analysed. There are techniques available to either display measurement data for
current use or record it for future use. Following this, standards of good practice
 for presenting data in either graphical or tabular form are available, using either
paper or a computer monitor screen as the display medium.
(i) How are LDC displays advantageous over LED displays?
Summarise Sections 15.4.2. and 15.4.3 in Chapter 15 on Recording, Storage and
Display Devices.
(j) List various types of telemetry systems.
Readers can refer to reference material.
PART- B (4 × 5 = 20)
2. With the help of the circuit diagram of an electronic multimeter, list the essential
elements of the meter and discuss its principle of working.
(10)
Refer Section 10.4 in Chapter 10 on Electronic Instruments.
3. Why is a CRO considered very useful instrument? With the aid of a block
diagram representation, discuss working of a CRO. How is it used for
easurement of phase angle of a wave?
(10)
Refer Sections 9.2 and 9.9 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
4. Describe a harmonic distortion analyser with the help of a block diagram. How
does a commercial harmonic distortion analyzer differ from the ideal one?
Refer Section 13.17 in Chapter 13 on Signal Generators and Analysers.
5. Discuss working of a strain gauge and derive expression for the “gauge factor
(G)”. Why is the factor about 2 for most of the metallic straingauges? A strain
gauge has a resistance of 100 Ω and the gauge factor of 2.1, of strain is 2 × 10−3.
Obtain the change in resistance.
Refer Section 11.4.1 in Chapter 11 on Sensors and Transducers.

Given, R = 100 Ω, gauge factor = 2.1 and strain = 2 × 10−3

Thus, change in resistance ΔR = Gauge factor ×R×Strain = 2.1×100×2×10 −3
=0.42 Ω
6. Describe the working principle of a digital tape recorder. What are its areas of
applications?
Refer Section 15.3.2 in Chapter 15 on Recording, Storage and Display Devices
PART-C (2 × 10 = 20)
7. (a) Explain the principle of working and operation of a Current Transformer
(CT) and derive expressions for the ratio and phase-angle errors.
 (2 × 10)
Refer Sections 3.3, 3.4, and 3.5 in Chapter 3 on Instrument Transformers.
(b) A 1000/5, 50 Hz bar primary-type current transformer has secondary burden
of 1.5 Ω (non-inductive). Calculate the flux in the core and the ratio error at
rated condition of the CT. Assume iron loss in the core to be 1.5 watts. Neglect
leakage flux and the magnetizing current.
Follow Example 3.3 in Chapter 3 on Instrument Transformers.
8. (a) What is telemetry and what are its basic components? Sketch the block-
diagram representation of a typical telemetry system and explain the method
of data transmission.
(b) List types of telemetry systems and distinguish between dc and ac telemetry
systems.
(10)
Readers can refer to reference material.
9. Write short notes on
(a) Applications of Telemetry systems
Readers can refer to reference material
(b) Spectrum analysis and
Refer Section 13.18 in Chapter 13 on Signal Generators and Analysers.
(c) Special-purpose oscilloscope
Summarise sections 9.10, 9.11 and 9.12 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope.
 SOLVED QUESTION PAPER-6
PART A
1. (a) Explain in detail the classification of measuring instruments.
(8)
Refer Section 1.6 in Chapter 1 on Concepts of Measurement Systems.
(b) With a neat sketch, describe the construction and working of PMMC
instrument. Derive the torque equation for this instrument. Comment on
shape of scale.
(10)
Refer Sections 2.6 and 2.6.1 in Chapter 2 on Analog Meters.
2. (a) Which three forces are required for satisfactory operation of an analog
indicating instrument? State the function of each force.
(6)
Refer Section 2.4 in Chapter 2 on Analog Meters.
(b) What are shunts and multipliers? What are the disadvantages of a shunt?
Refer Sections 2.7.1 and 2.7.2 in Chapter 2 on Analog Meters.
Disadvantages of shunt—Refer Section 3.2 in Chapter 3 on Instrument
Transformers.
(c) The inductance of a moving-iron ammeter is given by the expression L = (12 +
5θ – 2θ2) µH, where θ is the angular deflection in radians from zero position.
Determine
(i) the spring constant
(ii) the angular deflection in radians for a current of 10 A, if the deflection for
a current of 5 A is 30°
(6)
Follow Example 2.11 in Chapter 2 on Analog Meters.
3. (a) Draw the circuit diagram of Kelvin’s double bridge. Derive the expression for
unknown resistance with usual notations.
(8)
Refer Section 4.3.2 in Chapter 4 on Measurement of Resistance.
 Figure 1

(b) In a Maxwell’s inductance comparison bridge, the arm ab consists of a coil

with inductance L1 and resistance r1 in series with a non-inductive resistance
R. Arm bc and cd are each a non-inductive resistance of 100 Ω. Arm ad
consists of standard variable inductor L of 32.7 Ω resistance. Balance is
obtained when L2 = 47.8 mH and R = 1.36 Ω. Find the resistance and
inductance of the coil in the arm ab.
(4)
Refer Section 6.4.1 in Chapter 6 on ac Bridges and then do the following:
(c) The four impedances of an bridge are
Z1 = 400 Ω 50°, Z2 = 200 Ω 30°, Z3 = 800 Ω –50°, Z4 = 400 Ω –40°.
Find out whether the bridge is balanced under these conditions.

Given R = 1.36 Ω
Hence, r1 = 32.7 – 1.36 = 31.34 Ω

Figure 2

For the bridge to be balanced, we need to satisfy two conditions (refer Section 6.3
in Chapter 6 on ac bridges).
In magnitude only, Z1Z4 = Z2Z3
 We see that Z1Z4 = 400 × 400 = 1600
And Z2Z3 = 200 × 800 = 1600
Thus, a magnitude criterion for balance is met.
In phase angle, we need to have (θ1 + θ4) = (θ2 + θ3)
We have (θ1 + θ4) = 50° – 40° = 10°
But, (θ2 + θ3) = 30° – 50° = –20°
Thus, the angle criterion for balance is not satisfied. Hence, the bridge is not
balanced.
4. (a) Write a short note on megger and earth tester.
(8)
Refer Section 4.4.4 in Chapter 4 on Measurement of Resistance.
(b) Draw the circuit diagram of Anderson’s bridge. Derive the equation for
unknown inductance and draw the phasor diagram.
(8)
Refer Section 6.4.4 in Chapter 6 on ac Bridges.
5. (a) Explain two-wattmeter method for measuring power in an (R + L) load. Draw
the phasor diagram.
(8)
Refer Section 7.7.2(3) and Figure 7.23 in Chapter 7 on Power Measurement.
(b) Write a short note on digital multi-meter.
(8)
Refer Section 10.4 in Chapter 10 on Electronic Instruments.
6. (a) A wattmeter reads 5 kW when its current coil is connected in red phase and
its voltage coil is connected between neutral and red phase of a symmetrical
3-phae system supplying a balanced three-phase inductive load of 25 A at 440
V. What will be the reading of the wattmeter if the connections of current coil
remain unchanged and voltage coil be connected between blue and yellow
phase? Hence determine the total reactive power in the circuit. Draw the
diagram in both the cases.
(8)
 Figure 3

In the first case, current in CC of wattmeter IR = Iph = 25A

Voltage in PC of wattmeter = VRN = VPh = 440/√3 = 254 V
Hence, wattmeter reading P1 = VPh × Iph × cos φ = 5000 Ω
or, 254 × 25 × cos φ = 5000
or, cos φ = 0.787
or, φ = 38°
In the second circuit,

Figure 4

In the second circuit, the phasor diagram with inductive load can be drawn as

Figure 5

In this case, current in CC of wattmeter IR = Iph = 25 A

Voltage in PC of wattmeter = VBY = VLL = 440 V
Angle different between CC current and PC voltage φ‘ = (90° – φ) = (90° – 38°) =
52°
Hence, wattmeter reading P1 = VLL × Iph × cos φ‘ = 440 × 25 × cos 52° = 6.77 kW
Total reactive power = √3 × 6.77 = 11.73 kV AR
(b) Write a short note on LPF type wattmeter.
 (4)
Low Power Factor Electro-dynamometer Type Wattmeters
An ordinary electro-dynamometer wattmeter is not suitable for measurement of
power in low-power factor circuits owing to (i) small deflecting torque on the
moving system even when the current and pressure coils are fully excited, and (ii)
introduction of large error due to inductance of pressure coil at low power factor.
The special features incorporated in an electro-dynamometer type wattmeter to
make it suitable for measurement of power in low-power-factor circuits are given
below.
(i) Pressure coil Circuit The pressure coil circuit is made of low resistance in order
to make the pressure coil current large resulting in increased operating torque.
The pressure coil current in a low pf wattmeter may be as much as 10 times the
value used for ordinary wattmeters.
(ii) Compensation for Inductance of Pressure Coil The error caused by pressure
coil inductance is due to difference in phase between pressure Coil current and
its voltage. Now with low pf, the value of the error is large. The error caused by
inductance of pressure coil is compensated by connecting a capacitor across a
part of series resistance in the pressure coil circuit.
(c) What are the errors in a dynamometer-type wattmeter? How are these errors
compensated?
(4)
Refer Section 7.4.4 (and summarise) in Chapter 7 on Power Measurement.
PART B
7. (a) An energy meter has a constant of 3200 imp/kWh rated for 220 V, 5 A.
Calculate the total number of impulses in one minute for full load at unity
power factor. In a test run at half load, the meter takes 59.5 second to
complete 30 impulses, calculate error of meter.
(6)
Refer Example 8.1 in Chapter 8 on Measurement of Energy.
(b) Derive torque equation of single-phase induction-type energy meter with the
help of phasor diagram.
(8)
Refer Section 8.2.3 in Chapter 8 on Measurement of Energy.
(c) Show a neat connection diagram of a three-phase energy meter used for
measurement of energy incorporating CT and PT.
(4)
Refer Section 7.9 in Chapter 7 and apply exactly the same concept for connection
of energy-meter coils.
 OR
8. (a) A 230 V single-phase energy meter has constant load of 5 A passing through it
for 8 hours at 0.9 P.F. If the meter LED makes 26500 impulses during this
period, find the meter constant in imp/kWh. Calculate the power factor of the
load if the number of impulses are 11230 when operating at 230 V and 6 A for
5 hours.
(6)
Energy consumed
The energy meter makes 26500 impulses during this time
Hence, meter constant is 26500/8.28 = 3200 imp/kWh
When the number of impulses are 11230, then energy consumed is 3.5 kWh
With a power factor x,
(b) Which are the possible errors in an induction-type single-phase energy
meter? Explain and give compensation for the errors?
(4×2)
Refer Section 8.3 in Chapter 8 on Measurement of Energy and Summarise.
(c) What is creeping error in an induction-type energy meter? How is it
overcome?
Refer Section 8.3.3 Chapter 8 on Measurement of Energy.
9. (a) Describe low-pressure measurement by McLeod gauge.
(8)
Readers can refer to reference material
(b) In an experiment, the voltage across a 10 kΩ resistor is applied to a CR). The
screen shows a sinusoidal signal of 3 cm total vertical occupancy and 2 cm
total horizontal occupancy. The front panel controls of V/div and time/div are
on 2 V/div and 2 ms/div respectively. Calculate the rms value of the voltage
across the resistor and its frequency. Also find rums value of current.
(6)
Peak value of the sinusoidal voltage being measured = 3 × 2 = 6 V
Hence, rms value = 6/ = 4.24 V
One time period of the sinusoidal signal being measured = 2 × 2 = 4 ms
Hence, frequency of the signal = 1/4 ms = 250 Hz
(c) Explain vacuum pressure.
(2)
Readers can refer to reference material.
 OR
10. (a) Explain pressure capacitance transducer with a neat diagram. Write
advantages and disadvantages of a capacitive transducer.
(8)
Refer Section 11.7.4 in Chapter 11 on Sensors and Transducers.
(b) Explain front panel controls of CRO:
(8)
1. Time/div
2. Volt/div
3. Dual ch.
4. invert
5. x-position
6. y-position
7. xy-mode
8. CH1 CH2.
Refer Sections 9.2 and 9.3 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
11. (a) Explain any two types of head-type flowmeters.
(8)
Readers can refer to reference material.
(b) Explain level measurement by mechanical method.
Readers can refer to reference material.
(8)
12. (a) Explain construction, working and application of load cell with a neat
diagram.
(8)
Readers can refer to reference material.
(b) Descirbe displacement measurement by LVDT in detail.
Combine Sections 11.3, 11.3.1 and 11.3.2 in Chapter 11 on Sensors and
Transducers.
(8)
 SOLVED QUESTION PAPER-7
PART-A
1. (a) With usual notations, prove that [1/(με )1/2] has the dimensions of
velocity, where μ = permeability and ε = permittivity.
(5)
Readers can refer to reference material.
(b) The expression for eddy currents produced in a metallic former moving in the
field of a permanent magnet is found as,

where B = flux density, l = length of former, b = width of former, A = Area of

former, ρ = resistivity of conducting former and K = a constant.
Check for dimensional correctness of the expression and incorporate
necessary corrections using LMTI system of units.
Refer to Section 2.5.3(3) in Chapter 2 on Analog Meters
(c) Define bridge sensitivity of a galvanometer and hence obtain an expression
for Wheatstone’s bridge sensitivity (SB ) in terms of voltage sensitivity. When
will be SB maximum?
(8)
Voltage sensitivity Sv of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection in scale
divisions per unit voltage impressed on the galvanometer.
For the Wheatstone bridge configuration shown below, the sensitivity to unbalance
can be computed by solving the bridge circuit for a small unbalance. The solution
is approached by converting the Wheatstone bridge of Figure 1 to its “Thevenin
Equivalent’ circuit. Assume that the bridge is balanced when the branch resistance
are P , Q , R , S so that P/Q = R/S . Suppose the resistance R is changed to R + ΔR
creating an unbalance. This will to cause an emf e to appear across the
galvanometer branch. With galvanometer branch open, the voltage drop between
points a and b is:
 Therefore, voltage difference between points d and b is

Let Sv be the voltage sensitivity of galvanometer. ES R

Therefore, deflection of galvanometer is

The bridge sensitivity SB is defined as the deflection of the galvanometer per unit
fractional change in unknown resistance.

It is clear that the sensitivity of the bridge is dependent upon bridge voltage, bridge
parameters and the voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer.
Rearranging the terms in the expression for sensitivity

It is apparent that maximum sensitivity occurs where R /S = 1.

2. (a) Derive the equation of balance for an Anderson bridge. Also draw
the phasor diagram
(10)
Refer Section 6.4.4 in Chapter 6 on ac Bridges.
(b) Write a short note on Wagner earthing device.
(4)
Refer Section 6.7 in Chapter 6 on ac Bridges.
(C) An ac bridge is balanced at 2 kHz with the following components in each
arm: Arm
AB = 10 kΩ
Arm AB = 100 µF in series with 100 kΩ
Arm AD = 50 kΩ
Find the unknown impedance R ±jX in the arm DC , if the detector is between
BD .
(6)
 Using the general bridge balance equation, we have

or, (R±jX ) =(500 k − j39.8)

Thus, R = 500 k, X = 39.8
3. (a) What are shunts and multipliers? Derive an expression for both, with
reference to meters used in electrical circuits.
(6)
Refer Section 2.7 in Chapter 2 on Analog Meters.
(b) Write a note on turns compensation used in CT and PT.
(4)
Refer Section 3.5.4(3) in Chapter 3 on Instrument Transformers.
(c) A current transformer with a bar primary has 300 turns in its secondary
winding. The resistance and reactance of the secondary circuit are 1.5 u and
1.0 u respectively, including the transformer winding. With 5A following in
the secondary winding, the magnetising mmf is 100 AT and the core loss is 1.2
W. Determine the ratio and phase angle errors.
(10)
Follow Example 3.4 in Chapter 3 on Instrument Transformers.
4. (a) Discuss with a block diagram, the principle of operations of an electronic
energy meters.
(6)
Readers can refer to reference material.
(b) Mention different errors present in an induction-type energy meter and
suggest methods to minimise them.
(6)
Refer Section 8.3 in Chapter 8 on Measurement of Energy.
(c) An energy meter is designed to make 100 revolutions of the disc for one unit of
energy calculate the number of revolutions made by it, when connected to a
load carrying 40 A at 230 V and 0.4 pf for 1 hour. If it actually makes 360
revolutions, find the percentage error.
(6)
Follow Example 8.3 in Chapter 8 on Measurement of Energy.
PART B
5. (a) With a block diagram, explain the principle of true rms responding voltmeter.
 (6)
Refer Section 2.15 in Chapter 2 on Analog Meters.
(b) Explain the operations of RAMP type digital voltmeter.
(6)
(b) Combine Sections 10.6 and 10.6.1 in Chapter 10 on Electronic Instruments.
(c) Explain the construction and operations of Weston frequency meter.
(6)
Weston Frequency Meter: As the name suggests, Weston frequency meter is an
instrument using which unknown frequency of a signal can be measured. It is
basically a moving-iron-type instrument which works on the principle that
whenever the frequency change the current distribution changes between two
parallel circuits one of which is inductive and the other non-inductive. Any change
in frequency changes the inductive impedance of the inductive arm causing current
distribution to change between the two parallel paths. Figure 2 shows the
constructional details of a Weston frequency meter.
The axes of the two coils A 1−A 2 and B 1−B 2 are mutually perpendicular. A soft
iron needle that carries a pointer is placed at the central location within the coils.
Coil A is connected in series with an inductance LA across a non-inductive
resistance RA . Coil B is connected in series with a non-inductive resistance RB
across an inductance LB . The other inductor L acts as a filter to remove any
harmonics that may be present in the signal.

Figure 2 Weston Frequency meter

As supply is given to the system, the magnetic fields developed by the two coils
are at right angles to each other. Depending on the strength of these two magnetic
fields, a deflecting torque is developed that moves the soft-iron needle and hence
the pointer on a calibrated scale. The deflecting torque and, hence, the amount of
deflection of the pointer thus depends on the magnitude of currents in the two
 coils.
Once the frequency deviates from a certain present value, the inductance values
LA and LB change, but the resistance RA and RB remain the same. This makes the
current distribution in the two coils change from their initial preset values.
Depending on the frequency, one coil becomes stronger than the other. Thus, the
deflecting torque under such condition will be different from that in the normal
case and the pointer will deviate either towards left or to the right indicating lower
or higher frequency than the preset value respectively.
6. (a) What is a transducer? Briefly explain the procedure for selecting a
transducer.
(6)
Refer Sections 11.1 and 11.2 in Chapter 11 on Sensors and Transducers and
summarize.
(b) Explain with a neat sketch, the construction and working of a linear variable
differential transformer.
(6)
Refer Section 11.3 in Chapter 11 on Sensors and Transducers.
(c) Derive an expression for gauge factor in terms of Poisson’s ratio.
(6)
Refer Section 11.4.1 in Chapter 11 on Sensors and Transducers.
7. (a) With a block diagram, explain the working of a digital storage oscilloscope.
(6)
Refer Section 9.11.2 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
(b) Explain the front panel details of a dual trace Oscilloscope.
(6)
Refer Section 9.112.1 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
(c) Briefly explain photoconductive and photovoltaic cells.
(6)
Readers can refer to reference material.
8. (a) Explain with a block diagram, the essential functional operations of a digital
data acquisition system.
(6)
Refer Section 14.2 in Chapter 14 on Data Acquisition System.
(b) With a neat sketch, explain the working of an X-Y recorder.
(06)
 Refer Section 15.2.1(3) in Chapter 15 on Recording, Storage and Display Devices.
(c) Write a note on LED and LCD display.
(06)
Refer Sections 15.4.2 and 15.4.3 in Chapter 15 on Recording, Storage and Display
Devices.
 SOLVED QUESTION PAPER-8
1. (a) The following 10 observations were recorded when measuring a voltage:31.6,
31.0, 31.7, 31.0, 32.1, 31.9, 31.0, 31.9, 32.5 and 31.8 volt. Find
(i) Probable error of one reading
(ii) Probable error of mean
(8)
x d d2
31.6 −0.05 0.0025
31 −0.65 0.4225
31.7 0.05 0.0025
31 −0.65 0.4225
32.1 0.45 0.2025
31.9 0.25 0.0625
31 −0.65 0.4225
31.9 0.25 0.0625
32.5 0.85 0.7225
31.8 0.15 0.0225
∑x = 316.5 ∑d2 = 2.345
Mean = ∑x/n =316.5/10 = 31.65

(i) Probable error of one reading = 0.6745

(ii) Probable error of mean = 0.6745

(b) Define the following for Gaussian distribution of data:

(i) Precision index
(ii) Probable error
(iii) Standard deviation of mean
(iv) Standard deviation of standard of deviation.
(8)
Refer Section 1.7 in Chapter 1 on Concepts of Measurement Systems.
OR
OR
(a) A circuit was tuned for resonance by eight different student and the values of
resonant frequency in kHz were recorded as 432, 447, 444, 435, 446, 444, 436
 and 441. Calculate
(i) Standard deviation
(ii) Variance
(8)
x d d2
432 −8.635 74.390625
447 6.375 40.640625
444 3.375 11.390625
435 −5.625 31.640625
446 5.375 28.890625
444 3.375 11.390625
436 −4.625 21.390625
441 0.375 0.140625
∑x = 3525 ∑d2 = 219.875

(i) Standard deviation

(ii) Variance = (standard deviation)2 = 10.48

(b) Define the following with suitable examples.
(i) Precision
(ii) Accuracy
(iii) Repeatability
(iv) Drift related to the instruments
(8)
Refer Section 1.7 in Chapter 1 on Concepts of Measurement Systems.
2. (a) Explain the block diagram of a dc voltmeter with direct coupled amplifier.
DC Voltmeter using Direct Coupled Amplifier
(8)
This type of voltmeter is very common because of its low cost. This instrument can
be used only to measure voltages of the order of millivolts owing to limited
amplifier gain. An attenuator is used in the input stage to select voltage range. A
transistor is a current-controlled device; so resistance is inserted in series with the
transistor Q1 to select the voltage range. It can be seen from Fig. 1 that sensitivity of
the voltmeter is 200 kilo-ohms/volt, neglecting the small resistance offered by the
transistor Q1. Other values of range-selecting resistors are also so chosen that
sensitivity remains the same for all ranges. So current drawn from the circuit is only
5 micro-amperes.
 Two transistors in cascaded connections are used instead of a single transistor for
amplification in order to keep the sensitivity of the circuit high. Transistors Q1 and
Q2 are taken complementary to each other and are directly coupled to minimise the
number of components in the circuit. They form a direct coupled amplifier. A
variable resistance R is put in the circuit for zero adjustment of the PMMC. It
controls the bucking current from the supply E to buck out the quiescent current.
The drawback of such a voltmeter is that it has to work under specified ambient
temperature to get the required accuracy otherwise excessive drift problem occurs
during operation.

Figure 1 Direct coupled amplifier dc voltmeter using cascade shows a transistor

(b) Explain the working principle of vector impedance meter with neat sketch.
(8)
Readers can refer to reference material
OR
(a) What do you mean by the term ‘Q-factor’. Explain the working of Q-meter.
(8)
Readers can refer to reference material
(b) Write short notes on RF power and voltage measurements.
(8)
 Refer Section 17.7 in Chapter 17 on Microwave and RF Measurement.
3. (a) Calculate the velocity of the electron beam in an oscilloscope if the voltage
applied to its vertical deflection plates is 2200 V. Also calculate the cut-off
frequency if the maximum transit time is 1/4 of a cycle. The length of
horizontal plates is 65 mm.
(8)

Velocity of the electron beam =

[Refer Example 9.1 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.]

Cut-off frequency =

(b) Explain the following terms of CRO:

(i) Blanking circuit
(ii) Astimation control
(8)
(i) Blanking circuit The purpose of a sawtooth signal applied to the horizontal
deflecting plate of a CRO is to move the beam across the CRT from left to right
along the horizontal direction. If this rate is slow then the moving point will be
visible, and if this rate is very fast then a solid line is visible. After the spot
reaches the rightmost point, it has to come back swiftly to the initial point, i.e.
the leftmost point. This ‘fly-back’ time should be as fast as possible. Ideally,
this fly-back time should be zero so that retrace of the spot is not visible. In a
practical circuit, to eliminate this retrace, a ‘blanking circuit’ is used that
applies a high negative potential to the grid during the fly-back period that
pushes back the spot rapidly to its starting point.
(ii) Astigmatism control In the human eye, astigmatism causes light to be focused
away from its intended target, the retina. Astigmatism is mainly due to
curvature of the cornea. A similar case may be observed in a CRO where due to
curvature of the screen, the electron beam may not be focused properly on the
screen and may appear blurred. In modern oscilloscopes, an additional focusing
control marked as astigmatism is provided. To focus the spot correctly, it is
made to stop near the centre of the screen by switching off the time base and
adjusting the X and Y positioning controls. The spot is then made as sharp as
possible at the centre of the screen by repeated adjustments of the focusing and
astigmatism controls.
OR
(a) Explain the different types of sweep used in a CRO.
(8)
Refer Section 9.5 in Chapter 9 on Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
 (b) Explain the following terms of CRO:
(i) Z-axis modulation
(ii) Sources of synchronization
(8)
(i) Z-axis modulation is actually intensity control. It is done by inserting a control
signal between the cathode and ground or between the control grid and the
ground. It is used for controlling the brightness of display. A series of negative
pulses are applied to the cathode to make the display brighter during its sweep
period. Alternatively, a series of positive pulses can also be applied to the
control grid to achieve the same function of brightening the display.
(ii) There are normally three sources of synchronisation—internal, external and
line. In internal synchronisation, the trigger is obtained from the signal being
measured itself, through the vertical amplifier. In the external synchronisation
method, an external trigger source is used to trigger or initiate the signal to be
measured. In the line synchronisation method, the trigger signal is obtained
from the power supply line to the CRO.
4. (a) Explain the working of frequency synthesised signal generators with a neat
sketch.
(8)
Refer Section 13.15 in Chapter 13 on Signal Generators and Analysers.
(b) Explain the block diagram of frequency-selective wave analyzer. (8)
Refer Section 13.16.1 in Chapter 13 on Signal Generators and Analysers.
OR
(a) Explain the construction and working of a heterodyne wave analyzer.
(8)
Refer Section 13.16.21 in Chapter 13 on Signal Generators and Analysers.
(b) Explain the block diagram of spectrum analyser and its applications.
(8)
Refer Section 13.18 in Chapter 13 on Signal Generators and Analysers.
Unit-V
5. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Seismic accelerometers
(8)
Readers can refer to reference material.
(b) RVDT
(8)
 Readers can refer to reference material.
OR
Write shorts notes on the following:
(a) Ultrasonic flowmeters
(8)
Readers can refer to reference material.
(b) Thermocouples.
(8)
Refer Section 11.6.2 in Chapter 11 on Sensors and Transducers.
 SOLVED QUESTION PAPER-9
1. Answer any Four:
(20)
(a) Define sensitivity of an analog instrument. For a PMMC instrument with
FSD = 100 mA, find the sensitivity.
Sensitivity of a voltmeter is defined as Total voltmeter resistance in ohm 1 S
==W/V

For FSD = 100 mA, sensitivity S = 1/(100 × 10–3) = 10

(b) What is Meggar? Explain its working.
Refer Section 4.4.4 in Chapter 4 on Measurement of Resistance.
(c) For ADC, define resolution. Given a suitable example.
Refer Section 10.3(a) in Chapter 10 on Electronic Instruments.
(d) Explain the working principle of a dc motor.
Readers can refer to reference.
(e) Explain the function of delay line in oscilloscope. What are the types of delay
lines?
The delay line is used to delay the incoming vertical signal and synchronise it with
the horizontal signal. Old scopes used a series of LC combinations tuned to get a
good waveform representation. Modern oscilloscopes use two types of delaying
methods, namely free running sweep and triggered sweep.
[For the remaining part of the answer, refer Sections 9.5.1 and 9.5.2 in Chapter 9
on Cathode ray Oscilloscopes]
2. (a) What is intensity modulation? For what purpose is it used? Can phase and
frequency be measured using intensity modulation?
10
Readers can refer to reference.
(b) What is Q meter? Explain any one of the types of Q-meter with the help of
circuit diagram.
(10)
In most radio frequency work, it is important to obtain a large ratio of reactance to
resistance in the reactive elements of the circuit. This ratio is called the Q of the
circuit.
 A high Q is required to obtain good efficiency, good waveform, good frequency
stability, high gain, etc.
The Q-meter is required to obtained good efficiency the Q of a reactance
element directly. It may also be used to measure
• the reactance and resistance of a circuit,
• the distributed capacity of a circuit, and
• the resonant frequency of a tuned circuit, etc.

Figure 1

Figure 1 shows the fundamental circuit of Q-meter.

The oscillator supplies a current I to Rʹ and the unknown and C. Since Rʹ is very
small compared with the impedance of the external circuit, the voltage E is equal
to IRʹ. Hence, the reading I gives an indication of the voltage impressed on the
circuit.
If the unknown and C are tuned to resonance (i.e. C adjusted until Ec = Max.),

where R is the effective series resistance of the unknown and C. Also,

Hence, if E is held constant by holding I constant, Ec reads directly proportional to

Q and this meter may be calibrated directly in terms of Q. Since Ec is proportional
to E, I may be calibrated in terms of a multiplying factor for extending the Q range
of the instrument.
3. (a) Draw and explain Kelvin’s Bridge.
(10)
Refer Section 4.3.2 in Chapter 4 on Measurement of Resistance.
(b) Explain the operating principle of 3-phase induction motor.
(10)
Readers can refer to reference material.
4. (a) Draw and explain the block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope.
(10)
Refer Section 9.11.2 in Chapter 9 on cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
(b) Explain R–2 R ladder technique of digital to analogue converter.
(10)
Readers can refer to reference material.
5. (a) Draw and explain any one of the types of electronic voltmeters. State
its two advantages over analog voltmeter.
(10)
Refer Sections 10.6 and 10.6.1 in Chapter 10 on Electronic Instruments.
(b) Explain digital phase meter using flip-flop. Draw relevant waveforms at each
point in a block diagram to illustrate.
(10)
Readers can refer to reference material.
6. (a) Explain Schering bridge for measurement of capacitance. Derive the
equation of unknown capacitance at balanced condition.
(10)
Refer Section 6.5.2 in Chapter 6 on ac Bridge.
(b) What is energy meter? Draw its constructional view and explain.
10
Refer Section 8.2.2 in Chapter 8 on Measurement of Energy.
7. Write short notes on (any two):
20
(a) Variable reluctance stepper motor.
Readers can refer to reference material.
(b) A.F. signal generator
Refer either Section 13.5 or 13.6 on Chapter 6 on Signal Generators and
Analysers.
(c) Digital frequency meter.
Refer Section 10.5 in Chapter 10 on Electronic Instruments.
A
Absolute error 1.17
Absolute instruments 2.1
Accelerating voltage 9.5
Accuracy 1.16, 10.4, 10.3
AC potentiometers 5.13, 12.29
Actual transformation ratio 3.31
A/D Conversion 14.14
Adjacent Channel Power 17.4
Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT 11.4
Advantages of electrical transducers 11.2
Advantages of Electromagnetic Flow Meter 11.10
Air friction 2.3
Air-friction damping 2.8
Aliasing 14.14
Aluminum disc 7.22
Aluminum spindle 7.9
Aluminum vanes 7.10
Ammeter shunts 2.18
Ampere 1.4
Amplification 14.10
Amplitude distortion 13.36
Amplitude Modulation (AM) 17.9
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) 17.11
Analog input subsystems 14.4
Analog instruments 2.1, 2.2, 1.13
Analog modulation 17.9
Analog Output Subsystem 14.4, 14.19
Analog Recorders 15.2
Analog sensors 14.5
Analog Storage Oscilloscope 9.18
Analog-to-Digital Converter (DACs and ADCs) 9.20
Analysers 13.1
Anderson’s Bridge 6.11
Angle of incidence 18.1
Angle of refraction 18.1
ANSI/IEEE Standard 488.1-1987 14.26
Antenna size 17.2
Application Software 14.13
Aquadog 9.1
Arbitrary waveform generator 10.14
Astatic 7.18
Astatic electrodynamometer instruments 7.18
Avalanche Diode 18.6
Average deflecting torque 7.11

B
Ballistic galvanometer 12.1
Band-Pass (selective) Filter 14.8
Band-stop (Notch) Filter 14.9
Barkhausen Criteria 13.3
Barretter 17.16
Bar-type CT 3.15
Baseband signal 17.15
Basic Requirements of a Transducer 11.2
Basic Transistor LC Oscillator Circuit 13.5
Bearings 2.5
BFSK 17.12
Binary Weighted DAC 14.20
Blondel’s Theorem 7.25
Bolometer 17.16
Brake magnet 8.5
Bridge and ac Potentiometer Methods 12.27
Burden 3.2
Burrows Permeameter 12.23
Bushing-type CT 3.16
Butterworth Filter 14.10

C
Calibration of ammeter 5.6, 5.18
Calibration of Ammeter by Potentiometer 5.10
Calibration of the Ballistic Galvanometer 12.5
Calibration of voltmeter 5.5, 5.18
Calibration of Voltmeter by Potentiometer 5.9
Calibration of wattmeter 5.6, 5.19
Calibration of Wattmeter by Potentiometer 5.10
Capacitance standards 1.3
Capacitive Transducers 11.23
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 9.1
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) 9.1, 15.18
Central Processing Unit (CPU) 16.4
Characteristic frequency 13.15
Circular Chart Recorder 15.6
Clamp on type CTs 3.16
Cold Cathode Display 15.19
Cold junction 11.15
Colpitts Crystal Oscillator 13.16
Colpitts Oscillators 13.9
Communication Systems 17.14
Comparison between different types of instruments 2.47
Comparison methods 1.8
Compensating coil 7.17
Compensation for pressure coil inductance 7.15
Compensation for voltage variation 8.14
Conductive mesh 9.19
Contacts and lead resistances 4.20
Controller 14.26
Controlling system 2.3
Controlling torque 2.2, 2.3, 7.11
Control Program 16.2
Coordinate Potentiometer 5.14
Counters 16.3
Counter/Timer and Pulse I/O 14.26
Counter/Timers Subsystems 14.4
Counting system 8.6
Creeping Error 8.12
Creep test 8.14
Critical angle 18.1
Critically damped 2.3
Crompton’s dc potentiometer 5.2
Cross-over Distortion 13.36
Crystal Oscillators 13.14
CT transformation 8.5
Current coil 1.3, 2.32, 2.33, 7.5
Current standards 4.19
Current terminals 3.2
Current transformer 7.35, 14.6

D
D/A Conversion 14.19
DAC Performance 14.22
Damping force 2.3
Damping torque 2.2
DAQ 14.3
DAQ Hardware 14.3
Data acquisition 14.1
Data Logger 15.15
Dead zone 1.16
Deflecting plates 9.1
Deflecting system 2.3
Deflecting torque 2.2, 2.14
Deflection factor 9.5
Deflection methods 1.8
Deflection sensitivity 9.5
Deflection-type instrument 1.15
Delta-sigma modulation 14.20
Derived units 1.2
De Sauty’s bridge 6.17
Detection of Low Level Signals 10.2
Determination of Hysteresis Loop 12.17
Determination of Magnetising Curve 12.15
Dielectric losses 6.18
Differential transformers 11.22
Digital frequency meter 10.7
Digital input/output subsystems 14.4
Digital inputs 14.24
Digital instruments 1.13
Digital modulation 17.11
Digital multimeter 10.5
Digital pattern generator 10.14
Digital recorders 15.15
Digital sensors 14.5
Digital storage oscilloscope 9.19
Digital tape recording 15.17
Digital to Analog (D/A) converter 10.4
Digital Voltmeter (DVM) 10.9
Diode detector 17.17
Direct comparison methods 1.8
Direct deflection method for high resistance measurement 4.26
Display system 15.18
Dissipation factor 6.19
Dot Matrix Display 15.22
Driver Software 14.13
Drysdale polar potentiometer 5.14
DSO 9.19
Dual Beam Oscilloscopes 9.23
Dual-Slope Integrating-Type DVM 10.11
Dual trace oscilloscopes 9.21
Dynamic range 14.22
Dynamometer 7.5
Dynamometer-type wattmeter 7.5

E
Eddy-current damping 2.8, 2.10
Eddy-current Errors 7.17
Eddy current losses 3.18
Eddy currents 2.3
Effect of power factor on wattmeter readings 7.29
Electrical instruments 1.14
Electrodynamic ammeter 2.32
Electrodynamic voltmeter 2.32
Electrodynamic wattmeter 2.33
Electromagnetic Flow meter 11.7
Electromagnetic spectrum 17.1
Electromagnetic wave spectra 17.3
Electron gun 9.1
Electronic instruments 1.14, 10.1
Electronic voltmeter (EVM) 10.2
Electrostatic instruments 2.37
Electrothermal instruments 2.41
Environmental errors 1.21
Error caused by vibration of the moving system 7.19
Error due to connection 7.16
Error due to overload 8.13
Error due to pressure coil capacitance 7.15
Error due to pressure-coil inductance 7.13
Error due to voltage variations 8.14
Errors in a Wheatstone bridge 4.16
Errors in Electrodynamometer-type Wattmeter 7.13
Errors occurring during the Measurement using thermocouple 11.16
Error Vector Magnitude (EVM) 17.13
Ewing Double Bar Permeameter 12.21
Extension of range of PMMC Instruments 2.18
Extension of range of rectifier instrument 2.45
External magnetic fields 7.18

F
Fibre optic power measurement 18.7
Fictitious loading 7.9
Field coils 2.28
Filtering 14.5
Fixed coils 2.29
Flash/Parallel 14.15
Flat panel display 15.26
Flow meters 2.3
Fluid friction 2.8
Fluid-friction damping 2.9, 11.19
Fluxmeter 12.8
FM recording 15.13
Force summing devices 4.19
Four terminals 9.7
Free running 9.7
Free running sweep 10.6
Frequency counter 10.7
Frequency distortion 13.35
Frequency generator 9.24
Frequency Modulation (FM) 17.10
Frequency range of oscilloscope 2.17
Frequency Selective Wave Analyser 13.33
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) 17.12
Full-scale deflection 2.18
Function Block Diagrams (FBD) 16.12, 16.16
Function generator 1.2, 13.26

G
Gall Coordinate Potentiometer 5.15
Galvanometer 4.17
General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) 14.26
Graphic Recorders 15.2
Gravity Control 2.7
Gross error 1.19
Guarantee errors 1.17
Guard arrangement 4.25
Guard circuits 4.25

H
Hair-spring 2.6
Hand-held programming 16.8
Hard beam 9.5
Harmonic distortion 17.5
Harmonic distortion analysers 13.35
Hartley Oscillator 13.6
Hay’s bridge 6.9
Heterodyne Sweep Generator 13.31
Heterodyne Wave Analyser 13.33
High Output Signal Quality 11.2
High-Pass Filter 14.7
High Q inductors 6.9
High Reliability and Stability 11.2
High Resistances 4.1
Hopkinson Permeameter 12.19
Hot-wire Instrument 2.41
Hybrid DAC 14.21
Hybrid Recorders 15.9
Hysteresis 3.18, 11.2

I
IEEE 488 Interface 14.26
Illiovici Permeameter 12.22
Image Table Addresses 16.9
Indicating instruments 1.13
Indirect comparison methods 1.8
Indirect measurement methods 1.8
Induction-type instruments 2.39
Induction-type wattmeter 7.22
Inductive transducer 11.3, 11.20
In-phase’ potentiometer 5.15
Input/Output (I/O) Modules 16.6
Input Relays 16.3
Input resistance 10.2
Insertion errors 7.2
Instantaneous power 7.6
Instantaneous torque 7.11
Instrumental errors 1.21
Insulation resistance 4.30
Integrating instruments 1.13
Integrating-Type DVM (Voltage to Frequency Conversion) 10.13
Inter-modulation Distortion 13.36
Internally reflected 18.1
Internal Triggering (INT) 9.8
Internal Utility Relays 16.3
International ampere 1.4
International standards 1.2
Inter-turn capacitance 7.15
I/O Addresses 16.9
Ionisation transducers 11.26

J
Jewel bearings 7.9
Jewels 2.5

K
Kelvin’s Double-Bridge Method for Measuring Low Resistance 4.20
Kilowatt-hour (kWh) 8.1

L
Ladder diagrams 16.12
LASER 18.4
LCD 15.23
LC oscillator 10.16
LC Oscillatory Circuit 13.3
Leakage flux 12.25
LED 15.19
Light Emitting Diode (LED) 15.19, 18.3
Limiting error 1.17
Linear Error 10.4
Linearisation 14.11
Linearity 11.2
Linear Variable differential Transformer (LVDT) 11.3
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) 15.23
Lissajous patterns 9.12
Listener 14.26
Loading effect 1.22, 10.2
Localisation of cable faults 4.33
Loop tests 4.33
Loss angles 6.20
Loss of charge method for high resistance measurement 4.29
Low-pass filter 14.6
Low resistances 4.1
Luminosity 9.5

M
Magnetic disk and tape type recorder 15.11
Magnetic flow meters 11.7
Magnetic measurements 12.1
Magnetic meter (Magmeter) 11.8
Magnetic shielding 12.30
Magnetic shunt 8.14
Magnetic tape 15.11
Magnetic testing 12.26
Manual instruments 1.15
Mark frequency 17.12
Maximum sampling frequency 14.22
Maxwell’s bridge method 12.28
Maxwell’s inductance bridge 6.4
Maxwell’s inductance-capacitance bridge 6.6
Measurement of current by potentiometer 5.6
Measurement of energy 8.1
Measurement of flux density 12.11
Measurement of frequency 9.12
Measurement of high voltage by potentiometer 5.6
Measurement of loss 18.8
Measurement of low resistances 4.19
Measurement of magnetic flux by Ballistic galvanometer 12.4
Measurement of magnetic leakage 12.25
Measurement of magnetising force (H) 12.13
Measurement of power by potentiometer 5.8
Measurement of resistance by potentiometer 5.7
Measuring RF voltages with a voltmeter 17.17
Mechanical instruments 1.14
Medium resistances 4.1
Meggar 4.30
Megohmmeter 4.30
Merits and demerits of digital instruments over analog 10.2
Meter constant 8.1
Microprocessor clocks 13.17
Microwave 17.3
Modified De Sauty’s bridge 6.18
Modulated signal 17.9
Modulating signal 17.9
Modulation 17.9
Modulation Error Ratio (MER) 17.13
Modulation oscillator 10.16
Mono shot 13.19
Monostable multivibrator circuits 10.3
Monotonicity 10.4
Moving coil 2.28, 2.29
Moving Iron or MI 4.6
Multimode fibres 18.2
Multi-range series ohmmeter 7.12
Murray Loop Test 4.34

N
Network analyser 17.7
Network scattering parametres 17.9
Nixie tube 15.27
Noise floor 17.5
Noise shaping 14.20
Nominal ratio 3.7
Non-inductive resistance 7.9
Non-sinusoidal Oscillators 13.2
Null-type instruments 1.15
Nyquist Criterion 14.13

O
Occupied bandwidth 17.4
Ohmmeter 4.2
One-shot 13.22
OP-AMP astable multivibrator 13.19
Optical detectors 18.5
Optical fibre 18.1
Optical power 18.7
Optical sources 18.2
Optical Time Domain Reflectometre (OTDR) 18.9
Oscillation transducers 11.27
Oscillator 13.1
Oscillographic recorders 15.15
Over-compensation for friction 8.12
Overdamped 2.3
Oversampling DACs or Interpolating DACs 14.20
Owen’s bridge 6.13

P
Paperless recorders 15.9
PC-based data acquisition system 14.3
PDM recording 15.14
PDP 15.26
Percentage of distortion 17.5
Percentage ratio error 3.8
Permanent magnetisation 3.18
Permanent magnet moving coil instrument 2.12
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) 2.12
Permeameters 12.19
Phantom loading 8.15
Phase-angle error 3.32, 8.9
Phase distortion 13.36
Phase Modulation (PM) 17.10
Phase noise 17.5
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) 17.12
Phosphor-bronze springs 7.9
Phosphors 15.18
Phosphor screen 9.1
Photoelectric transducers 11.24
Pierce oscillator 13.16
Piezoelectric transducers 11.26
PIN Diodes 18.5
Pivot and jewel bearings 2.4
Plasma Display Panel (PDP) 15.26
PLC programming terminal 16.8
Polar potentiometer 5.13
Portable-type CT 3.16
Positive feedback 13.1
Potential terminals 4.19
Potential transformers or PTs 3.26, 7.35
Potentiometer 5.1
Potentiometer method for measuring low resistance 4.23
Power amplifier 9.7
Power in band 17.3
Power measurement in AC Circuits 7.6
Power measurement in DC Circuits 7.1
Power measurement in polyphase systems 7.25
Power measurement using thermistor 17.16
Power measurement with instrument transformers 7.35
Power meter 18.7
Power supply 16.6
Precision 1.16
Pressure coil 2.33, 7.9
Pressure measurement 11.19
Price’s guard-wire method 4.28
Primary standards 1.2
Primary transducer 11.19
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) 16.1
Program scan time 16.11
Pulse generators 13.18
Pulse width modulator 14.20

Q
Q factor 6.8
Quality factor 14.6
Quantisation 14.14
Quantisation levels 14.14
Quartz crystal oscillator 10.16

R
R-2R Ladder DAC 14.21
Radio frequency 17.1
Radio frequency Spectrum Analyser 17.5
Ramp/Counter 14.16
Ramp-Type DVM 10.10
Ramp voltage 9.6
Random error 1.19, 1.21
Range 14.19
Ratio arms 4.16
Ratio error 3.7, 3.32
RC Oscillator 13.10
Reactive Power Measurements 7.33
Read-Only Memory (ROM) 9.20
Recording instruments 1.13
Rectifier-type instruments 2.43
Reference cell 5.2
Reference junction 11.15
Relative error 3.18
Remote I/O 16.10
Repeatability 11.2
Residual magnetism 1.3
Residual reformation 11.2
Resistance standards 1.16
Resistance strain gauges 11.5
Resistance temperature detectors 11.11
Resistance thermometers 11.11
Resistive transducers 11.20
Resolution 2.5
Resolution Bandwidth 17.4
Resonance 13.3, 13.4
RF Analysers 17.7
RF communication system 17.15
RF network analyser 17.7
RF signal generator 13.28
RF Voltage and Power Measurement 17.16
Ribbon suspension 11.2
Roll Off 14.6

S
Sample-and-hold (S/H) 9.20
Sampling 14.14
Sampling oscilloscope 9.17
Sawtooth waveform 9.6
Scalar Network Analyser (SNA) 17.7
Schering bridges 6.20
Schmitt trigger 13.24
Secondary emission electrons 9.19
Secondary instruments 1.13, 2.1
Secondary standards 1.2
Secondary transducer 11.19
Seebeck voltage 11.14
Self-inductance 6.4
Self-operated instruments 1.15
Sensitivity 1.16, 2.20
Sensitivity of a full-wave rectifier circuit 2.44
Sensitivity of a half-wave rectifier circuit 2.44
Sensitivity of rectifier-type instrument 2.43
Sensor 11.1
Sensors and transducers 14.5
Series magnet 7.22
Series-type ohmmeter 4.2
Settling time 10.4, 8.5
Seven Segment Display 15.20
Shading bands 8.5
Shading coil 8.9
Shading loop 8.12
Shading vane for friction compensation 8.12
Shape of scale in electrodynamometer-type wattmeter 7.12
Shape of scale in series ohmmeters 4.4
Shape of scale in shunt ohmmeters 4.7
Shields 7.18
Shunt 2.18
Shunt magnet 7.22
Shunts and multipliers 3.1
Signal conditioning 14.5
Signal generators 10.14
Sine wave generator 13.24
Single-point and multi-point recorders 15.5
Sinusoidal oscillators 13.2
Space frequency 17.12
Space loss 17.2
Spectrum analyser 13.37, 17.6
Spectrum analysis 17.5
Speed of response 1.17
Spindle 2.5
Spiral spring 2.3, 7.9
Spontaneous emission 18.4
Spring control 2.6
Square wave generator 13.18
Standard arm 4.16
Standard cell 1.4
Standardisation 5.2
Standardize the potentiometer 5.2
Standard of measurement 1.2
Standard resistor 5.7
Standard variable resistance 4.14
Statement list 16.12, 16.16
Storage 10.3
Strain gauges 11.5
Stray capacitance 7.16
Strip chart recorder 15.2
Substitution method for measuring resistance 4.14
Successive approximation 14.15
Super-Heterodyne analyser 17.6
Surface leakage 4.24
Suspension 2.4, 7.9
Swamping Resistance 2.15
Sweep frequency generator 13.29
Sweep generator 9.7, 13.29
Synchronisation 9.7
Systematic error 1.19, 1.21

T
Talker 14.26
Taut suspension 2.4
Temperature coefficient of resistance 11.11
Temperature effects 8.13
Temperature errors 7.19
Temperature sensitivity 10.4
Temperature transducers 11.11
Testing of specimens 12.18
THD 13.36
THD+N 14.22
Thermal Dot Array Recorders 15.10
Thermal emfs 11.17
Thermistors 11.14, 17.16
Thermocouple 2.39, 17.16
Thermocouple instrument 2.41
Thermometer Coded DAC 14.21
Three-Wattmeter Method 7.27
Time and frequency standards 9.1
Time base 10.14
Timers 16.3
Tone generator 2.6
Torque/weight ratio 2.6, 11.1
Total harmonic distortion 13.36
Total internal reflection 18.1
Total percentage Harmonic Distortion (THD) 17.5
Transducer 10.1
Transistorised Voltmeter (TVM) 9.8
Triangular wave generator 13.22
Trigger circuit 9.8
Triggered Sweep 6.1
True RMS voltmeter 2.46
Tuned detector 3.31
Turns ratio 7.27

U
Ultraviolet Recorders 15.9
Underdamped 2.3
Unit of energy 8.1

V
Vacuum Tube Voltmeter (VTVM) 10.1
Vane 8.12
Varley Loop Test 4.35
Vertical deflection plates 9.2
Vibration galvanometers 6.1
VNA 17.8
Voltage coil 7.5
Voltage-controlled-oscillator 13.27
Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) 13.29
Voltage stability 14.17
Voltage standards 1.3
Voltmeter-ammeter method for measuring low resistance 4.19
Voltmeter-ammeter method for measuring resistance 4.11
Voltmeter multipliers 2.19

W
Wagner earth device 6.26
Wave analyser 13.33
Waveguides 18.1
Weston frequency meter C.1 Wheatstone bridge 4.15, 9.7
Wideband preamplifier 13.13
Wien Bridge Oscillators 6.20
Wien’s bridge 6.22
Wireless communication 17.2
Wireless communication system 17.1
Working standards 3.14

X
X-Y Recorder 15.7