MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS Part V: Lesson Nos. 24 Thru 28MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS 24-1. MERIDIANS 1. True Meridian 3. Grid Meridian 2. Magnetic Heridian 4. Assumed Meridian 24-2. EXPEDIENT METHODS OF ESTABLISHING MERIDIANS 1, Establishing Magnetic Meridian By Compass 2. Determining True North By Aid of Sun anc a Plumb Line 3. Determining True North By the Rising and Setting of the Sun 4. Determining True North By Polaris 5. Determining True South By the Southern Cross 6. Determining Direction of Taue North (or South) By a Wrist Watch 24-3. UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENT 1. The Degree 3. The Mit 2. The Grad 4. The Radian 24-4. DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS 1. Taue North 3. Grid North 2. Magnetic North 4. Assumed North 24-5. ILLUSTRATIVE: PROBLEMS 1. Conversion of An Angle to Decimal Degrees 2. Conversion of An Angle to Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds 3. Conversion From Degrees to Grads, Mils, and Radéans 4. Conversion From Grads to Degrees, its, and Radians 5. Conversion From Kits to Grads, Degrees, and Radians 5. Conversion From Radians to Degrees, Grads, and Wits Lesson 24 ; x24-1. MERIDIANS. The direction 6£ a,line is usually defined by the horizon- tal angle it makes with a fixed reference line or direc- tion. In surveying, this is done with reference to a meridian whichilies in a vertical plane passing through a fixed point of reference and through the observer's pos. tion. There are four types of meridians: true, magnetic, grid, and assumed. 1. True Meridian. ‘The true meridian is sometimes known as the astronomic or geographic meridian. It is the gene- rally adapted reference line in surveying practice. This line passes through the geographic north and south poles of the earth and the observer's position. Since all true meridians converge at the poles, they are not parallel to each other. The direction of true meridian at a, survey, station is invariable and any record of true directions taken remains permanent and unchanged regardless of time. Lines in most extensive surveys are usually referred to the true meridian. This meridian is also used for marking the boundaries of land. 2. Magnetic Meridian. A magnetic meridian is a fixed line of reference which lies parallel with the magnetic lines of force of the earth. Its direction is defined by a freely suspended magnetic needle of a compass held at the observer's position. Magnetic meridians are not parallel to the true meridians since they converge at a magnetic pole which is located some distance away from the true geogra- phic poles. Since the location of the magnetic poles chan- ges constantly, the direction of the magnetic meridian is not fixed. As a line of reference, the magnetic meridian is employed only on rough surveys where a magnetic compass is used in determining directions. 3. Grid Meridian. A grid meridian is a fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian of a system of plane rectangular coordinates. One central meridian, which coincides with a true meridian, is usually selected and all other meridians are made parallel to this meridian. In this process, the need to calculate the convergence of when determining positions of points in the syste minated. The use of grid meridians is applicable plane surveys of limited extent. In such types is assumed that all measurements are all project horizontal plane and that all meridians ai straight lines. 4. Assumed Meridian. An assumed meridian is xily chosen: fixed line of reference which is convenience: This meridian is usually the dire survey station to an adjoining station or some and permanent point. It is used only on plane limited extent since they are diffjcult or may ble to re-establish if the original referencelost or obliterated, 24-2. EXPEDIENT METHODS OF ESTABLISHING MERIDIANS- The following are some expedient methods of determining or establishing meridians. 1. Establishing Magnetic Meridian By Compass. The mag netic meridian can be established by setting up the compass over any convenient point and then sighting a distant object that marks another point on the meridian. For an accurate determination of the desired meridian, several sights should be taken during the setup and the compass must be rotated about its vertical axis and then positioned until the needle reads zero. The mean of the points thus established is taken as the magnetic meridian. The observa~ tions should, however, be made when the magnetic declina~ tion is approximately at its mean value. 2. Determining True North By Aid of Sun and a Plumb Line. In a level piece of ground, lean a pole approximately toward the north and rest it in a crotch made by two sticks (Fig. 24-1). Suspend a weight from the end of the pole so Fég. 24-1. Determination of novth by shadows. Wooden Pole y Path of Shodow ‘of Pole’s Tip “Supporting Sticks Se Direction of True North that it nearly touches the ground. About an hour before noon, attach a string driven directly under the weight and, with a sharpened stick attached to the other end of the string, describe an arc with a radius equal to the distance from the peg to the shadow of the tip of the pole. Drive a beg on the arc where the shadow of the tip of the pole rests, At about an hour after noon, watch the shadow of the tip as it approaches the eastern side of the arc and drive another peg where it crosses. By means of a string, findthe middle point of the straight line Joining the two pegs. A straight line joining the mid-point and the peg under the weight will, for all practical purposes, be pointing to-~ wards the digection of true north. Fég. 24-2. Determining north by rising and setting of sun. North Pole TES segue Phe 3. Determining True North By the Rising and Setting of the Sun. From a convenient position or station, observe the rising and setting of the sun on the same day or at setting on one day and rising the next (Fig. 24-2). Along each direction establish a peg or marker. Measure the horizon- tal angle between the two markezs then, establish another marker to define half of the measured angle. The ling Joining the observation station and the last marker estab- lished should point towards the direction of true north. Fég. 24-3; Determining north by Polaris, Pointer Stars , North Pole4. Determining True North By Polaris. The big dépper 1s a useful reference constellation of the northern hemi: phere. As a star group, it is the most familiar and easiest to recognize. It has been so named because of the distinct- ive dipper-like pattern formed by seven bright stars (Fig. 24-3). The two stars, Merak and Dubhe, forming the side of the dipper which is farthest from the handle are known as the pointer stars. They point towards Polaris which is also known as the north star, pole star, or cynosure. Polaris lies almost directly above the earth's north pole. When a person faces Polaris, he is actually facing towards the direction of true north. Polaris is visible the whole year but only in the northern hemisphere. Aside as a reference for determining directions, this star can tell a person in the northern hemisphere what latitude he is in. The observed vertical angle from ‘the horizon to Polaris is approximately the same degree of latitude that the observer is from the equator. At the equator the vertical angle to Polaris is zero since the star is on the horizon. At the north pole, the angle is about 90 degrees since Polaris is found directly overhead.. 3F soutnean cross oR Point abo. the South Pole South Pole 14-4, Determining south by the crux. 5. Determining True South By the Southern Cross. The southern cross (or crux) is a constellation of the southern hemisphere which serves as a reference group of starg for determining the location of the earth's south pole. It is composed of four stars formed in the figure of a crosé. an Imaginary ling Joining the two stars forming the longer side of the cross is used to locate a point directly above the south pole. This reference point is located along the extension of this imaginary line. Its distance from, the lower star (Fig. 24-4) of the cross is about 4.5 times’ the distance between the two stars*along the same line. 6. Determining Direction of True North (or South) by aFég. 24-5. Determining south in the north Fig. 14-6. Determining north in the south Bee aaron Longe dregs pocorn heyy girs nee ate Wrist Watch. An ordinary wrist watch can be used to deter- mine the approximate direction of true north or south. In the north temperate zone only the hour hand is pointed toward the sun: A south line can be found midway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock (Fig. 24-5). The wrist watch may also be used to determine direct- ions in the south temperate zone. It is done, however, ina different manner. Twelve o'clock is pointed toward the sun, and half-way between 12 o'clock and the hour hand will be the direction towards true north (Fig. 24-6). Fig. 24-7. The temperate zones of the earth. The two methods stated above applies primarily to standard time. On daylight saving time, the method applicable at the north temperate zone yields a north-south line which is midway between the hour hand and one otclock- At the south temperate zone, the north line lies midway between the hour hand and one o'clock. In both cases, it, 1s important to remember that the sun is in the eastern part of the sky before noon and in the western direction in theafternoon. Also, the method explained are applicable basi~ lly in the temperate zones. These zones extend from latitude 23.5 degrees to 66.5 degrees in both hemispheres (Figure 24-7), : 24-3. UMITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENT. The magnitude of an angle can be expressed in different units, all of which are basically derived from the. divi- sion of the circumference of a circle (Fig. 24-8). A purely arbitrary unit is used to define the value of an angle. The principal system of units used are: 1. The Degree. The sexagesimal system is used in which the circumference of a circle is divided into 360 parts or degrees. The angle of one degree is defined as the angle which requires 1/360 of the retation needed to obtain one complete revolution. The basic unit is the degree, which is further subdivided into 60 minutes, and the minute is sub- divided into 60 seconds. The * , ' and ™ are used to denote degrees, minutes, and seconds, respectively. Thus an angle 26 degrees, 32 minutes, and 15 seconds may be written 26° 32'15". If decimal parts of degrees is desired the above value may be written as 26.5375 degrees. This system is used extensively in surveying practice. 2. The Grad. The grad is the unit of measure in the centesimal system, In this system the circumference’ of a circle is divided into 400 parts called grads. The grad is subdivided into 100 centesimal minutes and a centesimal minute is further subdivided into 100 centesimal segonds. The symbols g, ¢ and ce are used to denote grads, centesi- mal minutes, and centesimal seconds, ‘respectively. It will be noted that 200 grads is equal to 180 degrees. This system is’ a decimal one which is of some advantage when mathematical calculations are required. It is a standar unit used in Europe. An angle,may be expressed as 235,261! Where the first pair of digits to the right of the decimal point represents centigrads and the last pair of digits farther to the right of the decimal‘point - represents the @ecimij}igrads. The preceding value may also be written’ 235% 26° 18 $ 3. The Mil. The circumference is divided into “6400 parts called mils, ox 1600 mils is equal to 90 degree: mil will subtend very nearly one linear unit ina dis! ef 1000 such units. It is commonly used in military oper tions as in fire direction of artillery units. og 4. The Radian. The radian is another measure of angl used frequently for a host of calculations. One radian. defined as the angle subtended at the center of a cirel an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the cire One radian equals 180/T or approximately 57.2958 degre and, one degree equals T /180 or approximately 0.017 radians. The radian is sometimes referred’to as the hatiunit. of angle because there {s no arbitrary number in its definition. It is used in computations such as determining the length of circular arcs and where high speed electronic digital computers are used. GRAD DEGREE 3600, wee ln « 380" Fig. U4. Units 06 angular 24-4. DESICHATION OF NORTH POINTS. There is always a starting or reference directions. Map users are primarily ¢ north poirt for the determination of d following are the commonly used referent True North - is the north point dian. In maps and sketches, it is port tion of the actual location of the eart! pole and is always shown along a ve:symbolized by a star, an asterisk, or the letters TN (Rig. 24-9a). 2. Magnetic North - a north point that is established by means of a magnetized compass needle when there are no local attractions affecting it. At any point on the earth surface its direction {s indicated by the direction of the magnetic lines of force passing through the point at a particular time. Magnetic north may be located either east” or west of trué north. The point is usually symbolized by a half arrowhead or the letters MN (Fig. 24-9b). 3. Grid North - a north point which is established by lines on a map which are parallel to a selected central meridian. “It may coincide with lines directed toward true north. Grid north may be symbolized by a full arrowhead or the letters GN or ¥ (Fig. 24-9c). 4. Assumed North - is used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north point. It may be symbolized by a small blackened circle or the letters AN (Fig. 24-94). Fig. 24-9. Symbols used for north points. é ™ un on aN * w. —£ Ww, ew. a a) + e 33 4 ; : : : (a) te) (or eee True North Magnetic Worth Grid North Assumed North 24-5. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 1, CONVERSION QF AN ANGLE TO DECIMAL DEGREES. Convert the-ongle 233°25 50° into its equivalent in decimal degrees. 50 (Where: Deg = 23@*, Min =25',and Set Angle = 23 Decimal Equivalent = Daq + Min/60 + Sec/3600 38° + 25'/60 + 50"/3600 = 238° + 0.4167°+ 0.0139" » 238.430 2. CONVERSION OF AN ANGLE TO DEGREES, MINUTES ,, SECONDS. Convert to degreas,minutes,and seconds the decimal 325.7541667 degrees. 0) Deg = 325.7541667° (decimal degr D = 325° (integrat portion of the angle In degrees) b) Min = (Deg - 0) (60'/ deg) z (325.7541667° - 325°) (60'/deg) = 45.250002' (decimal minutes)M = 45° Cunt Fal portion of thé angle In minutes) + ( ¢) Sec = (Min - M)(60"/min) = (45.250002" 45')(60"/ min) = 15.00012" (decimal seconds) s = 15" Untegral portion of the angle In seconds) < 4) Therefore, 325.7541667 = D+M+S = 325°45'15" 3. CONVERSION FROM DEGREES TO GRADS,MILS, AND RADIANS Convert 270° into its equivalent value in grads, mils, and radians. ©) Angle’in Grads = 270%400°/360") = 3007 b) Angle in Mils = 270%6400 mils 7360°) = 4800 mils ©) Angle in Radians= 270% 2T rad /360°) = 4.7124 radians 4. CONVERSION FROM GRADS TO DEGREES ,MILS, AND RADIANS. The value of an observed interior angle (A) ina closed traverse Is 350grade Convert the angle into its equivalent value in degrees, mils, and radians. 360° ) 2 4008 = 315 (ogulvatent vaiue of Angle A In degrees) a) At 3509 ( by al = 3508 ; 380" ; 6400 mils 400% 360' = 5600 mils (equivalent vatue of Angie A In mils) 360° , | 2TT Rad 4009" 360° = 5.4978 radians (equivalent vaiue of Angle A in radians) 5. ‘CONVERSION FROM MILS TO GRADS, DEGREES, AND RADIANS, _ Cénvert 1600 mils into Its equivalent value in grads, degrees, and radians. °- c) A" = 350° ( . 360° 400%) _ : a) Angle in Grads = 1600 mils (Ezoo =) (Soe). = 1008 a 36 3 E b) Angle In Degrees = 1600 mils (<=>) = 90) ©) Angle in‘Radians its (39%) -2T Rad 1600 as ‘Soo mais irs yo 6. CONVERSION FROM RADIANS TO DEGREES , GRAD If the value oftan angle of elevation (@) is computed to be termine the equivalent value in degrees ,grads,and mils. TT, 360° ov © 38) + ast een wo Ea io by B= Ey 580) $98 50° Cequivatent yotue of 360° , 6400 mils a 0, = Er) +800 mils (equivalent