1.

Elastic behaviour

Concrete is defined as a three-phased anisotropic brittle material that behaves differently under
various loads. Total deformation of a structural element that has an elastic property under P load is
directly proportional with applied load and size of the concrete component, but is inversely
proportional with cross sectional area of the element. Concrete is a brittle and a composite material
consisting of various phases. However, it has elastic behaviour under low stresses. Theoretically, this
is equal to a value of 30-40 % of its compressive strength. Therefore, concrete is considered as an
elastic material in engineering calculation.

Stress-strain diagram

A typical σ−ε behaviour of concrete is shown in Figure 1. It is seen that, initially as the stress
increases deformation also increases in direct proportion. Diagram is linear up to point A and
permanent deformation doesn’t occur when this short term elastic load is removed. The curve deviates
from linearity with the application of a greater stress on specimen at point A, and this situation
continues with the increase of curvature up to point M. Micro cracks rapidly occur with increasing
stress after point A and concrete yields at point M, so the failure or fracture occurs at point K.

2. Viscoelasticity

Concrete is a composite material containing aggregates, voids and various defects, such as grain
boundaries, cracks and pores. These features will cause stress wave reflections and diffractions, and
consequently induce viscoelastic behaviour at the macro-level. Therefore, the viscoelastic behaviour
of concrete is rate- and frequency-dependent under dynamic loadings similar to that found in other
engineering materials. On the other hand, it is also associated with the creep and stress relaxation
under quasi-static conditions.
 3. Temperature distribution

Concrete is widely used as a primary structural material in construction due to its numerous
advantages it possesses over other construction materials such as strength, durability, ease of
fabrication, and no combustibility properties. Fire represents one of the most severe environmental
conditions to which structures may be subjected, thus provision of low temperature distribution
material is vital. Concrete is the perfect material since it is excellent in fire resistance due to its
constituent materials (i.e., cement and aggregates) which, when chemically combined, form a material
that is essentially inert and has low thermal conductivity, high heat capacity, and slower strength
degradation with temperature. It is this slow rate of heat transfer and strength loss that enables
concrete to act as an effective fire shield not only between adjacent spaces but also to protect itself
from fire damage.

4. Fracture mechanics

Causes of fracture and failure of concrete under increasing stress is the proliferation of flaws and
micro-cracks, which exist within the material even before any load is applied and which are due to
shrinkage, thermal effects and etc. for the case of uniaxial compression, two main changes in the
process of crack proliferation prior to complete disruption have been identified under increasing load
as follows:-

Onset of localized cracking

This primarily results from breakdown of bond at the aggregate-mortar matrix interface after it has
occurred, the material exhibits distinctive inelastic properties but still haves in relatively stable
manner in that the cracking process ceases when applied load is maintained constant.

Onset of continuous cracking

This is predominantly the result of fracture within the mortar matrix, after which material starts to
disrupt in relatively unstable manner. This results in dilation and eventually serious loss of load-
carrying capacity.

5. FREEZE-THAW

The freeze-thaw process is a process where concrete is damaged by freezing and thawing
phenomenon. This process commonly happens places where temperatures reaches below freezing at
night and rise in the daytime. However, freeze-thaw generally doesn’t happen in environments that
don’t freeze at all, like the tropics, or stay frozen most of the time. Freezing-thawing damage results
from the fact that when water seeps into concrete crack and freezes overnight, as the water freezes it
expands by about 9 percent which will produce pressure in the pores of the concrete. If the developed
pressure exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete, cracking, scaling, and crumbling of the concrete
occur. Generally, the most destructive kind of freeze-thaw action occurs in highly saturated conditions
where more water is present. Freeze-thaw damage may appear as either internal cracking or surface
scaling.

Internal cracking

Internal cracking occurs when internal cracks and voids are filled with water and subject to freezing.
This might happen structural parts which are direct in contact with water such as walls, piers and etc.
unlike surface scaling the damage of internal cracking is not visible and it is very gradual but upon
further freeze-thaw cycles, the damage may propagate to the surface.

Internal cracking due to freezing-thawing cycles

Surface scaling

Scaling is local flaking or peeling of a finished surface of hardened concrete as a result of exposure to
freezing and thawing. Generally, it starts as localized small patches which later may merge and extend
to expose large areas. Surface scaling degradation of a concrete could happen in the presence of de-
icing salts (NaCL, CaCl2). However, surface scaling is also observed in concrete that is subjected to
water or snow deposits where the surface remain wet for a period of time, and it might happen on both
horizontal and vertical surfaces.

Surface scaling due to freezing-thawing cycles

Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in concrete is a reaction between certain silicious constituents in the
aggregate and the alkali-sodium and potassium hydroxide which are released during the hydration of
Portland cement. A gelatinous product is formed which imbibes pore fluid and in so doing expands,
inducing and internal stress within the concrete. The gel will cause damage to the concrete and
removal or replacement of the concrete is inevitable. To overcome this problem the following criteria
should be met:-

1. Presence of reactive siliceous component(s) in aggregate;

If any of these criteria are not met, then ASR will not occur. The reaction between alkaline pore
solution (OH-, Na+ and K+ ions) and reactive silica in the aggregates produce a reaction product called
alkali-silica gel. If this gel absorbs sufficient moisture, it expands, creating internal pressures in the
concrete, which can exceed the tensile strength and crack the concrete. If the damage caused by ASR
and other associated distress mechanisms is significant, removal or replacement of the concrete is
inevitable

7. POROMECHANICS