Chapter II material that is subjected simultaneously to

STRAIN normal stresses in the x- and y-directions, as in

Fig. 2.9(a).
2.4 Generalized Hooke’s Law
A. Uniaxial Loading; Poisson’s Ratio
Experiments show that when a bar is
stretched by an axial force, there is a
contraction in the transverse dimensions, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.8

Figure 2.8 Transverse dimensions contract as the bar is

stretched by an axial force P.

In 1811, Siméon D. Poisson showed that Figure 2.9 (a) Stresses acting on a material element in
the ratio of the transverse strain to the axial strain biaxial loading; (b) two-dimensional view of stresses;
is constant for stresses within the proportional (c) deformation of the element.
limit.
This constant, called Poisson’s ratio, is The strains caused by 𝜎𝑥 alone are given
denoted by 𝑣 (lowercase Greek nu). For uniaxial in Eqs. (2.9). Similarly, the strains due 𝜎𝑦 are
loading in the x-direction, as in Fig 2.8, Poisson’s 𝜎 𝜎
ratio is 𝑣 = −𝜖𝑡 /𝜖𝑥 , where 𝜖𝑡 is the transverse 𝜖𝑦 = 𝑦 and 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝑧 = −𝑣 𝑦 . Using superposition,
𝐸 𝐸
strain. The minus sign indicates that a positive we write the combined e¤ect of the two normal
strain (elongation) in the axial direction causes a stresses as
negative strain (contraction) in the transverse 1
directions. 𝜖𝑥 = (𝜎 − 𝑣𝜎𝑦 )
𝐸 𝑥
The transverse strain is uniform throughout
1
the cross section and is the same in any direction 𝜖𝑦 = (𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣𝜎𝑥 ) Equation (2-10)
in the plane of the cross section. Therefore, we 𝐸
have for uniaxial loading 𝑣
𝜖𝑧 = − (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )
𝜖𝑦 = 𝜖𝑧 = −𝑣𝜖𝑥 𝐸
Equation (2-8)

which is Hooke’s law for biaxial loading in

Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless quantity the xy-plane (𝜎𝑧 = 0). The first two of Eqs. (2.10)
that ranges between 0.25 and 0.33 for metals. can be inverted to express the stresses in terms
Using 𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜖𝑥 in Eq. (2.8) yields the of the
generalized Hooke’s law for uniaxial loading strains:
(𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑥 = 0):
(𝜖𝑥 + 𝑣𝜖𝑦 )𝐸
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥 =
𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜖𝑧 = −𝑣 Equation (2-9) 1 − 𝑣2
𝐸 𝐸 Equation (2-11)
(𝜖𝑦 + 𝑣𝜖𝑥 )𝐸
𝜎𝑦 =
1 − 𝑣2
B. Multiaxial Loading
Two-dimensional views of the stresses and
Biaxial Loading
the resulting deformation in the xy-plane are
Poisson’s ratio permits us to extend
shown in Figs. 2.9(b) and (c). Note that Eqs.
Hooke’s law for uniaxial loading to biaxial and
(2.10) show that for biaxial loading 𝜎𝑧 is not zero;
triaxial loadings. Consider an element of the
that is, the strain is triaxial rather than biaxial.
 can be shown that the relationship between
Triaxial Loading shear stress 𝜏 and shear strain 𝛾 is linear within the
Hooke’s law for the triaxial loading in Fig. elastic range; that is,
2.10 is obtained by adding the contribution of 𝜎𝑧 ,
𝜎 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾 Equation (2-13)
𝜖𝑥 = 𝜎𝑧 /𝐸 and 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝑧 = −𝑣 𝑦 , to the strains in Eqs.
𝐸
(2.10), which yields which is Hooke’s law for shear. The material
constant G is called the shear modulus of
1 elasticity (or simply shear modulus), or the
𝜖𝑥 = [𝜎 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 )]
𝐸 𝑥 modulus of rigidity.
1 The shear modulus has the same units as
𝜖𝑦 = [𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧 )] Equation (2-12)
the modulus of elasticity (Pa or psi). We will
𝐸
𝑣 prove later that G is related to the modulus of
𝜖𝑧 = [𝜎𝑧 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )] elasticity E and Poisson’s ratio n by
𝐸
𝐸
𝐺= Equation (2-14)
2(1 + 𝑣)

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
2.4 The 50-mm-diameter rubber rod is placed in
a hole with rigid, lubricated walls. There is no
clearance between the rod and the sides of the
hole. Determine the change in the length of the
rod when the 8-kN load is applied. Use E = 40
MPa and v = 0.45 for rubber.
Figure 2.10 Stresses acting on a
material element in triaxial loading.

Equations (2.8)–(2.12) are valid for both tensile

and compressive effects. It is only necessary to assign
positive signs to elongations and tensile stresses and, Solution: Lubrication
conversely, negative signs to contractions and compressive allows the rod to
stresses. contract freely in
the axial direction,
so that the axial
C. Shear Loading stress throughout
the bar is
Shear stress causes the deformation
shown in Fig. 2.11.

𝑃 8000
𝜎𝑥 = = −𝜋 = −4.04 × 106 𝑃𝑎
𝐴 (0.05)2
4

Figure 2.11 Deformation of a (the negative sign implies compression).

material element caused by shear stress. Because the walls of the hole prevent transverse
strain in the rod, we have 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜖𝑧 = 0.
The lengths of the sides of the element The tendency of the rubber to expand
do not change, but the element undergoes a laterally (Poisson’s effect) is resisted by the
distortion from a rectangle to a parallelogram. uniform contact pressure 𝑝 between the walls
The shear strain, which measures the and the rod, so that 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧 = −𝑝. If we use the
amount of distortion, is the angle 𝛾 (lowercase second of Eqs. (2.12) (the third equation would
Greek gamma), always expressed in radians. It
yield the same result), the condition 𝜖𝑦 =0
becomes
1 1
[𝜎 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧 )] = [−𝑝 − (𝜎𝑥 − 𝑝)] = 0
𝐸 𝑦 𝐸
which yields
𝑣𝜎𝑥 0.45(−4.04 × 106 )
𝑝=− =−
1−𝑣 1 − 0.45
𝑝 = 3.333 × 106 𝑃𝑎

The axial strain is given by the first of Eqs. (2.12):

Each rubber pad has a shear area of
1 1 A = 5 x 9 = 45 in.2 that carries half the 1200-lb
𝜖𝑥 = [𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 )] = [𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣(−2𝑝)]
𝐸 𝐸 load. Hence, the average shear stress in the
1 rubber is
𝜖𝑥 = [−4.074 − 0.45(−2 × 3.333)] × 106
𝐸 𝑉 600
𝜏= =− = 13.333 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝜖𝑥 = −0.02686 𝐴 45
This stress is shown acting on the sides of
The corresponding change in the length of the
a grid element in Fig. (c). The corresponding
rod is
shear strain is 𝛾 = 𝜏/𝐺, where from Eq. (2.14),
𝛿 = 𝜖𝑥 𝐿 = −0.02686(300)
𝜹 = −𝟖. 𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒎 (𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)

2.4 Two 1.75-in.-thick rubber pads are bonded to

three steel plates to form the shear mount shown
in Fig. (a). Find the displacement of the middle
plate when the 1200-lb load is applied. Consider
the deformation of rubber only. Use E = 500 psi 𝐸 500
and v = 0.48 for rubber. 𝐺= = = 168.92 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2(1 + 𝑣) 2(1 + 0.48)

Therefore
𝜏 13.333
𝛾= = = 0.07893
𝐺 168.92

From Fig. (b) we see that the displacement of

the middle plate (the lower plate in the figure) is

𝑡𝛾 = 1.75(0.07893) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟏 𝒊𝒏.

Solution:
To visualize the deformation of the rubber
pads, we introduce a grid drawn on the edge of
the upper pad—see Fig. (b). When the load is
applied, the grid deforms as shown in the figure.
Observe that the deformation represents uniform
shear, except for small regions at the edges of
the pad (Saint Venant’s principle).