CHAPTER 1

Internal Combustion Engine have been designed and build to deliver power in the range from 0.01 to
20x103kw, depending on their displacement. Major applications are in the vehicular, railroad, marine, aircraft,
stationary power, and home use areas.

1.1 ENGINE CYCLES

Two major cycles: Otto cycle and Diesel cycle

• Otto Cycle (constant volume combustion / spark ignition cycle)

• Diesel Cycle (constant pressure combustion / compression ignition cycle)  

They can either configure as a 

• two-stroke cycle, piston produces power on every downward stroke
• or a four-stroke cycle, piston produces power every other downward stroke

Otto Cycle (four-stroke cycle)

1. An intake stroke that draws a combustible mixture of fuel and air past the throttle and the intake valve
into the cylinder. 
2. A compression stroke with the valves closed that raises the temperature of the mixture. A spark ignites
the mixture toward the end of the compression stroke. 
3.  An expansion or power stroke resulting from combustion of the fuel--air mixture. 
4.  An exhaust stroke that pushes out the burned gases past the exhaust valve.
 If the initial pressure is too high, the compressed gases ahead of the flame will autoignite, causing a problem
called knock. The occurrence of knock limits the maximum compression ratio and thus the efficiency of Otto
cycle engines. In the Otto cycle, a throttle is used to control the amount of air inducted. As the throttle is closed,
the amount of air entering the cylinder is reduced, causing a proportional reduction in the cylinder pressure.
Since the fuel flow is metered in proportion to the airflow, the throttle in an Otto cycle, in essence, controls the
power.

Diesel Cycle (four-stroke cycle)

1.  An intake stroke that draws inlet air past the intake valve into the cylinder. 
2. A compression stroke that raises the air temperature above the autoignition temperature of the fuel.
Diesel fuel is sprayed into the cylinder near the end of the compression stroke. 
3.  Evaporation, mixing, ignition, and combustion of the diesel fuel during the later stages of the
compression stroke and the expansion stroke. 
4.  An exhaust stroke that pushes out the burned gases past the exhaust valve.

2 types of Diesel Combustion Systems

• Direct Injection (DI) into the main cylinder
• Indirect Injection (IDI) into a prechamber connected to the main cylinder
- Air is compressed into a prechamber during the compression stroke, producing a highly turbulent flow
field.
-Indirect injection engines tend to be used where the engine is expected to perform over a wide range of
speeds and loads such as in an automobile.

Classifications of Diesel Engines

1. high speed diesel, designed to operate 1000rpm or higher, have up to 300mm bore and use high quality
distillate fuels.
2. medium speed diesel, operate at speed ranging from 375 to 1000rpm, have a medium bore between 200 and
600mm, can operate with a range of fuels.
3. low speed diesel, operate less than 375 rpm, has large bore >600mm two stroke cycle engines, and use
residual fuel oil.

Two-Stroke Cycle
-Needs only two-strokes of the piston or one revolution to complete a cycle.
-There is a power stroke every revolution, are simpler than four-stroke engines.
-They have a specific power, the power to weight ratio.
-They can use either spark (otto) or compression (diesel) ignition cycles.
The principle of operation of a crankcase-scavenged two-stroke engine. During compression of the crankcase
scavenged two-stroke cycle, a subatmospheric pressure is created in the crankcase. Two-stroke industrial engines
are mostly diesel, and typically supercharged. With a two-stroke diesel or fuel injected gasoline engine, air only
is used for scavenging, so loss of fuel through short-circuiting or mixing with exhaust gases is not a problem.

1.2 ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

Geometric parameters

bore b
connecting rod length l
crank radius a
stroke s
crank angle Ɵ
crank radius = 1/2 of the stroke
top dead center tdc (Ɵ = 0°)
Minimum cylinder Vc
volume/clearance volume
bottom dead center bdc (Ɵ = 180°)
Maximum cylinder volume at V1
bdc
 Formulas
Compression ratio, r Ratio of the maximum to minimum
volume

Displacement Volume, Vd Difference between the maximum

and minimum volume; for a single
cylinder
Relating Vd and Vbdc

Product of the number cylinders, nc (For multi cylinder engines) Vd is nc

and the volume of a single cylinder

Mean Piston Speed, Ūp Important parameter in engine

design since stresses and other
factors scale with piston speed
rather than with engine speed.
Engine Speed, N Rotational speed of the crankshaft Expressed in revolutions per min
Engine Frequency, ω Rotation rate of the crankshaft Expressed in radians per sec

POWER, TORQUE AND EFFICIENCY

Geometric Parameters
Brake Power, Ẇb Rate at which work is done;
it is the power output of the
engine, measured by a
dynamometers.
Engine Torque, τ Measure of the work done per unit
rotation (radians) of the crank.
Indicated power, Ẇi Brake power that is less than the
boundary rate of work done by
gas.

Indicated work, Wi Net work transferred from the gas

to the piston during a cycle

Friction power loss, Ẇf The brake power is less than the

indicated power due to engine
mechanical friction, pumping
losses in the intake and exhaust,
and accessory power needs
Mechanical efficiency, ƞm The ratio of the brake power to the
indicated power

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (MEP)

-is the work done per unit displacement volume, and has units of force/area.
-average pressure that results in the same amount of work actually produced by the engine.

Three useful mean effective pressure parameters:

Indicated MEP, is the net work per unit displacement volume done by the gas during compression and
expansion. The pressure in the cylinder initially increases during the expansion stroke due to the heat addition
from the fuel, and then decreases due to the increase in cylinder volume. use of an ‘‘indicator’’ card used to plot
measured pressure versus volume.

Brake MEP, is the external shaft work per unit volume done by the engine. values of measured bmep for
naturally aspirated automobile engines depend on the load, with maximum values of about 10 bar, and greater
values of about 20 bar for turbo or supercharged engines. the ‘‘brake’’ dynamometer used to measure the
torque produced by the rotating shaft.

Friction MEP, includes the mechanical engine friction, the pumping losses during the intake and exhaust
strokes, and the work to run auxiliary components such as oil and water pumps.

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY, ev
- it is defined as the mass of fuel and air inducted into the cylinder divided by the mass that would occupy the
displaced volume at the density ρi in the intake manifold.
-it is a mass ratio and NOT a volume ratio
-the volumetric efficiency for an engine operating at a speed N is thus

For two-stroke cycles, a parameter related to volumetric efficiency called the delivery ratio is defined in terms
of the airflow only and the ambient air density instead of the intake manifold density.

Speed, N
Flow Rate of the fuel inducted in the intake
manifold, ṁf
For direct injection engine, (ṁf = 0)
Inlet air density, ρi

Mass airflow rate, ṁa

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

-Is a comparative metric for the efficiency of converting the chemical energy of the fuel into work produced by
the engine.

2 specific fuel consumption parameters:

• brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc), fuel flow rate, torque, engine speed

• indicated specific fuel consumption (isfc), ratio of the mass of fuel injected during a cycle to the
indicated cylinder work

The specific fuel consumption and engine efficiency are inversely related, so that the lower the specific fuel
consumption, the greater the engine efficiency.
 Formulas
Displacement Volume

Cycle average fuel consumption rate per cylinder

Mass of fuel injected per cylinder per cycle

brake thermal efficiency;

heat of combustion, qc

SCALING OF ENGINE PERFORMANCE

-Since material stresses in an engine depend to a first order only on the bmep and mean piston speed, it follows
that for the same stress limit imposed by the material, all engines should have the same bmep and mean piston
speed. Finally, since the engines geometrically resemble one another independent of size, the mass per unit
displacement volume is more or less independent of engine size

1.3 ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS

ENGINE KINEMATICS

Instantaneous cylinder volume, 𝑉 (𝜃)

Instantaneous stroke distance from tdc, y

Nondimensional cylinder volume, 𝑉̃ (𝜃)

Nondimensional parameter, 𝜖
ratio of the crankshaft radius, a
connecting rod length, l

the nondimensional piston displacement ,𝑦y/s

For 𝜖 < 1, we can expand the sin2𝜃 term in a Taylor

series,

As 𝜖 → 0, the approximate volume 𝑉̃ (𝜃) can then

be expressed as a function only of the compression
ratio 𝑟:

Instantaneous piston velocity, 𝑈p

Nondimensionalized, Ū p

If we neglect terms of 𝑂(𝜖2), and use the

trigonometric identity sin2 𝜔𝑡 = (1-cos 2𝜔𝑡) ∕ 2, the
piston velocity

Acceleration, 𝑎p

Note that the velocity and acceleration terms have two components, one varying with the same frequency 𝜔 as
the crankshaft, known as the primary term, and the other varying at twice the crankshaft frequency 2𝜔, known as
the secondary term.
INTAKE AND EXHAUST VALVE ARRANGEMENT

There are many design variations for the intake and exhaust valve type and location.

SUPERCHARGERS AND TURBOCHARGERS

Supercharging is a mechanical compression of the inlet air to a pressure higher than standard atmosphere by a
compressor powered by the crankshaft.
Turbocharging, exhaust gas leaving an engine is further expanded through a turbine that drives a compressor.
The power available to drive the compressor when turbocharging is a nonlinear function of engine speed such
that at low speeds there is little, if any, boost (density increase), whereas at high speeds the boost is maximum.

CHAPTER 2
HEAT ENGINE CYCLE

Heat engine cycle analysis treats the combustion process as an equivalent heat addition to an ideal gas. By
modeling the combustion process as a heat addition, the analysis is simplified since the details of the physics and
chemistry of combustion are not required. The various combustion processes are modeled as constant volume,
constant pressure, or finite energy release processes.

Residual fraction of combustion gas f

Specific heat ratio ʸ= 𝑐𝑝/𝑐𝑣 ; Typical values of 𝛾 chosen for gas cycle
calculations range from 1.3 to 1.4, to correspond with
measured cylinder temperature data
Gas cycle computation

mass of fuel injected into the cylinder 𝑚f

mass of the fuel--air gas mixture in the cylinder m
the heat addition per unit mass of fuel--air mixture 𝑞in
(kJ/kgmix)
The mass of the fuel--air mixture can be determined using the ideal gas law with known cylinder volume,
mixture molecular mass, inlet pressure, and temperature, as shown later in the text.

2.1 CONSTANT VOLUME HEAT ADDITION (OTTO CYCLE)

-Considers the idealized case of an internal combustion engine whose combustion is so rapid that the piston does
not move during the combustion process, and combustion is assumed to take place at a constant volume.
-The working fluid in the Otto cycle is assumed to be an ideal gas.

The state processes for the Otto cycle. The four basic processes are
1 to 2 isentropic compression
2 to 3 constant volume heat addition
3 to 4 isentropic expansion
4 to 1 constant volume heat rejection

Formulas
Compression ratio of an engine

Compression stroke

Constant volume heat addition

Expansion stroke

Heat Rejection

Thermal efficiency

indicated mean effective pressure (imep)

2.2 CONSTANT PRESSURE HEAT ADDITION (DIESEL CYCLE)
-Models a heat engine cycle in which energy is added at a constant pressure.
-Also called as compression ignition engine.

The four basic processes are

1 to 2 isentropic compression
2 to 3 constant pressure heat addition
3 to 4 isentropic expansion
4 to 1 constant volume heat rejection

Formulas
Heat Addition

Expansion Stroke

Measure of the combustion duration

Indicated efficiency

2.3 LIMITED PRESSURE CYCLE

-Limited pressure or “dual” cycle is a gas cycle model that can be used to model combustion processes that are
slower than constant volume, but more rapid than constant pressure.

Formulas
Heat Addition

Expansion stroke
Indicated efficiency

constant volume and constant pressure

cycles: 𝛽 = 1 and 𝛼 = 1

2.4 MILLER CYCLE

-It is a cycle that uses early or late inlet valve closing to decrease the effective compression ratio.
-In this cycle, as the piston moves downward on the intake stroke, the cylinder pressure follows the constant
pressure line from point 6 to point 1

- A related cycle, the Atkinson cycle, is one in which the expansion stroke continues until the cylinder pressure
at point 4 decreases to atmospheric pressure. This engine had a two-bar linkage between the connecting rod and
the crankshaft so that the piston traveled through four unequal strokes in every crankshaft revolution. The
expansion to intake stroke ratio was 1.78:1.

Formulas
Compression ratio

Expansion ratio

the ratio of the expansion ratio to the compression

ratio
Heat Rejection

Thermal Efficiency

Imep
2.5 FINITE ENERGY RELEASE

ENERGY RELEASE FRACTION

-A finite energy release model is a differential equation model of an engine cycle in which the heat addition is
specified as a function of the crank angle.
-It is also known as a ‘‘zero-dimensional’’ model, since it is a function only of crank angle, and not a function
of the combustion chamber geometry.
Formula
S-shaped curve can be represented analytically by a
trigonometric function

Wiebe function
ENERGY EQUATION

Energy equation

Differential form of ideal gas

equation with the pressure 𝑃1 and volume 𝑉1 at

bottom dead center

Differential equation for work

Thermal Efficiency

Imep

Cylinder Heat and Mass Transfer Loss

-The heat transfer to the cylinder walls is represented by a Newtonian-type convection equation with a
constant heat transfer coefficient h.

Formula
Energy released
Instantaneous combustion chamber area

Instantaneous combustion chamber volume

Where: 𝑉o is the cylinder volume at top dead center

2.6 IDEAL FOUR-STROKE PROCESS AND RESIDUAL FRACTION

- we use the energy equation to model the exhaust and intake strokes, and determine the residual fraction of gas
remaining in the cylinder.
-The intake and exhaust valve overlap, that is, the time during which they are open simultaneously, is therefore
assumed to be zero.

The ideal intake and exhaust processes are as follows:

4 to 5a Constant cylinder volume blowdown
5a to 6 Constant pressure exhaustion
6 to 7 Constant cylinder volume reversion
7 to 1 Constant pressure induction
EXHAUST STROKE
Two processes: gas blowdown and gas displacement

Formulas
Temperature and pressure of the exhaust gases
remaining in the cylinder

energy equation

work term

if the flow is assumed to be adiabatic

Residual fraction
INTAKE STROKE

Three different flow situations

1. If the inlet pressure is less than the exhaust pressure, the engine is throttled. In this case, there is flow from
the cylinder into the intake port when the intake valve opens.
2. If the inlet pressure is greater than the exhaust pressure, the engine is said to be supercharged (turbocharging
is a special case of supercharging in which a compressor driven by an exhaust turbine raises the pressure of
atmospheric air delivered to an engine). In this case, there is flow from the intake port into the engine until the
pressure equilibrates.
3. The third case is when inlet and exhaust pressures are equal; the engine is then said to be unthrottled.
 Formulas
unsteady energy equation

energy equation in terms of enthalpy

volumetric efficiency of the inlet stroke for a gas

cycle

pumping mean effective pressure

The indicated mean effective pressure (imep) is

defined as the work per unit displacement volume
done by the gas during the compression and
expansion strokes

FOUR-STROKE OTTO GAS CYCLE ANALYSIS

Formulas
heat addition, 𝑄in

𝑞in is the heat addition per unit mass of gas inducted.

6, i -1: Intake Stroke
 P1=P2
1-2: Isentropic compression stroke

2-3: Constant volume heat addition

3-4: Isentropic expansion stroke

4-5: Isentropic blowdown

5-6: Constant pressure adiabatic exhaust stroke

 CHAPTER 3
FUEL, AIR, AND COMBUSTION THERMODYNAMICS

For an ideal gas, the familiar relationships between pressure 𝑃, temperature 𝑇, and volume 𝑉 are

General Formula

The mass, 𝑚 (kg), of a gas mixture is the sum of the

mass of all 𝑛 components

mass fraction, 𝑥i,

total number of moles, N,

mole fraction 𝑦i,

molecular mass, M
mass intensive (specific) gas constant, R

𝑅u = 8.314 kJ/(kmol K).

internal energy 𝑈 (kJ)

specific internal energy 𝑢 (kJ/kg)

internal energy U

relations for the enthalpy 𝐻 (kJ) and specific

enthalpy ℎ (kJ/kg)

On a molar basis, the enthalpy is

standardized reference state, 𝑇 = 298.15 K and 𝑃o =1

bar
constant pressure and constant volume specific
heats

Useful relationships between ideal gas specific heats

𝑐𝑣, 𝑐𝑝 and the gas constant 𝑅 can be developed
from the definition of enthalpy ℎ:

entropy 𝑆 (kJ/K)

Gibbs free energy 𝐺 of an ideal gas mixture

SPECIFIC HEAT OF FUEL-AIR MIXTURES

Formula
for an ideal gas, 𝑑ℎ = 𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑇 and 𝑑𝑠 = (𝑐𝑝∕𝑇 )𝑑𝑇 , it
follows that the enthalpy(h) and standard
entropy(s) at atmospheric pressure are

LIQUID-VAPOR-GAS MIXTURES
Simplifications:
1. Compressed and Saturated liquids are INCOMPRESSIBLE
2. Saturated and Superheated vapors are IDEAL GASES

for Incompressible substance the internal energy

and entropy depend only on temperature:

𝑢f(𝑇 ) and 𝑠f (𝑇 ) denote the internal energy and

entropy of saturated liquid at the temperature T
enthalpy of a compressed liquid depends on
pressure

ℎ°f (𝑇 ) is the enthalpy of formation of the

compressed liquid at standard atmospheric
pressure (101.25 kPa) and temperature (298 K)
specific volume of compressed liquid at
atmospheric pressure
where 𝑇1 is the initial temperature in the process being
analyzed
data for the enthalpy of vaporization at saturation
pressure are readily available. So we use,

Clausius--Clapeyron equation for the saturated

vapor pressure

For conditions away from the critical point, we can

assume ideal gas behavior

Antoine’s equation- integrated form of the

Clausius--Clapeyron equation

Where: 𝑇 in Kelvin
empirical coefficients, 𝑎, 𝑏, and c

Mixtures of gases in contact with a liquid phase Example, the products of combustion can include water both
in the vapor and in the liquid states. In these cases, we assume the following:

1. The liquid contains no dissolved gases.

2. The gases are ideal.
3. At equilibrium, the partial pressure of the water vapor is equal to the saturation pressure corresponding to the
mixture temperature

quality of the condensable substance- has the same

value on a mole or mass basis

enthalpy of the system

system volume
specific volume

𝑣𝑖 are computed at the total pressure 𝑃 in accordance

with the Amagat--Leduc Law of additive volumes

3.3 STOICHIOMETRY
-Defined such that the fuel burns completely and the only products are carbon dioxide and water.
-The product composition resulting from fuel--air combustion depends on the stoichiometry.

The product composition resulting from fuel--air

combustion depends on the stoichiometry

stoichiometric molar air--fuel ratio, a s

moles 𝑛𝑖 (𝑖 = 1, 2, 3)

stoichiometric mass air--fuel ratio 𝐴𝐹s

fuel--air equivalence ratio, 𝜙,

The reciprocal of 𝜙 is λ ; air--fuel ratio

The equivalence ratio has the same value on a mole

or mass basis. If 𝜙 < 1 the mixture is lean, if 𝜙 > 1
the mixture is rich, and if 𝜙 = 1 the mixture is
stoichiometric.
mole and mass fractions of fuel in a stoichiometric
fuel--air mixture are

3.4 LOW-TEMPERATURE COMBUSTION MODELING

-low temperatures (𝑇 < 1000 K, such as in the product gases in the exhaust stream) and carbon to oxygen ratios
less than one, the overall combustion reaction for any equivalence ratio can be written as:

For lean (𝜙 < 1) combustion products at low temperature, we will assume no product CO and H2. i.e.
(𝑛5=𝑛6=0)
For rich (𝜙 > 1) combustion, we will assume that there is no product O2, i.e., 𝑛4 = 0.

equilibrium reaction is termed the water--gas shift

reaction

equilibrium constant 𝐾(𝑇 ) for the water--gas shift

reaction

The equilibrium constant 𝐾(𝑇 ) equation, is a curve

fit of JANAF Table data for
400 <𝑇 < 3200:
In the rich case, the number of moles of CO, 𝑛5,
FUEL-AIR-RESIDUAL GAS
-The residual gas is assumed to be at a low enough temperature ( 𝑇 < 1000 K)
-The fuel--air--residual gas mixture will contain both reactants and products. Let us rewrite the combustion
equation as:
a mixture of residual gas (r)
residual fraction (ƒ)
premixed fuel--air (fa)
residual mole fraction 𝑦r

Since 𝑓 = 𝑚r∕𝑚, we can write

species mole fractions

species mass fractions

3.5 GENERAL CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

-The overall combustion reaction per mole of fuel is:

Gibbs free energy, G

Lagrangian optimization procedure, B

ideal gases the chemical potential 𝜇J

for constant pressure combustion, the enthalpy is

known instead of the temperature.

For an isentropic compression or expansion, or

expansion to a specified pressure

if in any case specific volume rather than pressure

is known, then we have to minimize the Helmholtz
free energy.

For constant volume combustion, the internal

energy is

For an isentropic expansion or compression to a

specified volume 𝑣,

For lean (𝜙 < 1) conditions, the O2 fraction is relatively insensitive to temperature.

For rich conditions, the H2 mole fraction first decreases, then increases with increasing temperature.
3.6 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM USING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS

let us consider the following reaction:

𝑁 is the total number of moles

mole fractions
 6 GAS-PHASE EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS

Olikara and Borman (1975) have curve fitted the equilibrium constants 𝐾𝑖(𝑇 ) to JANAF Table data
for the temperature range 600 <𝑇 > 4000 K. Their expressions are of the form

WHERE:
T is in Kelvin
𝐾i, equilibrium constant, is listed in the table above
ø equivalence ratio
N total product moles
𝑦i, mole fractions