11.
1 The Work
6.3 Mendel andofHeredity
Gregor Mendel
KEY CONCEPT
Mendel’s research showed that traits are inherited as
discrete units.
11.1 The Work
6.3 Mendel andofHeredity
Gregor Mendel
Mendel laid the groundwork for genetics.
• Genetics is the study of
biological inheritance patterns
and variation.
• Traits are characteristics that
are inherited.
• Traits are determined by
genes carried on the
chromosomes.
• Gregor Mendel is the father of
genetics.
11.1 The Work
6.3 Mendel andofHeredity
Gregor Mendel
Mendel’s data revealed patterns of inheritance.
• Mendel used pollen to fertilize selected pea plants.
– interrupted the self-pollination process by removing male
flower parts
Mendel controlled the He then fertilized the female
fertilization of his pea plants part, or pistil, with pollen from
by removing the male parts, a different pea plant.
or stamens.
11.1 The Work
6.3 Mendel andofHeredity
Gregor Mendel
• Looking closer at Mendel’s work
P generation purple-flower X white-flower
(parent)
100%
F1 purple-flower
generation
(first filial)
self-pollinate
75% 25%
F2 purple-flower white-flower 3:1
Generation
(second filial)
11.1 The Work
6.3 Mendel andofHeredity
Gregor Mendel
• Mendel allowed the resulting plants to self-pollinate.
– Among the F1 generation, all plants had purple flowers
– Among the F2 generation, some plants had purple
flowers and some had white
11.1 The Work
6.3 Mendel andofHeredity
Gregor Mendel
• Mendel observed patterns in the first and second
generations of his crosses.
11.1 The Work
6.3 Mendel andofHeredity
Gregor Mendel
• Mendel’s findings:
– There was a “factor” affecting the color of the
flowers that is passed from one generation to the
next.
– The “factor” was later found to be the “gene”.
– Each gene is made up of any combination of two
alleles (one from each parent) to produce different
characteristics.
alleles = different forms of a gene
- Alleles could either dominant or purple white
recessive.
11.1 The Work
6.3 Mendel andofHeredity
Gregor Mendel
Mendel’s three laws of inheritance:
1) Law of Dominance
- dominant allele is always
expressed; represented by
uppercase letter
- recessive allele is expressed
only when dominant allele is
not present; represented by
lowercase letter
ex: human eye color
brown eye is dominant = “B”
blue eye is recessive = “b”
11.1 The Work
6.3 Mendel andofHeredity
Gregor Mendel
Trait Dominant Recessive
Hairline Widow’s peak Straight
hairline hairline
Dimples Dimples No dimples
Earlobes Detached Attached
Earlobe Earlobe
Freckles Freckles No freckles
11.1 The Work
6.3 Mendel andofHeredity
Gregor Mendel
Trait Dominant Recessive
Little Straight Bent little
Fingers little fingers fingers
Toes Big toe longer Second toe longer
than second toe than big toe
Tongue Roller No roller
Thumb Straight hitch-hikers
thumb thumb
11.1 The Work
6.3 Mendel andofHeredity
Gregor Mendel
Mendel’s three laws of inheritance:
2) Law of Segregation
- alleles separate during meiosis
11.1 The Work
6.3 Mendel andofHeredity
Gregor Mendel
Mendel’s three laws of inheritance:
3) Law of Independent Assortment
- genes that segregate independently do not
influence each other’s inheritance.
- helps account for the many genetic variations
observed in many sexually reproducing organisms
ex: In Mendel’s experiment, plant seed color is not
affected by plant seed shape when both traits
are crossed. (Traits can mix and match!)
- some are yellow and round
- some are green and round
- some are yellow and wrinkled
- some are green and wrinkled
11.2 Probability
6.3 Mendel and Punnett Squares
and Heredity
KEY CONCEPT
Genes encode proteins that produce a diverse range
of traits.
trait (or phenotype)
is determined by
gene (or genotype)
is made up of
2 alleles
may be
dominant recessive
11.2 Probability
6.3 Mendel and Punnett Squares
and Heredity
The same gene can have many versions.
• All of an organism’s genetic material is called the
genome.
• A gene is a piece of DNA that directs a cell to make
a certain protein.
• Each gene has a locus, a
specific position on a pair of
homologous chromosomes.
locus for
seed shape
gene
11.2 Probability
6.3 Mendel and Punnett Squares
and Heredity
Genes influence the development of traits.
• A genotype is the actual genetic make up of a trait.
- is made up of 2 alleles (one from each parent)
ex: R = dominant allele; r = recessive allele
(Always use the same letter for each trait!!)
- when same alleles are combined
homozygous or purebred
- when different alleles are combined
heterozygous or hybrid
- 3 possible genotypes:
1) RR (homozygous dominant)
2) rr (homozygous recessive)
3) Rr (heterozygous)
11.2 Probability
6.3 Mendel and Punnett Squares
and Heredity
Genes influence the development of traits.
• A phenotype is the physical appearance of a trait.
- is determined by genotype
ex: R = round seed (dominant)
r = wrinkled seed (recessive)
Genotype Phenotype
RR Round seed
rr Wrinkled seed
Rr Round seed
different genotypes can show
same phenotype
11.2 Probability
6.3 Mendel and Punnett Squares
and Heredity
Punnett squares illustrate genetic crosses.
• The Punnett square is a grid system for predicting all
possible genotypes resulting from a cross.
– The axes represent
the possible gametes
of each parent.
– The boxes show the
possible genotypes
of the offspring.
• The Punnett square
yields the ratio of
possible genotypes and
phenotypes.
11.2 Probability
6.3 Mendel and Punnett Squares
and Heredity
A monohybrid cross involves one trait.
• Monohybrid crosses examine the inheritance of only one
specific trait.
• Use monohybrid crosses to explain Mendel’s experiments:
- P = purple flower (dominant)
- p = white flower (recessive)
11.2 Probability
6.3 Mendel and Punnett Squares
and Heredity
• Mendel’s parent generation
PP x pp
% %
genotype phenotype
male / sperm Pp
P P
Pp 100% 100%
Pp purple
p Pp Pp Pp
female / eggs
Pp
p Pp Pp
11.2 Probability
6.3 Mendel and Punnett Squares
and Heredity
• Mendel’s F1 generation Aaaaah,
phenotype & genotype
can have different
Pp x Pp
1st ratios!!
generation
(hybrids) % %
genotype phenotype
PP 25%
male / sperm
PP 75%
P p
Pp 50% purple
Pp Pp
P PP Pp
female / eggs
25% 25%
pp white
p Pp pp pp
1:2:1 3:1
11.2 Probability
6.3 Mendel and Punnett Squares
and Heredity
Practice Problem:
In guinea pigs, black fur (B) is dominant to white fur (b).
A heterozygous black guinea pig is crossed with a white
guinea pig. Give the percentages or ratios of the
genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring.
B b
Bb bb Genotype:
b 50% Bb, 50% bb
Bb x bb
b Bb bb Phenotype:
50% black, 50% white
11.2 Probability
6.3 Mendel and Punnett Squares
and Heredity
• A testcross is a cross between an organism with an
unknown genotype and an organism with the recessive
phenotype.
Example:
P = pink flowers (dominant); p = white flowers (recessive)
Determine the genotype of Plant A that has pink flowers
by using a test cross.
Cross Plant A with Plant B from the same species which
has white flowers of known genotype pp.
11.2 Probability
6.3 Mendel and Punnett Squares
and Heredity
• If plant A is homozygous dominant (PP):
P P
Genotype:
p Pp Pp 100% Pp
Phenotype: You get all pink
p
Pp Pp 100% pink flowers in the
offspring
• If plant A is heterozygous (Pp):
P p
You get 50-50
Genotype: chance of
p Pp pp 50% Pp, 50% pp getting pink or
white flowers in
Phenotype: the offspring
p
Pp pp 50% pink, 50% white
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
KEY CONCEPT
The inheritance of traits follows the rules of
probability.
Dominant Recessive
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
A dihybrid cross involves two traits.
• Mendel’s dihybrid crosses
led to his second law,
the law of independent
assortment.
• The law of independent
assortment states that allele
pairs separate
independently of each other
during meiosis.
(This is why traits can mix
and match!!)
• Example:
seed color and seed shape
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
• Sample Dihybrid Cross
Two traits of apple:
1) Color = R (red) and r (green)
2) Taste = S (sweet) and s (sour)
Rrss
An apple heterozygous red and sour (__________)
crosses with an apple green and heterozygous sweet
rrSs
(___________).
Rrss x rrSs
Rs Rs rs rs x rS rs rS rs
possible gametes produced
(always one allele from each trait!!)
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
• Sample Dihybrid Cross
Rs Rs rs rs
rS
rs
rS
rs
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
• Sample Dihybrid Cross
Genotypes:
Rrss x rrSs
RrSs =1/4
Rs Rs rs rs Rrss =1/4
rS RrSs RrSs rrSs rrSs =1/4
rrSs
rrss =1/4
rs Rrss Rrss rrss rrss Phenotypes:
rS RrSs RrSs rrSs Red & Sweet =1/4
rrSs
Red & Sour = 1/4
Green & Sweet = 1/4
rs Rrss Rrss rrss rrss Green & Sour = 1/4
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
• Practice Problems
1) John cannot roll his tongue, but both of his parents can
roll their tongue. Give the genotype of John and his
parents. (C= can roll tongue; c= cannot roll tongue)
John = cc
X or Cc
Dad = CC
Mom = CCX or Cc
Because John has to get one “c” from Dad and one “c”
from Mom, both parents need to have one “c” to give.
Therefore, the parents’ genotype is “Cc” (heterozygous).
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
• Practice Problems
2) A tall yellow plant is crossed with a tall green plant.
Some of the offsprings are short and yellow. What are
the parents’ genotypes?
(T= tall, t= short; G= green, g= yellow)
Offspring = ttgg
X or Ttgg
Parent 1 = TTgg
Parent 2 = TTGG
X or TTGg
X or TtGG
X or TtGg
Because the offspring has to get one “t” and one “g” from
each parent, both parents need to have one “t” and one
“g” to give. Therefore, the parent 1’s genotype is “Ttgg”
and parent 2’s genotype is “TtGg”.
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
Extending Mendelian Genetics
• Mendel worked with a simple system:
- peas are genetically simple
- most traits are controlled by single gene
- each gene has only 2 versions:
1 completely dominant (A)
1 recessive (a)
• But it’s usually not that simple!
• Most traits occur in a range and do
not follow simple dominant-
recessive patterns.
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
Exceptions to Mendel’s Laws:
1) Incomplete Dominance
- Neither allele is completely dominant nor recessive.
- Heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the
two homozygous phenotypes.
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
• Sample Incomplete dominance Cross:
% %
Rr x Rr
genotype phenotype
RR 25% 25%
male / sperm
R r Rr
50% 50%
RR Rr
female / eggs
R Rr
25% 25%
Rr rr rr
r
1:2:1 1:2:1
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
Exceptions to Mendel’s Laws:
2) Codominance
– Both dominant and recessive alleles are expressed
together.
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
• The ABO blood types result from codominant alleles.
- There are four blood types in human: A, B, AB, and O.
- Alleles A and B are dominant to O.
- Blood type AB carries both alleles A and B and shows
codominance.
IoIo or ii
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
Exceptions to Mendel’s Laws:
3) Multiple Alleles
– Many genes have
more than two alleles.
– There are 3 different
alleles for human ABO
blood types.
– Any person can carry
up to two of the three
possible alleles.
IoIo or ii
– Alleles are carried on
the “I” gene on the
(A and B = dominant; o = recessive)
red blood cell.
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
• Sample Multiple Allele Cross:
A heterozygous Type A man marries a Type O woman.
What are the possible genotypes and phenotypes of
their kids?
IAIO x IOIO % %
genotype phenotype
IA IO
50% 50%
IAIO Type A
IO IAIO IOIO
50% 50%
IO IAIO IOIO IOIO Type O
1:1 1:1
11.3 Exploring
6.3 Mendel andMendel’s
Heredity Genetics
Many genes may interact to produce one trait.
• Polygenic traits are
produced by two or
more genes.
Order of dominance:
brown > green > blue.
