NAVAL AIR TRAINING COMMAND

NAS CORPUS CHRISTI, TEXAS CNATRA P-770 (Rev 07-16)

AVIATION WEATHER
STUDENT GUIDE

PRIMARY
2016
AVIATION WEATHER

STUDENT GUIDE

PRIMARY

P-770

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 INTRODUCTION

In accordance with applicable Navy instructions, all pilots are responsible for reviewing and
being familiar with weather conditions for their planned flight. Where Weather Services are
available, a qualified forecaster shall conduct the weather briefings. They may be conducted
either in person or via telephonic, autographic, weather vision, or approved Internet methods. In
some cases pilots may have to complete the briefing and DD 175-1 Weather Briefing Forms on
their own.

In preparing for a flight, aircrew should always make an analysis of the weather. The pilot is
negligent in the performance of duties if a weather brief is accepted that is not completely
understood. The object of such a pre-brief analysis is to give the aircrew a complete picture of
the weather conditions and developments that will affect flight along the route. Additionally, it
enables the aircrew to discuss intelligently any apparent discrepancies in the forecast given
during the weather brief itself. Once in the air, a pilot cannot always consult the forecaster or the
charts to understand the reasons for unexpected changes and choose the best corrective action.
At these times, the aircrew must rely on knowledge, experience, and information obtained before
departure.

Before going into a weather office to receive a flight weather briefing, the pilot and aircrew must
know exactly what information is needed. The aircrew needs to know the local weather at the
time of takeoff and during the climb to altitude, the weather to be expected while enroute and the
effect on aircraft performance, and the existing and forecast weather at destination and alternate
airfield(s). The type of information needed will vary considerably depending upon whether the
pilot is flying a jet aircraft, turboprop, piston-driven propeller aircraft (not covered in this text),
or a helicopter.

So how can a pilot or navigator, whose specialty is flying aircraft, be able to carry on an
intelligent discussion with a professional meteorologist? Better yet, how can the aircrew make
intelligent decisions about dealing with the weather once airborne? The answer lies in learning a
foundation of weather knowledge that continues to grow over the course of one’s career through
experience and personal study. Thus, the purpose of this course in Aviation Weather is not to
produce meteorologists, but rather aviators who understand the basics of weather phenomena and
the weather information systems in use.

Chapters One through Four deal with the weather products available to aviators–from the codes
and abbreviations used to communicate weather in a precise manner, to the charts and warnings,
and finally to the Flight Weather Briefing Form itself, the DD 175-1.

The authors of this book hope you find this course informative and are able to use this book as a
reference throughout your career.

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 WORKBOOK SCOPE

Upon completion of this unit of instruction, student aviators and flight officers will demonstrate
knowledge of meteorological theory which will enable them to make intelligent decisions when
confronted with various weather phenomena and hazards, as well as interpreting and using
various weather products for flight planning.

TERMINAL OBJECTIVES

1. Describe displayed data in Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METARs) and Terminal
Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs).

2. Describe displayed data shown on various weather imagery products.

3. Describe displayed data on Severe Weather Watches and In-Flight Weather Advisories,
and state the use and requirements for Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs).

4. Describe indicated data on the DD 175-1, “Flight Weather Briefing Form,” and state the
sources of hazardous weather information used to complete the form.

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 HOW TO USE THIS WORKBOOK

1. Read and become familiar with the objectives of each chapter. These objectives state the
purpose of this chapter of instruction in terms of what you will be able to do as you complete the
chapter. Most importantly, your end-of-course examination is developed directly from these
objectives.

2. Before the class presentation, read the information in each chapter using the objectives as
a guide. Develop a list of questions about material that is unclear to you at this point. This
practice will allow you to ask questions when the topic is covered during the classroom
presentation, or at a later time with the instructor in a one-on-one setting

3. After the class presentation, re-read each chapter to ensure your comprehension of the
subject material. If you desire further information, explanation, or clarification, consult your
instructor.

4. Answer the questions provided in the “Study Questions” sections. These questions will
help you recall the information presented in each chapter. Check your answers to the Study
Questions with those provided in Appendix D. If your answer to a question is incorrect, review
the objective and information covering that subject area prior to continuing to the next chapter.
“Good Luck.”

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 LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES

Dates of issue for original and changed pages are:

Original...0...01 July 15 (this will be the date issued)
Revision...1...27 July 16
TOTAL NUMBER OF PAGES IN THIS PUBLICATION IS 166 CONSISTING OF THE FOLLOWING:
Page No. Change No. Page No. Change No.
COVER 0
LETTER 0
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2-1 – 2-32 0
3-1 – 3-20 0
4-1 – 4-17 0
4-18 (blank) 0
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C-1 0
C-2 (blank) 0
D-1 – D-3 0
D-4 (blank) 0
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 INTERIM CHANGE SUMMARY
The following Changes have been previously incorporated in this manual:

CHANGE
REMARKS/PURPOSE
NUMBER

The following interim Changes have been incorporated in this Change/Revision:

INTERIM
CHANGE REMARKS/PURPOSE ENTERED DATE
NUMBER BY

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... v
WORKBOOK SCOPE ................................................................................................................ vi
HOW TO USE THIS WORKBOOK ........................................................................................ vii
LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES ................................................................................................ viii
INTERIM CHANGE SUMMARY ............................................................................................. ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. x
TABLE OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ xii

CHAPTER ONE - AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORTS AND TERMINAL

AERODROME FORECASTS.................................................................................................. 1-1
100. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1-1
101. LESSON TOPIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES .......................................................... 1-1
102. REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 1-2
103. STUDY ASSIGNMENT ........................................................................................... 1-3
104. THE AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORT ................................................ 1-3
105. METAR FORMAT .................................................................................................... 1-4
106. REMARKS SECTION ............................................................................................ 1-13
107. THE TERMINAL AERODROME FORECAST .................................................... 1-17
108. CHANGE GROUP TERMINOLOGY .................................................................... 1-23
109. SUMMARY OF U.S. CIVIL/MILITARY TAF DIFFERENCES .......................... 1-27
110. DETERMINATION OF CEILING IN METARS AND TAFS .............................. 1-28
111. IFR/VFR RULES FOR FLIGHT PLANNING ....................................................... 1-28
112. REQUIREMENTS FOR AN ALTERNATE ON IFR FLIGHT PLANS ................ 1-29
113. USING TAFS FOR FLIGHT PLANNING ............................................................. 1-30
STUDY QUESTIONS.............................................................................................................. 1-32

CHAPTER TWO - DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS ........ 2-1

200. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 2-1
201. LESSON TOPIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES .......................................................... 2-1
202. REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 2-2
203. STUDY ASSIGNMENT ........................................................................................... 2-2
204. SURFACE ANALYSIS CHARTS ............................................................................ 2-2
205. LOW LEVEL SIGNIFICANT WEATHER PROGNOSTIC CHARTS ................... 2-5
206. RADAR SUMMARY CHARTS ............................................................................... 2-8
207. NEXT GENERATION RADAR (NEXRAD) ......................................................... 2-11
208. WEATHER DEPICTION CHARTS ....................................................................... 2-17
209. ADDS TEMP/WIND CHARTS SUPPLEMENT ................................................... 2-20
210. FLIGHT ALTITUDE SELECTION ........................................................................ 2-23
STUDY QUESTIONS.............................................................................................................. 2-24

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CHAPTER THREE - SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES, MILITARY ADVISORIES,
AND PIREPS .............................................................................................................................. 3-1
300. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 3-1
301. LESSON TOPIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES .......................................................... 3-1
302. REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 3-2
303. STUDY ASSIGNMENT ........................................................................................... 3-2
304. SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES............................................................................ 3-2
305. RESTRICTIONS REGARDING SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES ...................... 3-3
306. AREA FORECASTS ................................................................................................. 3-6
307. IN-FLIGHT WEATHER ADVISORIES .................................................................. 3-7
308. TRANSMISSION OF IN-FLIGHT WEATHER ADVISORIES ............................ 3-13
309. PIREPS .................................................................................................................... 3-14
STUDY QUESTIONS.............................................................................................................. 3-15

CHAPTER FOUR - FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM, DD FORM 175-1............ 4-1

400. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 4-1
401. LESSON TOPIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES .......................................................... 4-1
402. REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 4-2
403. STUDY ASSIGNMENT ........................................................................................... 4-2
404. DD 175 MILITARY FLIGHT PLAN........................................................................ 4-2
405. DD 175-1 FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM ................................................ 4-4
406. PART I: TAKEOFF DATA SECTION .................................................................... 4-7
407. PART II: ENROUTE AND MISSION DATA SECTION ....................................... 4-7
408. SELECTION OF A FLIGHT LEVEL ..................................................................... 4-11
409. PART III: AERODROME FORECASTS SECTION ............................................ 4-12
410. PART IV: COMMENTS/REMARKS SECTION .................................................. 4-13
411. PART V: BRIEFING RECORD SECTION ........................................................... 4-13
STUDY QUESTIONS.............................................................................................................. 4-15

APPENDIX A - GLOSSARY ................................................................................................... A-1

APPENDIX B - COMMON WEATHER CONTRACTIONS .............................................. B-1

APPENDIX C - SELECTED WEATHER INFORMATION RESOURCES ..................... C-1

APPENDIX D - ANSWERS TO STUDY QUESTIONS ....................................................... D-1

APPENDIX E - FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE ......................................................................... E-1

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 TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1 Sample METAR Printout.................................................................................. 1-3

Figure 1-2 METAR Code Group ........................................................................................ 1-4
Figure 1-3 Type of Report: METAR or SPECI ................................................................ 1-4
Figure 1-4 Station Identifier in METAR ............................................................................ 1-5
Figure 1-5 DTG in METAR ................................................................................................. 1-5
Figure 1-6 Wind Direction and Speed in METAR ............................................................ 1-6
Figure 1-7 Visibility in METAR .......................................................................................... 1-7
Figure 1-8 Visibility Values Reportable in METAR ......................................................... 1-8
Figure 1-9 RVR in METAR ................................................................................................. 1-9
Figure 1-10 Present Weather in METAR............................................................................. 1-9
Figure 1-11 Present Weather Codes Reportable in METAR ........................................... 1-10
Figure 1-12 Sky Condition in METAR ............................................................................... 1-11
Figure 1-13 Sky Coverage .................................................................................................... 1-11
Figure 1-14 Temperature and Dew Point in METAR....................................................... 1-12
Figure 1-15 Altimeter Setting in METAR .......................................................................... 1-13
Figure 1-16 Remarks Section of METAR .......................................................................... 1-13
Figure 1-17 RCR Values and Corresponding Braking Action ......................................... 1-16
Figure 1-18 TAF Groups ...................................................................................................... 1-18
Figure 1-19 TAF Example ................................................................................................... 1-18
Figure 1-20 TAF Heading .................................................................................................... 1-18
Figure 1-21 TAF Time Group ............................................................................................. 1-19
Figure 1-22 TAF Winds ....................................................................................................... 1-19
Figure 1-23 TAF Visibility Group ....................................................................................... 1-20
Figure 1-24 Reportable Visibility Values for TAFs ........................................................... 1-20
Figure 1-25 TAF Sky Condition Group .............................................................................. 1-20
Figure 1-26 TAF Icing and Turbulence Codes .................................................................. 1-22
Figure 1-27 TAF Altimeter Group ...................................................................................... 1-23
Figure 1-28 TAF Change Groups........................................................................................ 1-24
Figure 1-29 TAF BECMG Group ....................................................................................... 1-25
Figure 1-30 TAF TEMPO Group........................................................................................ 1-25
Figure 1-31 From/To Example ............................................................................................ 1-26
Figure 1-32 Civilian TAF Examples ................................................................................... 1-27
Figure 1-33 Differences Between Military and International TAFs ................................ 1-28
Figure 1-34 OPNAV 3710.7 Determination of Requirement for Alternate .................... 1-29
Figure 1-35 Military TAF Example .................................................................................... 1-29
Figure 1-36 TAF Timeline Example ................................................................................... 1-31
Figure 1-37 METAR............................................................................................................. 1-32
Figure 1-38 METAR............................................................................................................. 1-33
Figure 1-39 METAR............................................................................................................. 1-34
Figure 1-40 METAR............................................................................................................. 1-36
Figure 1-41 TAF.................................................................................................................... 1-38

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Figure 2-1 Surface Analysis Chart ...................................................................................... 2-3
Figure 2-2 Frontal Symbols ................................................................................................. 2-4
Figure 2-3 Station Model Explanation................................................................................ 2-4
Figure 2-4 Major Station Model Symbols .......................................................................... 2-5
Figure 2-5 Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart .......................................... 2-6
Figure 2-6 Significant Weather Prognostic Legend .......................................................... 2-7
Figure 2-7 Surface Prognostic Legend................................................................................ 2-8
Figure 2-8 Radar Summary Chart...................................................................................... 2-9
Figure 2-9 Radar Summary Chart.................................................................................... 2-10
Figure 2-10 Precipitation Intensity Levels ......................................................................... 2-10
Figure 2-11 Lake Charles NEXRAD Display .................................................................... 2-11
Figure 2-12 Hook Echo on NEXRAD ................................................................................. 2-12
Figure 2-13 Visible Satellite Imagery.................................................................................. 2-14
Figure 2-14 Infrared Satellite Imagery ............................................................................... 2-15
Figure 2-15 Water Vapor Imagery ..................................................................................... 2-16
Figure 2-16 Weather Depiction Chart ................................................................................ 2-17
Figure 2-17 Clouds Topping Ridges Symbol ...................................................................... 2-18
Figure 2-18 Weather Depiction Chart Legend .................................................................. 2-19
Figure 2-19 ADDS Temp/Wind Charts Supplement (1) ................................................... 2-19
Figure 2-20 ADDS Temp/Wind Charts Supplement (2) ................................................... 2-20
Figure 2-21 Winds-Aloft Forecasts ..................................................................................... 2-22
Figure 2-22 Surface Analysis Chart for Questions 6-8 ..................................................... 2-25
Figure 2-23 Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart for Questions 9-13........ 2-26
Figure 2-24 Radar Summary Chart for Questions 14-17 ................................................. 2-27
Figure 2-25 Weather Depiction Chart for Questions 26 - 29 ............................................ 2-30
Figure 2-26 Winds Aloft Forecasts for Questions 33 - 35 ................................................. 2-32

Figure 3-1 Aviation Severe Weather Watch Bulletin ........................................................ 3-4

Figure 3-2 Area Forecast Example ..................................................................................... 3-6
Figure 3-3 WST Example..................................................................................................... 3-9
Figure 3-4 WS Example ..................................................................................................... 3-10
Figure 3-5 CWA Example .................................................................................................. 3-11
Figure 3-6 WA Example..................................................................................................... 3-12
Figure 3-7 PIREP Example ............................................................................................... 3-14
Figure 3-8 WW for Questions 1 - 3 ................................................................................... 3-15
Figure 3-9 WST for Questions 7 - 9 .................................................................................. 3-17
Figure 3-10 WS for Questions 10 - 11 ................................................................................. 3-18
Figure 3-11 WA for Questions 14 - 16 ................................................................................ 3-19

Figure 4-1 DD Form 175, Military Flight Plan .................................................................. 4-3

Figure 4-2 DD Form 175-1 Flight Weather Briefing Form .............................................. 4-6
Figure 4-3 Part I: Takeoff Data Section ............................................................................ 4-7
Figure 4-4 Part II: Enroute and Mission Data Section .................................................... 4-8
Figure 4-5 Part II: Enroute and Mission Data Section .................................................. 4-10
Figure 4-6 Part III: Aerodrome Forecasts Section ......................................................... 4-12
Figure 4-7 Part IV: Comments/Remarks Section ........................................................... 4-13

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Figure 4-8 Part V: Briefing Record Section .................................................................... 4-13

Figure E-1 Sample METAR Printout..................................................................................E-1

Figure E-2 TAF Icing and Turbulence Codes ....................................................................E-2
Figure E-3 Sample TAF Printout ........................................................................................E-3
Figure E-4 Surface Analysis Chart ......................................................................................E-4
Figure E-5 Major Station Model Symbols ..........................................................................E-5
Figure E-6 Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart ..........................................E-6
Figure E-7 Surface Prognostic Legend................................................................................E-7
Figure E-8 Radar Summary Chart......................................................................................E-8
Figure E-9 Weather Depiction Chart ..................................................................................E-9
Figure E-10 ADDS Temp/Winds Chart Supplement .........................................................E-10
Figure E-11 Winds-Aloft Forecasts .....................................................................................E-11
Figure E-12 WW....................................................................................................................E-12
Figure E-13 WST...................................................................................................................E-13
Figure E-14 WA.....................................................................................................................E-14

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 CHAPTER ONE
AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORTS AND
TERMINAL AERODROME FORECASTS

100. INTRODUCTION

This chapter introduces the student to the format and use of two meteorological products
available to aviators, the Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) and the Terminal
Aerodrome Forecast (TAF). The discussion will demonstrate the interpretation of each of these
products, which use numerous codes and abbreviations, as well as the differences among military
METARs and TAFs and those of the civilian and international community. Finally, this chapter
will demonstrate how to apply this knowledge to various flight planning situations.

The METAR and TAF are the most widely used methods of disseminating weather observations
and forecasts (respectively) to aircrew. They are also the quickest means, because they contain
only letters and numbers. Years ago, when teletype was the quickest means of information
dissemination, METARs and TAFs were distributed across the country and overseas by this
method. Today, even though electronic communication is an important part of the existing
military and civilian weather networks, the same basic character set is used, and these reports are
still often called “teletype” products.

The METAR and TAF formats have not changed greatly over recent years, except to conform
better to international standards. Thus, these formats contain certain codes that, while they may
be cumbersome at first, provide users with precise weather information because of their clear and
exact nature.

Once the interpretation of a METAR has been discussed, the TAF format should then be easier
to understand, since they use similar data groups. The TAF, however, is usually longer since it is
a forecast covering a greater period of time. As such, the TAF format has additional rules that
must be understood before an aviator can apply the forecast information to a particular situation.
Following the discussion of these topics, this chapter will point out the differences between the
military TAF and its civilian and international counterparts. Finally, this chapter will
demonstrate how to apply this knowledge to various flight planning situations.

101. LESSON TOPIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE: Partially supported by this lesson topic:

Describe displayed data in Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METARs) and Terminal
Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs).

AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORTS AND TERMINAL AERODROME

FORECASTS 1-1
CHAPTER ONE METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

ENABLING OBJECTIVES: Completely supported by this lesson topic:

1. State the use of METARs.

2. State the letter identifiers used to report various types of METARs.

3. Identify wind data in METARs.

4. Identify visibility in METARs.

5. Identify runway visual range in METARs.

6. Identify present weather in METARs.

7. Identify sky condition in METARs.

8. Identify temperature/dew point in METARs.

9. Identify altimeter setting in METARs.

10. Identify various manual and automated remarks in METARs.

11. State the use of TAFs in flight planning.

12. Identify data in a TAF.

13. Identify differences in U.S. Civil, Military, and International TAFs.

14. State the definition of a ceiling and identify the ceiling in METARs and TAFs.

15. State the IFR/VFR rules for flight planning in reference to OPNAV 3710.7.

16. State the OPNAV 3710.7 requirement for an alternate on an IFR flight plan.

102. REFERENCES

1. NAVMETOCCOMINST 3141.2 Series

2. NAVMETOCCOMINST 3143.1 Series

3. DOD Flight Information Publication (FLIP) General Planning, Chapter 8

4. Chief of Naval Operations Instruction 3710.7 series, NATOPS General Flight and
Operating Instructions

5. Airman’s Information Manual, Chapter 7

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER ONE

103. STUDY ASSIGNMENT

Review Chapter One and answer the Study Questions.

104. THE AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORT

METARs provide a rapid and efficient means of transmitting the latest observed weather
information for various stations throughout the world. These reports are transmitted over
available computer/teletype circuits.

A METAR example is shown below in Figure 1-1.

SAU55 KAWN 151800

METAR KALO 151756Z 14015KT 6SM BLDU OVC015 09/07 A3024 RMK SLP240
METAR KBAL 151758Z 35012KT 1 1/2SM R10/6000FT RA BR HZ BKN005 OVC010 08/06
A2978 RMK SLP085
METAR KRDR 151756Z 09009KT 15SM SCT050 BKN090 OVC200 M15/M18 A2997 RMK
PSR09P SLP149
METAR KHAR 151757Z 05015G25KT 1 1/2SM RA BR BKN011 OVC015 07/05 A2986 RMK
PK WND 05025/32 SLP112
METAR KNKX 151758Z 08012KT 8SM BKN007 OVC040 09/07 A2984 RMK BINOVC BKN
TOPS 020 SLP105
METAR KCBM 151755Z 00000KT 10SM SCT012 BKN029 OVC120 M06/M07 A2998 RMK
IR18 SLP156
METAR KPAM 151757Z 17015G26KT 5SM HZ SCT007 BKN040 OVC050 22/21 A2990
RMK SCT007VBKN SLP125
METAR KPHX 151756Z 33007KT 20SM SKC M14/M24 A3021 RMK SLP230
METAR KVPS 151758Z 18009KT 7SM OVC006 19/17 A2994 RMK CIG005V007 SLP139
METAR KOZR 151755Z 22012G26KT 15SM OVC017 23/17 A2987 RMK OVC TOPS 045/054
SLP115
METAR KBNA 151759Z 27003KT 1 1/2SM DZ BR SCT000 SCT017 OVC025 19/16 A2977
RMK VIS 1V2 CIG 023V027 BR SCT000 TOPS OVC 066

Figure 1-1 Sample METAR Printout

METARs are used to communicate the latest observed weather to meteorologists and aircrew so
they can determine the existing weather at the destination or alternate, and whether a field is
operating under conditions of instrument flight rules (IFR) or visual flight rules (VFR). These
users can also use METARs to determine weather trends by checking the last several hours of
reports to see if they indicate improving or deteriorating conditions. Additionally, METARs can
provide a comparison between the observed and forecast weather, to determine if conditions are
actually developing as originally forecast.

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CHAPTER ONE METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

105. METAR FORMAT

A METAR example is shown below in Figure 1-2 with each coded group underlined and labeled
for reference during the following discussion. METARs have two sections: the body of the
report and the remarks section.

Group 1: Type of Report

The first word of the report line, either “METAR“ or “SPECI,” will indicate which of these two
main types of observations was reported (Figure 1-3).

METAR: An hourly routine scheduled observation containing wind, visibility, runway visual
range, present weather, sky condition, temperature/dew point, and altimeter setting. Additional
coded data or plain language information that elaborates on the report may be included in the
“Remarks” section.

SPECI: An aviation SPECIal weather report, unscheduled observation containing all the data
elements found in a METAR whenever critical data have changed from the previous observation
(reasons are too numerous to cover in this course). All SPECI are made as soon as possible after
the element criteria are observed.

Figure 1-2 METAR Code Group

METAR KNPA 082255Z 27004KT 7/8SM R07L/4500FT DZ FG SCT000 BKN011 OVC380

19/18 A2997 RMK VIS1/2V1 CIG009V013 FG SCT000 BKN TOPS 027 SLP149
SPECI KNPA 082317Z 31020G30KT 3/8SM R07L/2500FT VCTS SCT000 BKN006 OVC380
17/17 A2993 RMK VIS1/8V1 CIG004V008 FG SCT000 BKN TOPS 350 SLP136

Figure 1-3 Type of Report: METAR or SPECI

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER ONE

Group 2: Station Identifier

The METAR code format uses a 4-letter ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization)
identifier. In the continental U.S., all 3-letter identifiers are prefixed with a "K," e.g., KLAX for
Los Angeles, and KBOS for Boston (Figure 1-4). Elsewhere, the first two letters of the ICAO
identifier indicate what region of the world (e.g., K=USA, C=Canada, P=Pacific, E=Europe) and
country the station is located. For example, PAFA is Fairbanks, Alaska, PHNA is Barber’s
Point, Hawaii, and CYUL is Montreal, Canada. Also, EG indicates a station in England, and LI
indicates a station in Italy. For a complete worldwide listing of all the identifiers, one must refer
to the ICAO Document 7910 Location Identifiers.

METAR KNPA 082255Z 27004KT 7/8SM R07L/4500FT DZ FG SCT000 BKN011 OVC380

19/18 A2997 RMK VIS1/2V1 CIG009V013 FG SCT000 BKN TOPS 027 SLP149

Figure 1-4 Station Identifier in METAR

Group 3: Date Time Group and Report Modifier

The time of observation will be included in all reports, using the standard date time group (DTG)
format. Times are always given in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) and therefore will end in
"Z," indicating Zulu, or UTC, time. The first two numbers are the date, and the second four are
the time of the report (Figure 1-5).

METAR KNPA 082255Z 27004KT 7/8SM R07L/4500FT DZ FG SCT000 BKN011 OVC380

19/18 A2997 RMK VIS1/2V1 CIG009V013 FG SCT000 BKN TOPS 027 SLP149

Figure 1-5 DTG in METAR

Manual METAR observations are required to be started no earlier than 15 minutes prior to the
reporting time, which is a window between 55 and 59 minutes past the hour. Additionally,
elements having the greatest rate of change are evaluated last. At automated stations, evaluations
are based on sensor data taken within 10 minutes of the report time (although sky cover data is
gathered over the preceding 30 minutes). Therefore, as an aviator, you can be assured you have
the most up-to-date information available, assuming you are checking the weather at the top of
the hour.

Of course, report times given for SPECI observations are the time at which the event requiring
the SPECI report occurred.

Reports may also contain one of two modifiers, “COR,” or “AUTO,” which will appear after the
DTG:

AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORTS AND TERMINAL AERODROME

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CHAPTER ONE METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

COR: Indicates a CORrected report, which is transmitted as soon as possible whenever an error
is detected in a METAR or SPECI report. In this case, the DTG will be the same time used in
the report being corrected.

AUTO: Indicates a routine scheduled observation was sent from a fully AUTOmated station
with no human intervention. In the remarks section, either “AO1” or “AO2” will be present
indicating the type of automatic precipitation measuring equipment. Sometimes, manual
observations are reported using data gathered from automatic devices, in which case an “AO1”
or “AO2” will be present in the remarks without an “AUTO” following the DTG.

Group 4: Wind

Winds are a two-minute average speed and direction report in knots and degrees true from which
direction the wind is blowing. The wind direction is first and will be in tens of degrees, using
three digits. A direction less than 100º is preceded by a zero to supply three digits. Speed is in
whole knots, using two or three digits after the direction, without spaces, and speeds of less than
10 knots are preceded with a zero. The wind group will always end with the letters “KT” to
indicate knots. Other countries may use different units of measurement, such as KM
(kilometers), MPH (miles per hour), or MPS (meters per second) (Figure 1-6).

TAR KNPA 082255Z 27004KT 7/8SM R07L/4500FT DZ FG SCT000 BKN011 OVC380

19/18 A2997 RMK VIS1/2V1 CIG009V013 FG SCT000 BKN TOPS 027 SLP149

Figure 1-6 Wind Direction and Speed in METAR

Examples:

09008KT — Wind from 090º at 08 knots.

270112KT — Wind from 270º at 112 knots.

GUSTS: The letter “G” immediately following the average wind speed indicates the presence of
gusts, which are rapid fluctuations in speeds of peaks and lulls of 10 knots or more. Wind speed
for the most recent ten minutes is used to determine gusts, and the maximum peak is reported
using two or three digits.

Examples:

14015G28KT — Wind from 140º at 15 knots with gusts to 28 knots.

33065G105KT — Wind from 330º at 65 knots with gusts to 105 knots.

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VARIABLE WINDS: If “VRB” is present in place of the wind direction, the direction cannot be
determined (used primarily with wind speeds of 6 knots or less). If the wind direction is variable
with speeds greater than six knots, a special group will immediately follow the wind group using
the letter “V” between two directions (listed clockwise).

Example:

22015KT 180V250 — Winds from 220º at 15 knots with direction varying from 180 to 250
degrees.

CALM WINDS: Calm winds are reported as 00000KT.

NOTES

1. Peak winds and wind shifts will be reported in the RMK

section of the METAR/SPECI. (See remarks section later in this
chapter.)

2. A sudden increase in wind speed of at least 16 knots and

sustained at 22 knots or more for at least one minute requires that
Squalls (SQ) be reported in the present weather section of the
report.

Group 5: Visibility

METAR uses the prevailing visibility, reported in statute miles (SM) in the United States and in
meters at overseas stations (Figure 1-7). Any of the values in Figure 1-8 may be used.
Automated stations may use “M” to indicate less than one-quarter statute mile when reporting
visibility (think of “Minus”). If visibility is less than seven statute miles, then the
weather/obstruction to vision will also be reported (using the abbreviations discussed later in the
Present Weather section and shown in Figure 1-11).

METAR KNPA 082255Z 27004KT 7/8SM R07L/4500FT DZ FG SCT000 BKN011 OVC380

19/18 A2997 RMK VIS1/2V1 CIG009V013 FG SCT000 BKN TOPS 027 SLP149

Figure 1-7 Visibility in METAR

Examples:

1 1/8SM — Visibility one and one-eighth statute miles.

5SM — Visibility five statute miles.

M1/4SM — Visibility from an automated station less than one-quarter statute mile.

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NOTE

Other types of visibility are reported in the RMK portion of the

METAR/SPECI (see the remarks section later in this chapter). At
military stations tower visibility will be reported when either
surface or tower visibility is four miles or less. This visibility will
be a remark with the surface visibility remaining in the body of the
report.

Source of Visibility Report

Automated Manual

M1/4 2 9 0 5/8 1 5/8 4 12

1/4 2 1/2 10 1/16 3/4 1 3/4 5 13
1/2 3 1/8 7/8 1 7/8 6 14
3/4 4 3/16 1 2 7 15
1 5 1/4 1 1/8 2 1/4 8 20
1 1/4 6 5/16 1 1/4 2 1/2 9 25
1 1/2 7 3/8 1 3/8 2 3/4 10 30
1 3/4 8 1/2 1 1/2 3 11 35a

a. Further values in increments of 5 statute miles may be reported (i.e., 40, 45, 50, etc.)

Figure 1-8 Visibility Values Reportable in METAR

Group 6: Runway Visual Range (RVR)

The runway visual range (RVR) is a measure of the horizontal visibility as determined from
instruments (transmissometers) located alongside and about 14 feet higher than runway
centerline. They are calibrated with reference to the sighting of either high-intensity runway
lights or the visual contrasts of other targets, whichever yields the greater visual range. Only
activities with operational equipment are allowed to report RVR.

RVR is reported whenever the prevailing visibility is one statute mile or less and/or the RVR for
the designated instrument runway is 6000 feet or less. RVR is measured in increments of
200 feet through 3000 feet and in 500-foot increments above 3000 feet (Figure 1-9).

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METAR KNPA 082255Z 27004KT 7/8SM R07L/4500FT DZ FG SCT000 BKN011 OVC380

19/18 A2997 RMK VIS1/2V1 CIG009V013 FG SCT000 BKN TOPS 027 SLP149

Figure 1-9 RVR in METAR

RVR is encoded with an “R” indicating runway, followed by a 2-digit group denoting runway
number, and may be followed by an “R,” “L,” or “C,” denoting right, left, or center runway.
Next is a forward slash followed by the constant reportable value in four digits and ending with
the letters "FT" for feet.

If RVR is varying, the coding will be the same as above, except the two reportable values will be
separated by a “V.” If RVR is less than its lowest reportable value, the 4-digit value will be
preceded with an “M” (for Minus), and if greater than the highest reportable value, it is preceded
with a "P" (for Plus).

Examples:

R33/1800FT — Runway 33 visual range 1800 feet

R17R/3500FT — Runway 17 Right visual range 3500 feet

R09/1000V4000FT — Runway 09 visual range 1000 feet variable to 4000 feet

R28L/P6000FT — Runway 28 Left visual range greater than 6000 feet

R02/M0800FT — Runway 02 visual range less than 800 feet

NOTE

RVR is not reported from USN/USMC stations. It will, however,

be disseminated locally to arriving and departing aircraft.

Group 7: Present Weather

Present weather includes precipitation, well-developed dust or sand swirls, squalls, tornadic
activity, sandstorms, and duststorms. It may be evaluated instrumentally, manually, or through a
combination of methods. The present weather codes as seen below in Figures 1-10 and 1-11 are
used throughout meteorology.

METAR KNPA 082255Z 27004KT 7/8SM R07L/4500FT DZ FG SCT000 BKN011 OVC380

19/18 A2997 RMK VIS1/2V1 CIG009V013 FG SCT000 BKN TOPS 027 SLP149

Figure 1-10 Present Weather in METAR

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In addition to the notes of Figure 1-11, the following are a few of the conventions used to report
present weather conditions in METAR/SPECI observations.

1. Present weather given in the body of the report occurs at the point of observation or within
five miles from the station. If the letters “VC” are used, the weather is in the vicinity, or five to
ten miles of the point of observation. Any reported weather occurring beyond ten miles of the
point of observation will be included in the remarks portion of the METAR.

2. Intensity refers to the precipitation, not its descriptor (TS or SH).

3. TS may be coded by itself, or it may be coded with RA, SN, PL, GS, or GR.

QUALIFIER WEATHER PHENOMENA1

INTENSITY DESCRIPTOR PRECIPITATION OBSCURATION OTHER
OR
PROXIMITY
1 2 3 4 5
– Light MI Shallow DZ Drizzle BR Mist PO Well-
2 Developed
Moderate PR Partial RA Rain FG Fog
Dust/ Sand
BC Patches
+ Heavy SN Snow FU Smoke Whirls
DR Low
VC In the SG Snow Grains VA Volcanic Ash SQ Squalls
Drifting
Vicinity IC Ice Crystals2 DU Widespread FC Funnel
BL Blowing Dust Cloud(s)
PL Ice Pellets
SH Shower (s) (Tornado or
SA Sand
GR Hail2 Waterspout)3
TS Thunder- HZ Haze
storm GS Small Hail SS Sandstorm
and/or Snow PY Spray
FZ Freezing DS Duststorm
Pellets
UP Unknown
Precipitation
1. Weather groups are constructed by considering columns one to five above in sequence, i.e.,
intensity, followed by description, followed by weather phenomena (e.g., heavy rain
shower(s) is coded as +SHRA).
2. No symbol denotes moderate intensity. No intensity is assigned to Hail (GR) or Icing (IC).
3. Tornadoes and waterspouts in contact with the surface are coded +FC.

Figure 1-11 Present Weather Codes Reportable in METAR

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Group 8: Sky Condition

METAR KNPA 082255Z 27004KT 7/8SM R07L/4500FT DZ FG SCT000 BKN011 OVC380

19/18 A2997 RMK VIS1/2V1 CIG009V013 FG SCT000 BKN TOPS 027
SLP149

Figure 1-12 Sky Condition in METAR

The sky condition group (Figure 1-12) gives a description of the appearance of the sky including
the type of clouds, cloud layers, amount of sky coverage, height of their bases, and any obscuring
phenomena. Cloud layer amounts for each layer indicate eighths of the sky that is covered,
according to the abbreviations in Figure 1-13.

Reportable Amount of
Contractions Meaning Sky Cover
SKC or CLR1 Sky Clear 0/8
2
FEW Few > 0/8 - 2/8
SCT Scattered 3/8 - 4/8
BKN Broken 5/8 - 7/8
OVC Overcast 8/8
VV Obscured3 8/8 (surface based)
1. The abbreviation CLR is used at automated stations when no clouds at or below 12,000 feet
are reported; the abbreviation SKC is used at manual stations when no clouds are reported.
2. Any amount less than 1/8 is reported as FEW.
3. The last 3 digits report the height of the vertical visibility into an indefinite ceiling.

Figure 1-13 Sky Coverage

In addition to the notes of Figure 1-13, the following are some of the cloud reporting rules used
in METAR/SPECI.

1. All sky cover heights are reported in feet above the ground level (AGL).

2. Sky condition is annotated by a six-digit group, the first three digits (letters) describing the
amount of sky cover (Figure 1-13), and the second three digits (numbers) the height of that layer
in hundreds of feet. Layers will be reported in ascending order up to the first overcast. If the
cloud layer is below the station (for mountain stations), the height will be coded as ///.

3. When the sky is totally obscured by a surface-based obscuration the only group in the sky
condition section will be a five-digit group, the first two digits VV (Vertical Visibility) and the
last three digits the height of the vertical visibility into the indefinite ceiling. Most always this
height will be 000, as any surface-based phenomenon is (by definition of “surface-based”) within
50 feet of the surface, and will be rounded down to the nearest hundred feet (i.e., zero).

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4. When the sky is partially obscured by a surface-based obscuration, the amount of the sky
cover hidden by the weather phenomena will be reported as FEW000, SCT000, or BKN000. A
remark will then also be given to describe these details (see Remarks section).

5. At manual stations CB (cumulonimbus) or TCU (towering cumulus) will be appended to

the layer if it can be determined.

Examples:

BKN000 — Partial obscuration of 5/8 to 7/8 (surface-based)

VV008 — Sky obscured, indefinite ceiling, vertical visibility 800 feet AGL

SCT020CB — Scattered clouds (3/8 to 4/8 of the sky) at 2000 feet AGL composed of
cumulonimbus clouds

FEW011 BKN040 OVC120 — Few clouds (1/8 to 2/8) at 1100 feet AGL, broken clouds
(5/8 to 7/8) at 4000 AGL, overcast clouds (8/8) at 12,000 feet AGL

Group 9: Temperature/Dew Point

Temperature and dew point are reported as two 2-digit groups, rounded to the nearest whole
degree Celsius, and separated with a (/) (Figure 1-14). Sub-zero temperatures or dew points will
be prefixed with the letter “M” (for Minus). If the temperature and dew point are not available,
the entire group is omitted. If only dew point is unavailable, then only temperature is coded,
followed by the (/).

METAR KNPA 082255Z 27004KT 7/8SM R07L/4500FT DZ FG SCT000 BKN011 OVC380

19/18 A2997 RMK VIS1/2V1 CIG009V013 FG SCT000 BKN TOPS 027
SLP149

Figure 1-14 Temperature and Dew Point in METAR

If necessary, convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius using the following formulas:

F = (C * 9/5) +32 C = (F - 32) * 5/9 (9/5 = 1.8)

or by using the conversion scale on the CR-2 circular slide rule.

Group 10: Altimeter Setting

The altimeter setting will be included in all reports. The altimeter group always starts with the
letter “A,” and will be followed with a 4-digit group using the tens, units, tenths, and hundredths
of inches of mercury. For example, A2997 indicates an altimeter setting of 29.97 inches of Hg
(Figure 1-15).

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METAR KNPA 082255Z 27004KT 7/8SM R07L/4500FT DZ FG SCT000 BKN011 OVC380

19/18 A2997 RMK VIS1/2V1 CIG009V013 FG SCT000 BKN TOPS 027
SLP149

Figure 1-15 Altimeter Setting in METAR

106. REMARKS SECTION

Remarks will be included in all METAR/SPECI reports if deemed appropriate. They will be
separated from the body of the report by a space and the abbreviation RMK (Figure 1-16). If
there are no remarks, then “RMK” is omitted. The remarks fall into three major categories:

1. Manual and Automated remarks,

2. Plain language remarks, and

3. Additive data and Maintenance remarks. Only the first two will be discussed in this
chapter, as the last is of very little importance to an aviator.

METAR KNPA 082255Z 27004KT 7/8SM R04/4500FT DZ FG SCT000 BKN011 OVC380

19/18 A2997 RMK VIS1/2V1 CIG009V013 FG SCT000 BKN TOPS 027
SLP149

Figure 1-16 Remarks Section of METAR

Remarks are made in accordance with the following conventions.

1. Where plain language is called for, authorized abbreviations and symbols are used to
conserve time and space.

2. Time entries will be in minutes past the hour if occurrence is during the same hour the
observation is taken. If not, then hours and minutes will be used.

3. Present weather in the body of the report using VC (vicinity) may be further described, if
known. DSNT (distant) indicates weather that is beyond 10 miles of the point of observation,
and it will be followed by the direction.

4. Movement of clouds and weather indicates the direction toward which it is moving
(remember wind is always from).

5. Directions use the eight points of the compass.

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6. Insofar as possible, remarks are entered in the order they are presented in the following
examples:

TORNADO B13 6 NE Tornado began 13 minutes past the hour, 6 statute miles
northeast of the station

AO2A Automated station with precipitation measuring equipment,

augmented by observer

PK WND 28045/15 Peak wind of 45 knots from 280 degrees occurred at 15

minutes past the hour

WSHFT 30 FROPA Wind shift 30 minutes after the hour with frontal passage

TWR VIS 1 1/2 Tower visibility one and one-half statute miles

VIS 1/2V2 Visibility varying between 1/2 and 2 statute miles

VIS 2 1/2 RY11 Visibility at second sensor located on runway 11 is two and
one-half statute miles

DVR/R11L/1000V5000FT Dispatch visual range varying between 1000 and 5000 feet
on runway 11 left (automated stations only)

DVR/P6000FT Dispatch visual range not associated with a specific runway

is greater than 6000 feet (automated stations only)

OCNL LTG Occasional lightning

FRQ LTGCGVC Frequent lightning cloud to ground in vicinity (more than 5

miles from the observation but less than 10 miles)

LTG DSNT W Lightning distant west (beyond 10 miles of the observation)

RAB05E30SNB20E55 Rain began 5 minutes past the hour and ended 30 minutes
past the hour, snow began 20 minutes past the hour and
ended 55 minutes past the hour

TSB0159E30 Thunderstorm began at 0159 and ended at 0230

CIG 005V010 Ceiling varying between 500 feet and 1000 feet

CIG 002 RY11 Ceiling at second location on runway 11 is at least broken

at 200 feet

PRESRR Pressure rising rapidly

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PRESFR Pressure falling rapidly

SLP982 Sea Level Pressure is 998.2 millibars

SLPNO Sea Level Pressure not available

VIS NE 2 1/2 Visibility northeast two and one-half statute miles

TS SE MOV NE Thunderstorm southeast moving northeast

GR 1 1/4 Hailstones one and one-quarter inch

VIRGA SW Precipitation southwest not reaching the ground

FG SCT000 Fog partially obscures 3/8 to 4/8 of the sky

BKN014 V OVC Broken clouds at 1400 feet are variable to overcast

CB W MOV E Cumulonimbus clouds west moving east

CBMAM E MOV S Cumulonimbus mammatus clouds east moving south

TCU W Towering cumulus clouds west

TOP OVC050 Tops of overcast are 5000 feet MSL

ACC NW Altocumulus castellanus northwest (indicates turbulence)

ACSL SW-W Altocumulus standing lenticular clouds southwest through

west (indicates mountain wave turbulence)

APRNT ROTOR CLD NE Apparent rotor cloud northeast (also indicates mountain
wave turbulence)

CCL S Cirrocumulus standing lenticularis south

FU BKN020 Smoke layer broken at 2000 feet

ACRFT MSHP Aircraft mishap

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Special Remarks That May be Appended to the Remarks Section

Runway Condition Reporting (RSC & RCR) — Runway condition, when reported, will include
two parts, the RSC (runway surface condition), and the RCR (runway condition reading) as
determined by the airfield manager or operations officer. The following RSCs describe the
runway condition:

WR Wet runway

SLR Slush on the runway

LSR Loose snow on the runway

PSR Packed snow on the runway

IR Ice on the runway

RCRNR RCR equipped, but No Report; or Base Operations closed

The RCR is a two-digit number giving an average decelerometer reading from 02 to 25

(Figure 1-17). Two slants (//) will be entered when the runway is wet, slush-covered, or when no
decelerometer reading is available.

Runway Braking Equivalent % Increase in

Action Reading Terminology Landing Roll
02 to 05 NIL 100% or more
06 to 12 POOR 99% to 46%
13 to 18 FAIR (MEDIUM) 45% to 16%
19 to 25 GOOD 15% to 0%

Figure 1-17 RCR Values and Corresponding Braking Action

The following will be added to the report when applicable:

1. “P” is appended to the RCR when there are patches of ice, snow, or slush on the runway.

2. “SANDED” is appended when runways have been treated with sand or other friction
enhancing materials.

3. “P WET” or “P DRY” is appended whenever the rest of the runway is either wet or dry.

4. ICAO braking action remarks (such as BA GOOD, BA NIL) may be reported at airfields
not equipped with decelerometers when required.

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Examples:

PSR15 Packed snow on runway, RCR value 15

IR// Ice on runway, no RCR value available

LSR08P DRY Loose snow on runway, RCR value 08 patchy, rest

of runway dry

WR// Wet runway

RCRNR Base Operations closed

PSR12 HFS IR08 Packed snow on runway, RCR value 12 on

touchdown, on rollout portion of a high friction
surface with ice on runway, RCR value 08

PSR//SANDED BA MEDIUM Packed snow on runway, no RCR available, runway

treated with friction enhancer, braking action
medium

107. THE TERMINAL AERODROME FORECAST

Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) Use for Flight Planning

Any aviator planning a flight should know both the destination's existing and forecasted weather.
Previously we learned the METAR provides existing weather. Now, we will discuss the surface
forecasted weather conditions by learning how to read TAFs. This teletype information will also
aid you in planning for the type of flight (IFR/VFR), type of approach you require, determining
if an alternate is required, and selection of the best alternate.

Although there are differences in TAF reporting between the military and civilian weather
offices, as well as throughout the world, we will focus this discussion on the U.S. military TAF
since the bulk of your training flights will commence from military bases. Once this has been
accomplished, it will be much easier to point out differences existing among the TAFs of the
U.S. military, civilian, and international communities.

TAF Sequence

It will become readily apparent that each line of the TAF forecast will follow the same basic
sequence: message heading or change group, time, wind, visibility, weather and obstructions to
vision, clouds, altimeter, and remarks. The only deviation that occurs is the addition of wind
shear, temperature, icing, and turbulence groups when applicable. Figure 1-18 shows an
example of a single line forecast with a breakdown of each group. Figure 1-19 shows an actual
forecast for Navy Whiting Field.

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Figure 1-18 TAF Groups

TAF KNSE 2609/2709 28004KT 9000 HZ SCT020 SCT200 QNH2998INS

FM261200 26007KT 9000 HZ SCT025 SCT080 BKN250
QNH2996INS VCSHRA
BECMG 2614/2616 9999 SCT025CB SCT250
BECMG 2617/2618 23015G25KT 530004
TEMPO 2619/2702 8000 TSSHRA SCT010 BKN025CB
FM270200 27010KT 9999 SCT030 BKN080 BKN250 500000
QNH3001INS T20/2609Z T26/2620Z

KMOB 262046Z 2621/2721 00000KT 3200 BR VV004

BECMG 2706/2707 14012 9999 SCT004 SCT025

Figure 1-19 TAF Example

Message Heading

The message heading begins with the letters “TAF’ followed by the 4-letter ICAO location
identifier (e.g., KNSE for NAS Whiting Field) as shown in Figure 1-20. Next comes the
three-letter modifiers such as AMD, COR, or RTD, which stand for AMenDed, CORrected, or
RouTine Delayed, unless the station is USN/USMC, in which case a remark will be appended to
the last line of the forecast.

TAF KNSE 2609/2709 28004KT 9000 HZ SCT020 SCT200 QNH2998INS

Figure 1-20 TAF Heading

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Forecast Times

The 8-digit number following the message heading indicates the forecast period of the entire
TAF, which is usually 24 hours (Figure 1-21) but could be more or less. The first two digits
represent the date of the forecast. The second two digits indicate the beginning hour of the
forecast, followed by a “/” with the end date and time, as previously discussed. For example,
2609/2709 means that the forecast begins at 0900Z on the 26th day of the month and covers the
24-hour period up to but not including 0900Z the next day. U.S. civil stations include date and
time (DTG) of transmission prior to the forecast period (i.e., 091720Z 0918/1018).

TAF KNSE 2609/2709 28004KT 9000 HZ SCT020 SCT200 QNH2998INS

Figure 1-21 TAF Time Group

Whenever the forecast is an AMD, COR, or RTD, the times may not be for a 24-hour period and
will be indicated accordingly. When USN/USMC stations amend, correct, or have a routine
delayed forecast, a remark will be appended to the last line of the forecast with the appropriate
time (e.g., AMD2218).

Winds

Wind direction is forecasted to the nearest 10 degrees true, in the direction from which the wind
will be blowing (Figure 1-22). If wind direction is expected to vary by 60 degrees or more, the
limits of variability will be noted as a remark, e.g., WND 270V350. The contraction VRB can
be used to replace direction when forecasted wind speed is 6 knots or less, or in more rare cases
when it is impossible to forecast a single wind direction, such as for thunderstorms.

TAF KNSE 2609/2709 28004KT 9000 HZ SCT020 SCT200 QNH2998INS

Figure 1-22 TAF Winds

Forecasted wind speeds and gust data are given in whole knots; if the wind speed is over 100
knots, then three digits are used. Calm winds are represented by “00000” for the wind group.
“G” will be included to indicate gusts when the peak wind exceeds the average wind by 10 knots
or more. Presently all U.S. winds are in knots and the contraction KT will end these wind
groups. Some overseas stations use KPH (kilometers per hour) or MPS (meters per second).

Visibility, Weather, and Obstructions to Vision

For TAFs, forecasted prevailing visibility is reported in meters and rounded down to the nearest
reportable value (Figure 1-23). U.S. civil stations, however, will report visibility in statute miles
(Figure 1-24). Whenever the prevailing visibility is forecasted to be 9000 meters or less (6 miles
or less) the weather or obstructions to vision causing the reduced visibility will be included using
the same notation as the METAR present weather group, described above in Figure 1-11. A

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visibility code of “9999” indicates 7 miles visibility or greater is forecast, i.e., unlimited
visibility. When appropriate, RVRs will follow immediately after the prevailing visibility.

TAF KNSE 2609/2709 28004KT 9000 HZ SCT020 SCT200 QNH2998INS

Figure 1-23 TAF Visibility Group

VISIBILITY CONVERSION TABLE - STATUE MILES TO METERS

Statute Miles Meters Statue Miles Meters Statute Miles Meters
0 0 3/4 1200 1 7/8 3000
1/16 100 7/8 1400 2 3200
1/8 200 1 1600 2 1/4 3600
3/16 300 1 1/8 1800 2 1/2 4000
1/4 400 1 1/4 2000 3 4800
5/16 500 1 3/8 2200 4 6000a
3/8 600 1 1/2 2400 5 8000
1/2 800 1 5/8 2600 6 9000b
5/8 1000 1 3/4 2800 ≥7 9999
Notes: a Rounded down from 6400m; b Rounded down from 9600m.

Figure 1-24 Reportable Visibility Values for TAFs

If any significant weather or an obstruction to vision is forecast (rain, snow, sleet, hail, blowing
dust, etc.), it will be included after visibility, using the codes in Figure 1-11. If there is no
significant weather, this group will be omitted.

Sky Condition Group

This group(s) will be included as often as necessary to indicate all forecast cloud layers–up to the
first overcast layer (8/8ths)–in ascending order of cloud bases, with lowest layer first
(Figure 1-25).

TAF KNSE 2609/2709 28004KT 9000 HZ SCT020 SCT200 QNH2998INS

Figure 1-25 TAF Sky Condition Group

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As with METARs, TAF sky conditions will consist of five or six characters. The first two or
three letters indicate the amount of sky coverage, from Figure 1-13, and the last three digits
indicate the height of the cloud bases in hundreds of feet AGL.

The types of clouds will not be forecast with the exception of cumulonimbus (CB), which will
always be given as a separate layer (e.g., SCT005CB). In the event of a partial obscuration, it
will be considered the first cloud layer and reported as FEW000, SCT000, or BKN000.

Special Wind Shear Group

An entry such as “WS020/22030KT” indicates the presence of wind shear. The three digits
before the slash indicate the altitude (AGL), and the characters following the slash indicate wind
direction and speed. North American stations will insert this special non-convective wind shear
group immediately after the cloud group when it is forecast for altitudes 2000 feet AGL and
below. However, if it cannot be forecast with accuracy, a less specific format of "WSCONDS"
(wind shear conditions) may be used, and no further numeric data will be given. If no wind
shear is forecast, then this group is omitted.

Icing Group

This group consists of six numbers only and begins with a “6.” It is used to forecast non-
thunderstorm icing (the presence of thunderstorms implies moderate or greater icing), and is
repeated as often as necessary to indicate multiple icing layers. The icing group(s) will be
included on each subsequent FM or BECMG line until icing is no longer forecast, at which point
the code “600000” will be entered to terminate forecast icing conditions. The group is omitted
until icing is forecasted. The following example illustrates the decoding of the icing group:
641104

The “6” indicates that icing is forecasted. The next digit, “4,” is the type of forecasted icing
from Figure 1-26 (moderate icing). If more than one type of icing is forecast within the same
stratum of air, the highest code figure, the most severe, will be used. The next three digits,
“110,” indicate the height of the base of the icing stratum in hundreds of feet AGL, 11,000 feet
AGL. If the numbers “000” are used, this would indicate icing occurring at or below 100 feet
AGL. The last digit, “4,” is the thickness of the icing layer in thousands of feet (4000 feet here)
using numbers 1 through 9. If the layer is thicker than 9000 feet, the icing group is repeated so
that the base of the repeated or second group coincides with the top of the first, and has a
thickness that when added to the 9 of the first group equals the total thickness of the icing layer.
If multiple layers not related to each other are forecasted, the layers are encoded in an ascending
order.

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IC TYPE OF ICING (6) B TYPE OF TURBULENCE (5)

Code Description Code Description
0 No icing 0 None
1 Light icing 1 Light turbulence
2 Light icing in cloud 2 Moderate turbulence in clear air, occasional
3 Light icing in precipitation 3 Moderate turbulence in clear air, frequent
4 Moderate icing 4 Moderate turbulence in cloud, occasional
5 Moderate icing in cloud 5 Moderate turbulence in cloud, frequent
6 Moderate icing in precipitation 6 Severe turbulence in clear air, occasional
7 Severe icing 7 Severe turbulence in clear air, frequent
8 Severe icing in cloud 8 Severe turbulence in cloud, occasional
9 Severe icing in precipitation 9 Severe turbulence in cloud, frequent
X Extreme turbulence

Figure 1-26 TAF Icing and Turbulence Codes

Turbulence Group

This group is similar to the icing group because it consists of six characters and follows the same
format. The turbulence group, however, begins with a “5,” and the second digit represents the
turbulence intensity, also from Figure 1-26 (above). The turbulence group is used to forecast
non-thunderstorm turbulence (the presence of thunderstorms implies moderate or greater
turbulence) and repeated as often as necessary to indicate multiple turbulence layers. The
turbulence group(s) will be included on each subsequent FM or BECMG line until turbulence is
no longer forecast, at which point the code “500000” will be entered to terminate forecast
turbulence conditions. The group is omitted until turbulence is forecasted. The rules for
turbulence layers thicker than 9 thousand feet are the same as the icing group. The following
example illustrates the decoding of the turbulence group: 510302

Following the same rules as the icing group, above, one would expect light turbulence from 3000
to 5000 feet AGL.

Altimeter Group

This group forecasts the lowest expected altimeter setting in inches of Hg (Mercury) during the
initial forecast period and each subsequent FM and sometimes BECMG groups (to be discussed
shortly) that follows. TEMPO groups (also to be discussed shortly) do not forecast the QNH
group. This minimum altimeter setting becomes quite valuable when aircraft lose radio
communications in IMC conditions and need a useful altimeter setting for the destination airfield
(Figure 1-27).

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TAF KNSE 2609/2709 28004KT 9000 HZ SCT020 SCT200 QNH2998INS

Figure 1-27 TAF Altimeter Group

The “QNH” indicates sea level pressure is being given. The next four digits indicate the lowest
forecast altimeter setting in inches of Hg (and hundredths), without the decimal. “INS” simply
indicates the unit of measurement is inches. Other standards, such as QNE and QFE, are also
used in different circumstances. QNE is the standard datum plane, 29.92 in-Hg, and some
countries use QFE, the actual station pressure not corrected to sea level. If QFE is set, the
altimeter indicates actual elevation above the field, but does not ensure terrain clearance.
Aircrews must exercise extreme caution if conducting operations at a location using QFE.

International stations report the altimeter in millibars (a.k.a. hectopascals, hPa) and use the letter
“Q” for indicator. For example, “Q1013” indicates a forecast altimeter setting of 1013 millibars.
U.S. civil stations will not forecast an altimeter setting.

Remarks

Various remarks may be appended to the end of the initial forecast period and subsequent change
groups. The weather codes listed in Figure 1-11 are used for weather and obstructions to vision,
while the FAA General Use Contractions will be used for other abbreviations.

The abbreviation “VC,” also from Figure 1-11, will be used for air mass weather that is expected
to occur within the forecast area, but not at the station. For example, “VCSHRA W” would
indicate that rain showers are in the vicinity (5 to 10 nm) to the west. However, "VC" will not be
used for weather expected to occur within a 5-mile radius of the runway complex, since that is
considered to be “at the station.”

Temperature Group

This is an optional group; however, its usage is highly encouraged and should be included to
meet the requirements of local operations, especially for helicopter and VSTOL aircraft, which
require density altitude. The forecast maximum and minimum temperature is given in two digits
Celsius, using “M” to indicate minus temperatures preceded by the letter “T”. The Air Force
uses ‘TX’ and ‘TN’ before the temperature. This is followed a “/” and a five character string to
indicate the date and hour ‘Z’ the indicated temperature will occur (e.g., T20/2609Z T26/2620Z).
It will be on the last line of the TAF, unless the forecast was amended.

108. CHANGE GROUP TERMINOLOGY

The change groups of “FM,” “BECMG,” and “TEMPO” will be used whenever a change in
some or all of the elements forecasted are expected to occur at some intermediate time during the
TAF forecast period. A new line of forecasted text is started for each change group. More than
one change group may be used to properly identify the forecast conditions (Figure 1-28).

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FM (From) and BECMG (Becoming) are indicators of expected speed of change. FM is used
when the change is expected to be quick, and BECMG is used when the change is expected to
occur over a longer period of time. FM indicates a permanent, dramatic or relatively dramatic,
change to a weather pattern is forecast to occur in a short period. All elements of the forecast
conditions will be listed on that TAF line. BECMG indicates some forecast elements are going
to change permanently, or possibly all of the forecast elements will change. TEMPO
(Temporary) means just that: a temporary or non-permanent change to the overall weather
pattern.

TAF KNSE 2609/2709 28004KT 9000 HZ SCT020 SCT200 QNH2998INS

FM261200 26007KT 9000 HZ SCT025 SCT080 BKN250
QNH2996INS VCSHRA
BECMG 2614/2616 9999 SCT025CB SCT250
BECMG 2617/2618 23015G25KT 530004
TEMPO 2619/2702 8000 TSSHRA SCT010 BKN025CB
FM270200 27010KT 9999 SCT030 BKN080 BKN250 500000
QNH3001INS T20/2609Z T26/2620Z

Figure 1-28 TAF Change Groups

FM Group

The heading “FM” followed immediately by a 6-digit date and time (day, hours and minutes)
indicates the forecast weather is expected to change rapidly to the conditions on that line. In
other words, the time indicates the beginning of a significant and permanent change in the whole
weather pattern, and all previously forecast conditions are superseded by the conditions
forecasted on this line. Additionally, the “FM” line includes all elements of a normal forecast as
discussed above, even if the previous forecasted element is not changing.

Using Figure 1-28 as an example, the change group “FM261200” starts the change line, and
indicates a change is forecasted to occur at 1200Z. All elements on that line will be in effect
from 1200Z to the end of the original forecast period (up to but not including 0900Z on the 27th
in this example), unless changed later in the forecast by another change group (as is the case
here).

BECMG Group

A line beginning with the heading “BECMG” indicates a change to forecast conditions is
expected to occur slowly within the period designated in the time group immediately following
the heading. In this time group of eight digits, the first four indicate the beginning day and hour,
and the last four represent the ending day and hour during which the change will take place. The
duration of this change is normally about 2 hours, 4 at most.

The elements included in the BECMG line will supersede some of the previous TAF groups, but
it is possible all the groups may change. Any group omitted in the BECMG line will be the same

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during the BECMG period as indicated in the previous TAF line. These new conditions are
expected to exist until the end of the TAF forecast time period (unless changed later in the
forecast by another change group).

TAF KNSE 2609/2709 28004KT 9000 HZ SCT020 SCT200 QNH2998INS

FM261200 26007KT 9000 HZ SCT025 SCT080 BKN250 QNH2996INS
VCSHRA
BECMG 2614/2616 9999 SCT025CB SCT250
BECMG 2617/2618 23015G25KT 530004
TEMPO 2619/2702 8000 TSSHRA SCT010 BKN025CB
FM270200 27010KT 9999 SCT030 BKN080 BKN250 500000 QNH3001INS
T20/2609Z T26/2620Z

Figure 1-29 TAF BECMG Group

From Figure 1-29, some aspects of the weather will begin to change slowly sometime between
1700 and 1800Z, specifically the winds and turbulence. These forecast winds of 230° at 15 kts,
gusting to 25 kts, and the frequent, moderate CAT can be expected to last until superseded by the
FM group at 0200Z.

TEMPO Group

The heading “TEMPO” followed by an 8-digit time group indicates the weather conditions on
this line will occur briefly, and will not represent a permanent change in the overall forecast
weather pattern. Rather, there will be a short-lived overlay to the base forecast occurring only
between the beginning and ending day and hours (four digits for each) specified by the time
group. Furthermore, only the elements listed are forecasted to be affected.

For example, in Figure 1-30, the temporary occurrence of thunderstorms and rain showers are
forecast to exist only from 1900 up to, but not including, 0200. After this time, the conditions
listed in the TEMPO line will be replaced by the forecast from other lines.

TAF KNSE 2609/2709 28004KT 9000 HZ SCT020 SCT200 QNH2998INS

FM261200 26007KT 9000 HZ SCT025 SCT080 BKN250 QNH2996INS
VCSHRA
BECMG 2614/2616 9999 SCT025CB SCT250
BECMG 2617/2618 23015G25KT 530004
TEMPO 2619/2702 8000 TSSHRA SCT010 BKN025CB
FM270200 27010KT 9999 SCT030 BKN080 BKN250 500000 QNH3001INS
T20/2609Z T26/2620Z

Figure 1-30 TAF TEMPO Group

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PROB Group

Civilian stations will sometimes forecast the probability of occurrence of thunderstorms or other
precipitation events. Such a line begins with “PROB,” followed by a 2-digit percentage and the
corresponding weather, as this example illustrates:

PROB40 2618/2703 1/2SM +TSRA OVC005CB

This station forecasts a 40% chance of heavy rain from thunderstorms, producing an overcast
ceiling of cumulonimbus clouds at 500 feet, with visibility ½ mile. Additionally, the 8-digit time
period group giving the beginning and ending date/time for the occurrence follows the PROB
percentage (1800Z on the 26th up to but not including 0300Z on the 27th). USN/USMC stations
will not use this change group.

Change Groups and Times (FROM/TO)

In order to use a TAF effectively, one must know how long a given pattern of weather will last,
as well as what that pattern will be. To do this, establish the FROM and TO times of that
pattern.

NOTE

In this text, TO will mean up TO, but not including that time.

The times on the first line of code, after the location, are the FROM and TO date and times for
the entire forecast, and the beginning (FROM) time of the first forecast line.

The time listed immediately after a FM can be a beginning time of a new pattern of weather as
well as a TO time of a previously defined pattern, depending upon where it falls in the forecast.

The first 4 digits of the 8-digit time group following BECMG will be the beginning (FROM)
time of the new forecast elements, and the last 4 digits are the ending (TO) date and time of the
previous pattern.

The first 4 digits of the 8-digit time group shown after a TEMPO are the beginning (FROM)
time, and the last 4 digits are the ending (TO) date and time for that TAF line.

TAF KNSE 2009/2109 00000KT 0800 FG VV001 620106 QNH3000INS

TEMPO 2009/2012 00000KT 2400 BR SCT000 SCT005 SCT080 SCT250
FM201400 20005KT 6000 HZ SCT025 SCT080 SCT250 600000 QNH3004INS
BECMG 2016/2017 9999 QNH3002INS
BECMG 2020/2022 23010KT 9999 SCT025 SCT080 BKN250 WSCONDS 531006
QNH2996INS VCTSSH
TEMPO 2023/2103 VRB15G30KT 1600 TSSH OVC010CB

Figure 1-31 From/To Example

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Using the example in Figure 1-31, the first forecast line (KNSE 2009/2109) begins FROM
0900Z on the 20th and is good up TO 1400Z on the third line. (0900Z to 0900Z is also the 24
hour forecast period.) The second forecast line (TEMPO 2009/2012) begins FROM 0900Z and
is forecast to occur up TO 1200Z. The third forecast line (FM201400) begins FROM 1400Z and
is good up TO 1700Z, with some of these conditions changing by and up TO 1700Z, the fourth
line. The fourth forecast line (BECMG 2016/2017) begins FROM 1600Z and is good up TO
2200Z. The fifth forecast line (BECMG 2020/2022) begins FROM 2000Z and is forecast to
occur up TO at least 0900Z, the end of the forecast period. The sixth line (TEMPO 2023/2103)
begins FROM 2300Z and is forecast to occur up TO 0300Z.

109. SUMMARY OF U.S. CIVIL/MILITARY TAF DIFFERENCES

Civilian weather stations are required to adhere to slightly different formats than military
stations, as has been discussed in the corresponding sections above. For reference, these
differences are summarized below. An example follows in Figure 1-32.

1. U.S. civil stations will use statute miles instead of meters.

2. U.S. civil stations include date time group of transmission prior to the forecast period (e.g.,
KMOB 081720Z 0818/0918).

3. When U.S. military stations amend, correct, or have a routine delayed forecast, a remark
will be appended to the last line of the forecast with the appropriate time (e.g., AMD 2218).

4. U.S. civil stations may include probability of precipitation occurrence.

5. U.S. civil stations do not include an altimeter group.

KLCH 032240Z 0323/0423 01012G22KT 5SM HZ OVC006

BECMG 0400/0402 01015G25KT 2SM -DZ BR OVC004
PROB40 0400/0404 VRB25G35KT 2SM TSRA VV002
FM040400 01012G20KT 2SM BR OVC004
BECMG 0415/0416 01015G25KT 4SM HZ OVC008
FM041700 01010KT 5SM HZ OVC009
KSHV 032240Z 0323/0423 36010KT 4SM BR OVC004 WS005/27050KT TEMPO
0323/0416 35015KT 2SM -FZDZ PL OVC020
FM041700 04008KT P6SM BKN025

Figure 1-32 Civilian TAF Examples

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Additionally, there are some differences between military TAFs and International TAFs, which
are summarized in Figure 1-33.

TAF Differences
U.S. Military TAF International TAF
Wind Speed Knots Wind Speed Knots-, or Meters- or
Kilometers-per-hour
CAVOK not used CAVOK used

Figure 1-33 Differences Between Military and International TAFs

The term CAVOK is similar to the term sometimes used among aviators, CAVU, which stands
for “Clear Air, Visibility Unlimited.” The term CAVOK stands for “Clear Air, Visibility O.K.”
and is not used in U.S. Military TAF reporting.

110. DETERMINATION OF CEILING IN METARS AND TAFS

We first introduced the concept of cloud layers and ceilings. As you may recall, the definition of
a ceiling is the height above the ground (AGL) ascribed to the lowest broken or overcast layer; or
the vertical visibility into an obscuring phenomenon (total obscuration). Remember partial
obscurations, such as FEW000, SCT000, or BKN000, do not constitute a ceiling.

Ceilings may be easy to determine in METAR, but more difficult in TAFs, since applicable time
periods usually encompass more than one line. Therefore, it is important to carefully evaluate
the ceiling by using the appropriate time period, as will be discussed below in “Using TAFs for
Flight Planning.” Once the ceiling (and other cloud layers) has been determined, then one can
move onward to determining the type of flight plan (IFR or VFR) as well as whether an alternate
landing airfield is required.

111. IFR/VFR RULES FOR FLIGHT PLANNING

The governing instructions mandate VFR flights maintain certain ceiling and visibility
minimums. The Chief of Naval Operations Instruction 3710.7 series, NATOPS General Flight
and Operating Instructions, referred to as OPNAV 3710.7, or as “the 3710,” requires VFR flights
to maintain ceiling and visibility minimums of at least 1000 feet and three statute miles. Air
Force Instruction 11-202 (Vol. 3), General Flight Rules, requires VFR flights to maintain ceiling
and visibility minimums of at least 1500 feet and three statute miles. In other words, existing
and forecast weather must be such as to permit VFR operations for the entire duration of the
flight and at the destination, including ±1 hour of the ETA. If this cannot be maintained, as
determined by reference to the applicable METAR and TAF products, then one must file and fly
an IFR flight plan.

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112. REQUIREMENTS FOR AN ALTERNATE ON IFR FLIGHT PLANS

Figure 1-34 OPNAV 3710.7 Determination of Requirement for Alternate

Each airfield has minimum ceiling requirements for commencing an approach and landing at that
field. These minimums are found on the airfield’s approach plates and play an important role in
the flight planning process. In particular, when filing an IFR flight plan, an alternate landing
airfield may or may not be required to be included on the DD 175 Flight Plan.

Naturally, the OPNAV 3710.7 provides rules that determine when an alternate is required, as
pictured in Figure 1-34.

When filing a Navy IFR flight plan, an alternate is required if the destination is forecasting a
ceiling below 3000 feet or the visibility less than three statute miles (referred to as 3000-3) for
the time period of ±1 hour of the planned ETA. If the forecast ceiling for the destination airfield
is “below minimums,” then an alternate must be selected that has forecast weather, 3000-3, or
better, ETA +/- 1 hour. However, if the destination has ceilings at or above the minimums but
below 3000-3, then the alternate airfield must have forecast ceiling and visibility above the
minimums for the planned approach by the appropriate margin (indicated on the right of Figure
1-34), either 300-1 for a non-precision approach, or 200-1/2 for a precision approach.

EXAMPLE OF MILITARY TAF WITH DESCRIPTION OF ELEMENTS

TAF KNSE 2609/2709 28004KT 9000 HZ SCT020 SCT200 QNH2998INS

FM261200 26007KT 9000 HZ SCT025 SCT080 BKN250
QNH2996INS VCSHRA
BECMG 2614/2616 9999 SCT025CB SCT250
BECMG 2617/2618 23015G25KT 530004
TEMPO 2619/2702 8000 TSSHRA SCT010 BKN025CB
FM270200 27010KT 9999 SCT030 BKN080 BKN250 500000
QNH3001INS T20/2609Z T26/2620Z

Figure 1-35 Military TAF Example

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1st line — Forecast for NAS Whiting field (KNSE) beginning at 0900Z (2609/2709) and valid
up to but not including 1200Z on the second line (FM261200), winds from 280 degrees and
speed 4 knots (28004KT), visibility 6 miles (9000 meters), in haze (HZ), scattered clouds at 2000
feet AGL (SCT020), scattered clouds at 20,000 feet AGL (SCT200), altimeter setting 29.98
inches (QNH2998INS).

2nd Line — From 1200Z (FM261200), up to but not including 1600Z (BECMG 2614/2616),
winds from 260º at seven knots (26007KT), visibility six miles (9,000 meters), in haze (HZ),
scattered clouds at 2500 feet AGL (SCT025), scattered clouds at 8000 feet AGL (SCT080),
broken clouds at 25,000 feet AGL (BKN250), altimeter setting of 29.96 inches (QNH2996INS),
and rain showers in the vicinity (VCSHRA), ceiling at 25,000 feet.

3rd Line — From 1400Z (BECMG 2614/2616), up to but not including 1800Z (BECMG
2617/2618), winds the same as 2nd line (26007KT), visibility greater than or equal to 7 miles
(9999), scattered cumulonimbus clouds at 2500 feet AGL (SCT025CB), and scattered clouds at
25,000 feet AGL (SCT250), altimeter setting same as 2nd line (QNH2996INS); remarks same as
2nd line. The visibility (9999) and clouds (SCT025CB) could change at 1400Z but might not
change until 1600Z.

4th Line — From 1700Z (BECMG 2617/2618) up to but not including 0200Z (FM270200),
winds from 230º at 15 knots with gusts to 25 knots (23015G25KT), visibility same as 3rd line
(9999), clouds same as 3rd line (SCT025CB, SCT250), moderate turbulence in clear air from
surface up to 4000 feet (530004), altimeter setting same as 2nd line, 29.96 inches
(QNH2996INS). The wind and turbulence could change as early as 1700Z but will change no
later than 1800Z.

5th Line — Temporarily between 1900Z and 0200Z (TEMPO 2619/2702), winds same as 4th
line (23015G25KT), visibility five miles (8000 meters), with thunderstorms and moderate rain
showers (TSSHRA), scattered clouds at 1000 feet AGL (SCT010) and broken cumulonimbus
clouds at 2500 feet AGL (BKN025CB), turbulence same as 4th line (530004), altimeter same as
2nd line (QNH2996INS), with ceiling at 2500 feet.

6th line — From 0200Z (FM270200) up to but not including 0900Z (end of TAF), winds from
270 degrees at 10 knots (27010KT), visibility greater than or equal to 7 miles (9999), scattered
clouds at 3000 feet AGL (SCT030), broken clouds at 8000 feet AGL (BKN080), broken clouds
at 25,000 feet AGL (BKN250), turbulence is no longer forecast, altimeter setting 30.01 inches
(QNH3001INS), ceiling at 8000 feet AGL, minimum and maximum temperatures forecasted for
the day is 20°C (68°F) at 0900Z and 26°C (79°F) at 2000Z respectively.

113. USING TAFS FOR FLIGHT PLANNING

For flight planning purposes, an aviator must consider the worst weather conditions that fall
within the period of 1 hour prior to the planned estimated time of arrival (ETA) up to but not
including one hour after ETA, for a total of a two hour window. As an example, assume an ETA
of 1620Z at NAS Whiting, use the TAF in Figure 1-35, and follow these simple steps:

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1. Determine the arrival window, which would be 1520 – 1720Z in this case.

2. Evaluate the whole TAF to determine the forecast time period to which each line applies.
If any part of the two hour ETA window falls within the time period of that line, then the
information in that line will be applicable. In this case, lines 2, 3, and 4 each cover part of the
1520 – 1720Z window.

3. Finally, mix and match the weather from each line for use in flight planning, building a
worst-case scenario for each group: strongest winds, lowest visibility, worst weather, lowest
ceiling, and lowest altimeter.

Another technique is to lay out a timeline in order to dissect and categorize the applicability of
the various lines of a TAF. By drawing labeled brackets around the times to which each line
applies and around the two hour ETA window, it becomes easier to see which lines of the TAF
are applicable. This technique is especially useful when planning a mission with numerous
approaches or enroute delays, or when the weather will be a deciding factor for the landing time.
Figure 1-36 shows a diagram of this technique for our example.

Figure 1-36 TAF Timeline Example

This technique also requires the aircrew to apply the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th lines of the forecast.
Using either method, they would look for the worst weather among each of these lines and plan
for:

1. Winds 230º at 15 knots gusting to 25 knots (23015G25)

2. Visibility 6 miles in haze (9000 HZ)

3. Scattered cumulonimbus at 2500 feet AGL, scattered clouds at 8000 feet AGL, and broken
clouds at 25,000 feet AGL, with ceiling at 25,000 feet (SCT025CB, SCT080, BKN250)

4. Altimeter setting 29.96 inches (QNH2996INS)

5. Frequent moderate clear air turbulence from the surface up to 4000 feet (530004)

6. Moderate rain showers in the vicinity (VCSHRA)

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STUDY QUESTIONS

Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METAR)

Use Figure 1-37 for questions 1-6, as well as any other figures needed from the chapter.

KLEX 150359Z 19004KT 7SM BKN250 22/20 A3020 RMK SLP220

KPAH 150358Z 09008KT 15SM -RA BKN011 OVC060 22/20 A3007 RMK CB OVHD
MOVG E SLP178
KAND 150357Z 09005KT 060V140 12SM SCT050 BKN250 30/22 A3015 RMK SLP204
KCAE 150356Z 00000KT 10SM FEW000 FEW050 SCT300 25/20 A3013 RMK CB N LTGIC
SLP201
KAVL 150458Z 12004KT 2SM BR HZ SCT000 SCT060 BKN080 21/20 A3028 RMK FG HZ
SCT000 PRESFR SLP226
KRDU 150456Z 13008KT 2SM HZ SCT000 24/22 A3017 RMK HZ SCT000 SLP208

Figure 1-37 METAR

1. The report for Anderson (AND) indicates______________________.

a. broken clouds at 25,000 feet

b. the altimeter setting is 29.05 inches of mercury
c. the wind is 200° at 40 miles per hour
d. broken clouds at 5000 feet

2. The report for Lexington (LEX) indicates______________________.

a. the ceiling is reported at 25,000 feet

b. the wind is from the south at 40 miles per hour
c. no ceiling
d. the station pressure reduced to sea level is 922.0 mb

3. The report for Paducah (PAH) indicates_________________________.

a. the ceiling is 6000 feet

b. the overcast is measured at 1100 feet
c. the altimeter setting is 30.07 inches of mercury
d. it is snowing

4. The report for Columbia (CAE) indicates__________________________.

a. over 15 statute miles visibility

b. there is no ceiling
c. a mistake in the dew point
d. a pilot would prefer to approach this station from the north

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5. The report for Asheville (AVL) indicates_________________.

a. 20 statute miles visibility

b. the wind was 210° at 4 miles per hour
c. the visibility was restricted because of mist and haze
d. the wind was 040° at 12 knots

6. The report for Raleigh (RDU) indicates___________________.

a. there was no ceiling

b. the altimeter setting was 20.17 inches of mercury
c. a partial obscuration
d. A and C are correct

Use Figure 1-38 for questions 7-12, as well as any other figures needed from the chapter.

KTLH 220455Z 04012KT 6SM -RA DZ BKN015 OVC018 22/21 A2995 RMK -RA OCNLY
RA SLP144
KAQQ 220456Z 22010KT 3SM R04/P6000FT FG SCT000 BKN008 BKN080 OVC250 19/18
A2994 RMK FG SCT000 CIG 006V010 SLP142
KSUU 222157Z 16009KT 10SM BKN027 BKN200 30/26 A2999 RMK SLP190
KNGP 222158Z 18012KT 12SM SKC 20/12 A2964 RMK VSBY E 1 1/2FU SLP037
KTIK 222158Z 18015G25KT 7SM BKN012 OVC090 26/14 A2966 RMK CIG LWR N SLP044
KBAD 222057Z 19007KT 15SM SCT055 BKN180 26/15 A2996 RMK VSBY SE 3 FU SLP146

Figure 1-38 METAR

7. The report for Tallahassee (TLH) indicates_____________________.

a. the light rain is occasionally heavy

b. the ceiling is estimated to be 1800 feet AGL
c. the present weather is light rain and drizzle
d. the sea-level pressure is 1014.2 inches

8. The report for Apalachicola (AQQ) indicates_____________________.

a. there are two ceilings

b. on RWY 04, the visual range is greater than 6000 feet
c. the ceiling varies between 6000 and 10,000 feet MSL
d. fog obscures five-eighths of the sky

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CHAPTER ONE METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

9. The report for Travis AFB (SUU) indicates_______________________.

a. the wind is 160° at 9 miles per hour

b. there was a ceiling
c. the visibility is 10 nautical miles
d. the altimeter setting is 29.99 mb

10. The report for NAS Corpus Christi (NGP) indicates___________________.

a. there is no ceiling
b. the wind is 12 knots from the south
c. the visibility in the area is restricted
d. All the above are correct

11. The report for Tinker AFB (TIK) indicates______________________.

a. the ceiling is 900 feet and is overcast

b. a pilot flying at 10,000 feet would be above all clouds
c. the ceiling on an approach from the north may be lower
d. there are squalls

12. The report for Barksdale AFB (BAD) indicates_____________________.

a. the magnetic wind is 190° at 07 knots

b. the visibility is 15 statute miles in all directions
c. the temperature-dew point spread is 12 °C
d. none of the above

Use Figure 1-39 for questions 13-19, as well as any other figures needed from the chapter.

KNQI SPECI 181420Z 36007KT 3/4SM FG VV004 22/21 A2976 RMK SLP078
KBWG 181357Z 13004KT 10SM TSRA PL SCT025CB SCT035 SCT100 BKN250 28/26 A2990
RMK TSSH ALQDS SLP125
KMEM 181356Z 04010KT 010V070 30SM BKN120 BKN250 30/17 A2995 RMK A02 SLP142
KPAH 181358Z 17023G30KT 12SM SKC 34/24 A2990 RMK FEW CI SLP111
KSDF SPECI 181417Z 00000KT 1SM -RA FG BKN006 19/18 A2976 RMK A02 SLP078
KTRI 181356Z 00000KT 20SM BKN065 A3010 RMK LSR08P DRY SLP193

Figure 1-39 METAR

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13. The report of NAS Kingsville (NQI) at 1420Z indicates_____________________.

a. an overcast at 400 feet

b. the visibility is 3 statute miles
c. the ceiling was due to an obscuration
d. the lowest cloud layer is at 300 feet

14. The 1420Z report from NAS Kingsville (NQI) indicates_____________________.

a. this was a special weather observation

b. the visibility is unrestricted
c. the wind information is missing
d. no clouds

15. The report for Memphis (MEM) indicates________________________.

a. the wind is steady from 040° magnetic at 10 knots

b. the ceiling is 12,000 feet
c. there is another ceiling at 25,000 feet
d. the altimeter setting is 29.95 hectopascals

16. The report for Bristol (TRI) indicates__________________________.

a. the temperature and dew point are minus values

b. the wind information is missing
c. the temperature is missing
d. two layers of clouds

17. The report for Bowling Green (BWG) indicates_______________________.

a. the ceiling is 2500 feet

b. ice pellets were falling at the time of the observation
c. the wind is 130° at four miles per hour
d. broken clouds at 10,000 feet

18. The report for Paducah (PAH) indicates_______________.

a. gusty winds
b. the wind speed reached 30 miles per hour
c. there are no clouds
d. the barometric pressure is 911.1 mb

AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORTS AND TERMINAL AERODROME

FORECASTS 1-35
CHAPTER ONE METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

19. The report for Louisville (SDF) indicates______________________.

a. light rain and fog

b. the wind is calm
c. the height of the ceiling was 600 feet
d. all of the above are correct

Use Figure 1-40 for questions 20-24, as well as any other figures needed from the chapter.

KADM SPECI 120958Z 32014KT 7SM SKC 21/18 A2970 RMK SLP057
KOKC 121008Z 18014KT 15SM SCT010 BKN025 28/23 A3006 RMK DSNT TSSH SLP219
KPWM 121055Z 30018KT 2SM R30/P6000FT -SN SCT000 OVC008 M01/M02 A2991
RMK SN SCT000 DRFTG SN PSR20 SLP118
KLUF 121356Z 18005KT 45SM SCT025 SCT050 BKN240 04/M06 A3017 RMK
SHSN OBSCG MTNS N SLP217
KNSE SPECI 120123Z 01023G35 1/2SM R36R/1200FT -BLSN SCT000 OVC005 RMK VIS
3/8V5/8 BLSN SCT000 CIG 004V006
KNPA 120058Z COR 13008G20KT 100V170 8SM SCT005 BKN008 OVC012 06/M01 A2945
RMK BKN TOPS 070 SLP985

Figure 1-40 METAR

20. The report for Oklahoma City (OKC) indicates___________________________.

a. it is raining in sight of the field

b. the temperature-dew point spread was 9ºC
c. Oklahoma City was still able to transmit the report at the assigned time slot
d. A and C are correct

21. The report for Portland (PWM) indicates_____________________________.

a. the sky is partially obscured by snow

b. the runway visual range is greater than 6000 feet
c. the ceiling was 800 feet
d. all of the above are correct

22. Luke AFB (LUF) reported___________________________________.

a. a visibility of 45 statute miles

b. no weather in the vicinity of the station
c. an unlimited ceiling
d. all of the above are correct

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER ONE

23. The report for NAS Whiting Field North (NSE) indicates__________________________.

a. a partial obscuration due to blowing snow

b. is in error, since RVR does not coincide with prevailing visibility
c. a possible ceiling at 400 feet
d. the conditions stated in A and C

24. NAS Pensacola (NPA) reported___________________________.

a. base of the overcast at 1200’ MSL, top of the overcast at 7000 feet MSL
b. conditions which would point up the wisdom of monitoring reports for further
weather developments at Willow Grove while enroute to that terminal
c. VFR conditions over the field
d. wind steady from 310° at 8 knots with gusts at 15 knots

AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORTS AND TERMINAL AERODROME

FORECASTS 1-37
CHAPTER ONE METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs)

Use Figure 1-41 for questions 25-48, as well as any other figures needed from the chapter.

TAF KNPA 2012/2112 36005KT 0800 DZ FG VV002 QNH3001INS

FM201500 02011KT 8000 HZ BKN007 BKN020 BKN140 BKN300 641403 540209
QNH2995INS
TEMPO 2018/2022 16008KT 4800 SHRA SCT008 BKN020

TAF KNTU 2012/2112 02008KT 1600 RA BR OVC004 QNH3000INS

TEMPO 2012/2016 VRB05KT 0800 FG VV001
FM201600 02011KT 6000 HZ BKN007 BKN020 OVC300 670708 QNH2993INS
TEMPO 2018/2022 19006KT 4800 SHRA SCT009 BKN020

TAF KDOV 2012/2118 36007KT 0800 DZ FG VV002 QNH3001INS

FM201500 02011KT 8000 HZ BKN007 BKN020 BKN150 OVC300 621403 540209
QNH2995INS
TEMPO 2018/2022 16008KT 4800 SHRA SCT008 BKN020

TAF KNBE 2012/2112 VRB05KT 0800 DZ FG VV001 QNH3004INS

FM201300 12006KT 1600 BR OVC005 QNH3007INS VCRA
FM201700 17010KT 8000 HZ SCT007 BKN020 OVC300 650106 540209 QNH2991INS VCSHRA
TEMPO 2018/2023 18015KT 4800 SHRA BKN020
BECMG 2101/2102 VRB05KT 3200 BR BKN005 OVC020 650106 500000 QNH3000INS

TAF KTIK 2012/2118 VRB05KT 1600 DZ BR OVC004 QNH2999INS

FM201500 15010KT 0800 DZ FG OVC006 QNH3001INS
BECMG 2021/2022 17010KT 2400 DZ BKN014 OVC025 QNH3005INS
FM210000 22012KT 9999 SCT030 OVC050 QNH3002INS
BECMG 2106/2108 24012KT SKC QNH3004INS TX30/2021Z TN19/2111Z

KSPS 201125Z 2012/2112 17010KT 4800 BR BKN008 OVC015

FM201500 17015KT 9999 OVC015
FM202000 19012KT 9999 BKN030
BECMG 2102/2104 19010KT SKC

TAF KNQI 2015/2115 18008KT 9999 SKC QNH3016INS

FM201800 17012G20KT 9999 BKN025 611109 521103 QNH3012INS
FM210400 17015G22KT 9999 BKN020 BKN100 WSCONDS 600000 521103
QNH3008INS
TEMPO 2104/2108 20025G35KT 1600 TSSHRA OVC008CB

TAF KNBG 2015/2115 13008KT 9999 SCT025 SCT100 651309 521303 QNH3025INS
TEMPO 2015/2100 13012KT 9999 BKN025 BKN100
FM210900 VRB04KT 2400 BR SCT015 651309 521303 QNH3021INS
TEMPO 2109/2113 00000KT 0800 FG OVC015
FM211300 17010KT 9999 SCT030 600000 500000 QNH3020INS

TAF KNMM 2015/2115 14005KT 8000 BR SCT025 QNH3028INS

FM201900 16005KT 8000 HZ SCT025 BKN080 651109 561203 QNH3024INS
TEMPO 2019/2102 18010KT 6000 HZ BKN025 OVC080
FM210200 00000KT 9999 SKC 562005 600000 QNH3020INS
BECMG 2108/2109 1600 BR SCT000 562005 QNH3018INS

Figure 1-41 TAF

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER ONE

25. What is the forecast period for the first line of code on the Navy Pensacola (NPA) forecast?

a. 1200Z up to, but not including 1200Z

b. 1200Z up to, but not including 2200Z
c. 1200Z up to, but not including 1800Z
d. 1200Z up to, but not including 1500Z

26. An aircraft with an ETA into NPA of 1715Z would expect a ceiling of no less than______.

a. 2000 feet MSL

b. 2000 feet AGL
c. 700 feet AGL
d. 700 feet MSL

27. What is the highest visibility forecast throughout the forecast period at NPA?

a. 3 SM
b. 5 SM
c. 1/2 SM
d. >6 SM

28. Would a pilot flying over NPA during the hours of 1600Z to 2000Z expect icing?

a. Yes
b. No

29. Which lines of the forecast for Navy Oceana (NTU) would be necessary to look at to
formulate the worst case scenario for an ETA of 1615Z?

a. Line 3 only
b. Lines 2 and 3 only
c. All lines would be used
d. Lines 1 thru 3

30. What minimum visibility would be expected at NTU for an ETA of 1300Z?

a. 1 SM
b. 1/2 SM
c. 4 SM
d. >6 SM

AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORTS AND TERMINAL AERODROME

FORECASTS 1-39
CHAPTER ONE METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

31. What type of turbulence is forecast over NTU at 2000Z?

a. Severe turbulence in clear, frequent

b. Severe turbulence in cloud, infrequent
c. Severe turbulence in clear, infrequent
d. None forecast at that time

32. What is the temporary forecast sky cover between 1200Z and 1600Z at NTU?

a. 800 foot ceiling

b. Nine-tenths cloud coverage
c. Partial obscuration
d. Total obscuration

33. What is the forecast period for the second line of code for Dover, DE (DOV)?

a. 1500Z up to, but not including 1200Z

b. 1200Z up to, but not including 1500Z
c. 1500Z up to, but not including 2200Z
d. 1500Z up to, but not including 1800Z

34. Between which altitudes would icing be expected at DOV, at any time, if at all?

a. 14,000 - 17,000 feet

b. 14,000 - 14,300 feet
c. 2000 - 11,000 feet
d. none is forecast for DOV

35. What are the maximum forecast winds at DOV throughout the forecast period?

a. 020° Mag at 11 mph

b. 150° True at 16 knots
c. 020° True at 11 knots
d. 180° Mag at 22 knots

36. What is the forecast period for the TEMPO line on the Navy Dallas, TX (NBE) forecast?

a. 1800z up to, but not including 0200z

b. 1800z up to, but not including 1200z
c. 1800z up to, but not including 0100z
d. 1800z up to, but not including 2300z

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER ONE

37. The minimum expected ceiling throughout the forecast period for NBE is____________.

a. 1000 feet AGL

b. 100 meters MSL
c. 100 feet AGL
d. 500 feet MSL

38. What are the forecast winds for NBE for an ETA of 0315Z?

a. 170/10
b. Variable at 5 kts
c. 180/15
d. Calm

39. Was Navy Kingsville (NQI) expecting wind shear at any time during the forecast period?
(Yes or No)

For questions 40-44, provide the minimum ceilings and visibilities for the location and ETA
listed.

40. NTU ETA 1300Z: / ; ETA 1900Z: / ; ETA 0900Z: /

(CIG) / (VSBY)
41. DOV ETA 1400Z: / ; ETA 1800Z: / ; ETA 0100Z: /

42. NBE ETA 1415Z: / ; ETA 1920Z: / ; ETA 0130Z: /

43. TIK ETA 1300Z: / ; ETA 1545Z: / ; ETA 0300Z: /

44. SPS ETA 1310Z: / ; ETA 1730Z: / ; ETA 2300Z: /

AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORTS AND TERMINAL AERODROME

FORECASTS 1-41
CHAPTER ONE METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

45. Fill in the forecast elements for the following table:

NQI/ETA 0700Z NBG/ETA 1600Z NMM/ETA 0730Z

2 HOUR WINDOW ______ ______ ______ .

CEILING (MIN) ______ ______ ______

.
VISIBILITY (MIN)/WEATHER(S) ___/___ ___/___ ___/___.

ALTIMETER (LOWEST) ______ ______ ______

.
WINDS (MAX) ______ ______ ______
.
ICING (TYPE/ALTITUDES) ______/ ______/ ______/
.
TURB (TYPE/ALTITUDES) ______/ ______/ ______/

.
Answer questions 46-48 for NQI, NBG, and NMM in regards to ceilings and visibilities only.

46. Is NQI, NBG or NMM forecast to be IFR for the ETAs listed in question 46 (circle yes or
no for each station)?

a. NQI (Yes/No)
b. NBG (Yes/No)
c. NMM (Yes/No)

47. Would NQI, NBG or NMM require an alternate at the ETA (circle yes or no for each
station)?

a. NQI (Yes/No)
b. NBG (Yes/No)
c. NMM (Yes/No)

48. Why would NQI, NBG or NMM require an alternate at the ETA, if at all?

a. NQI Ceilings and/or Visibilities? (Circle one or both)

b. NBG Ceilings and/or Visibilities? (Circle one or both)
c. NMM Ceilings and/or Visibilities? (Circle one or both)
d. No alternate required for either station

1-42 AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORTS AND TERMINAL AERODROME

FORECASTS
 CHAPTER TWO
DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS

200. INTRODUCTION

This chapter will introduce a number of different weather products available from the local
weather office or over other lines of communication. An understanding of these visual products,
which are produced to show a national scale, will quickly provide an aviator a broader picture of
the weather than can be gathered from METARs and TAFs.

New aviators may find these products to be the most often used weather documents for flight
planning. Once a mission is assigned, whether for training or operational flying, the next stop is
usually to find out the weather. Sometimes there will be a number of different possibilities for
operating areas or routes of flight, and the weather may be the biggest factor in deciding which to
choose. For instance, a Navy mission requiring a low-level visual navigation on a military
training route requires weather to be greater than 3000 foot ceilings and five miles of visibility.
If there are routes available to the north, east, and west, and areas of IFR to the north and east,
then a western route would be preferred. A quick glance at a Weather Depiction Chart, Low-
Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart, or even a satellite image can provide the
information to make such a decision. Other types of missions may require knowledge of the
winds, and all aviators ought to know whether their flight will be affected by thunderstorms or
other hazards. The other products discussed in this chapter can also provide such necessary
information at a quick glance, because each type of chart is designed for a particular purpose.
Once an aviator has a general knowledge of the purpose and use of each product, it becomes very
easy to gather the required information. All of the products discussed in this chapter can be
found at the National Weather Service (NWS) aviation weather web site
http://aviationweather.gov/adds. Pilots should research this site prior to any flight and before
requesting a weather brief.

201. LESSON TOPIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE: Partially supported by this lesson topic:

Describe displayed data shown on various weather imagery products.

ENABLING OBJECTIVES: Completely supported by this lesson topic:

1. State the pilot’s use of a Surface Analysis Chart.

2. Identify displayed data on Surface Analysis Charts.

3. Describe displayed data on Station Model Plots.

4. State the pilot’s use of Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Charts.

5. Identify displayed data on Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Charts.

DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS 2-1

CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

6. Identify plotted data on Radar Summary Charts.

7. Identify various weather data on NEXRAD imagery.

8. Identify potential significant weather data on two types of satellite imagery.

9. Identify plotted data on Weather Depiction Charts.

10. Identify ceilings on Weather Depiction Charts.

11. State the use of ADDS temp/winds chart supplement.

12. State the meaning of valid time on ADDS temp/winds chart supplement.

13. Identify plotted data on ADDS temp/winds chart supplement.

14. State the teletype identifier of Winds-Aloft Forecasts.

15. Identify coded data on Winds-Aloft Forecasts.

16. State the rules of wind parameters and omission of temperature in Winds-Aloft Forecasts.

17. Select a flight altitude that results in the most favorable wind component using Winds-
Aloft Forecasts and Winds-Aloft Prognostic Charts.

202. REFERENCES

Chief of Naval Operations Instruction 3710.7 series, NATOPS General Flight and Operating
Instructions

203. STUDY ASSIGNMENT

Review Chapter Two and answer the Study Questions.

204. SURFACE ANALYSIS CHARTS

Weather forecasting, to a great extent, is dependent on weather charts showing the weather, its
development, and movement from place to place. Regular scheduled observations (METAR) are
taken throughout the world at selected times and compiled by computer at the Suitland,
Maryland Weather Bureau Center. The computers analyze this information and produce a
number of products, including the Surface Analysis Chart, which are transmitted to subscribers
throughout the world.

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

The Surface Analysis Chart is used by pilots to obtain an overall facsimile picture of observed
weather, including the location of pressure systems, air masses, and fronts, in relation to their
planned flight route (Figure 2-1). At this point, each of these features should be familiar from
previous meteorology classes.

Figure 2-1 Surface Analysis Chart

The information displayed on the Surface Analysis Chart is observed weather, meaning the chart
represents past history, and is not a forecast. The valid time (VT) of the chart is located in the
upper right-hand corner. This is given in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), and is the
observation time of the information gathered to compile the chart.

The pressure systems mentioned are outlined by isobars drawn at 4-millibar intervals with actual
pressure measurements located at the center of the system. When the pressure gradient is very
shallow, intermediate isobars (short dashed lines) are sometimes drawn on the chart at one-half
the standard interval. A two-digit number indicates the values of the isobars (e.g., 16, which
would indicate 1016.0 millibars).

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CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Figure 2-2 Frontal Symbols

Station Model Plots

Station model plots can be found on many charts, including METARs and TAFs. Some of the
information received is displayed around circles (manual) or squares (automatic) to form station
models. The station model is pictorial shorthand that provides the maximum data in a minimum
amount of space. Figures 2-3 and 2-4 are provided as a review and reference for other charts that
use the station model plot.

Figure 2-3 Station Model Explanation

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

Figure 2-4 Major Station Model Symbols

205. LOW LEVEL SIGNIFICANT WEATHER PROGNOSTIC CHARTS

The Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart (Figure 2-5) is commonly composed of
four panels that show a forecast of weather conditions affecting aviation from the surface to
24,000 feet MSL. Figure 2-6 is a simplified version of the chart, showing an expanded legend,
as well as an explanation of each panel and their relation to each other. If pilots access the
prognostic charts via the internet, they can select a 4-panel display or a single-panel display. A
30-hour, 36-hour, and 48-hour forecast is also available. This text will focus on the 4-panel
12-hour and 24-hour chart.

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CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Figure 2-5 Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart

The left two panels are a 12-hour forecast, while the right two are a 24-hour forecast. The
bottom two panels are a surface prognosis, as indicated in the chart label in the lower part of
each panel. These indicate the conditions forecast to occur on the surface, and can be thought of
as the “cause” for the top two panels, the “effect.” The top two panels show the significant
weather that is a result of the forecast surface conditions, including areas of VFR, MVFR, and
IFR, the locations of the freezing level, and areas of moderate or greater turbulence.

Additionally, note the legend applies only to the top two panels, as those lines are not used in the
bottom two. Each particular line will be labeled with its corresponding altitude, either “SFC” for
the surface, or a two or three digit number representing the altitude in hundreds of feet MSL.

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

Figure 2-6 Significant Weather Prognostic Legend

The bottom two panels–the surface prognostic–use a different legend, as shown in Figure 2-7.
These lines and shadings depict the type and coverage of precipitation forecast to occur. Areas
enclosed by solid lines indicate precipitation. The area will be shaded if precipitation is expected
to cover 1/2 or more of the area. If not, there will be no shading. Additionally, a symbol will be
included from the present weather column of Figure 2-4 to represent the particular type of
precipitation, such as rain, drizzle, or snow. A single symbol denotes intermittent precipitation,
while a double symbol denotes continuous precipitation. Three symbols denote heavy
precipitation.

Turbulence

Symbols shown in an area of turbulence denote intensity (Figure 2-7). The numbers to the left of
a slash (/) indicate tops of forecasted turbulence, and numbers to the right indicate the base of the
forecasted turbulence in hundreds of feet MSL. No figure to the right of the slash indicates
turbulence from the surface upward, while absence of a figure to the left of the slash indicates
turbulence above the limits of the chart (24,000 feet MSL).

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CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Figure 2-7 Surface Prognostic Legend

Freezing Level

Freezing level height contours are drawn on the charts for every 4000 foot interval. These
contours are labeled in hundreds of feet MSL. The surface freezing level, however, is labeled
SFC. An upper-level freezing contour crossing the surface freezing level line indicates multiple
freezing levels due to an intermediate temperature inversion. Areas of structural icing are not
specifically outlined on this chart, but icing can be inferred in clouds or precipitation above the
freezing level.

206. RADAR SUMMARY CHARTS

The Radar Summary Chart (Figure 2-8) is a computer-produced facsimile presentation based on
radar observations of echo activity (thunderstorms, rain, sleet, etc.). The Radar Summary Chart
is used in flight planning to provide pilots with a pictorial display of echo activity along their
planned route of flight. This chart is transmitted on a variable schedule, and the date-time group
reflects the time the radar observations were taken.

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

Figure 2-8 Radar Summary Chart

Graphic Display

The Radar Summary Chart is updated every hour. It can be obtained via the internet at the
Aviation Weather Center website or by requesting an International Flight Folder. Radar echoes
show intensity, tops of cells, speed, and direction of movement. Intensity of precipitation is
color coded. Tops of clouds are shown in hundreds of feet MSL. Movement is depicted with
wind-barb notation.

DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS 2-9

CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Tops and Movement

The intense cell over Lake Superior has a cloud echo top of 57,000’ MSL and is moving to the
northeast at 60 knots.

Figure 2-9 Radar Summary Chart

Intensity Levels

Doppler radar echoes measured as strength in decibels are also color coded. Light green is light
rain or virga. Red or magenta indicates a very strong thunderstorm with possible hail.

Radar Coded Message

Figure 2-10 Precipitation Intensity Levels

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

207. NEXT GENERATION RADAR (NEXRAD)

Next Generation Radar (NEXRAD) images provide an excellent source of weather information
for pilots. The computer monitor image seen in a weather office is a computer-generated
compilation of radar data transmitted from a radar site.

Advantages

The NEXRAD system has significant advantages over conventional weather radar systems. The
resolution of the display is improved, while the displays provide meteorologists and aircrew with
numerous options for presentation of a wide variety of system products. For example,
Figure 2-11 is a NEXRAD display of a storm track showing the intensity and progress of a storm
in the Lake Charles area.

Figure 2-11 Lake Charles NEXRAD Display

While older weather radar equipment show only basic reflected displays, the NEXRAD system
can display derived products such as composite reflectivity. This is the type of precipitation
display most commonly used in flight planning. A wind profile screen can also be displayed.

DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS 2-11

CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Precipitation Display

NEXRAD presentations show precipitation levels in the area scanned by the radar system. The
NEXRAD does not measure the rate of precipitation directly; rather, it measures the energy
returned/reflected from the precipitation particles. The image seen on the screen is actually a
computer- generated compilation of returned energy shown in varying colors. This display is
referred to as the reflectivity presentation.

The intensity of precipitation can be determined by using the graduated scale shown in the
legend area of the screen (Figure 2-11). This is measured in “dbz,” or strength in decibels, of the
energy received by the radar. Through use of this scale, precipitation strength can quickly be
deciphered for a given area by comparing the color of the area to the color-coded legend. Higher
precipitation levels are farther up the color scale. During flight planning, a pilot should carefully
analyze the higher intensity areas in relation to the planned route of flight or operating area.

Other Features

Other unique features of the NEXRAD provide the capability to display areas of hail, tornadoes,
wind shear, and microbursts (Figure 2-12). This type of information is particularly useful in
planning a flight around known areas of potentially dangerous weather conditions.

Figure 2-12 Hook Echo on NEXRAD

Hail

The structure of a storm can provide clues to the potential for hail. Hailstorms have intense
cores, generally between 2 and 5 NM in diameter, and usually begin developing at higher

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

altitudes and descend toward the base of a storm. Very high reflectivity values (over 55 dbz)
may indicate that the precipitation is in the form of hail. Thunderstorms with strong updrafts,
extensive vertical height, high liquid water content, and large cloud drop sizes are favorable
conditions for the formation of hail.

Tornadoes

The NEXRAD system does not directly observe tornadic circulation; however, the system can
display what is referred to as a “hook echo” that is considered indicative of a tornado. In
Figure 2-12, a dark shaded hook echo is evident just west-southwest of MOB. This echo actually
resulted in a tornado that caused severe property damage and injuries to personnel. A pilot
looking at a NEXRAD display should plan to go around areas of red on the color-coded scale, as
these are generally considered danger areas and should be avoided.

Wind Shear

A major hazard to aviation is the presence of low-level wind shear and frontline wind shear.
Although wind shear can occur at any altitude, it is particularly hazardous when it develops over
a short period of time within 2000 feet of the ground. The primary concern for aircraft at low
altitudes is a rapid change in wind direction that could affect the aircraft’s handling
characteristics. There are several display and data analysis options available to indicate possible
wind shear.

Microbursts

Microbursts are detectable by NEXRAD because of the density gradient of the descending air,
the particulate matter contained therein, or both. However, because of the shallow vertical extent
of the outflow from a microburst, the phenomenon will usually not be detected beyond a range of
20 NM from the radar site.

Satellite Imagery

For general-purpose use, there are three types of satellite imagery available. When combined
they provide a great deal of information about clouds to a pilot. Through interpretation, one can
determine the type and height of clouds as well as the temperature and the thickness of cloud
layers. From this information, the pilot can get a good idea of possible associated weather along
the planned route of flight.

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CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Visible Imagery

One type of imagery is the visible satellite (Figure 2-13). With a visible satellite picture, we are
looking at clouds and the Earth reflecting sunlight back to the satellite sensors. The greater the
reflected sunlight reaching the sensors, the brighter white the object is on the picture. The
amount of reflectivity reaching the sensors depends upon the height, thickness, and ability of the
object to reflect sunlight. Since clouds are much more reflective than most of the earth, clouds
will usually show up white on the picture, especially thick clouds. Thus, the visible picture is
primarily used to determine the presence of clouds and the type of clouds from shape and
texture. Due to the obvious lack of sunlight at night, there are no visible pictures available
during this period.

Figure 2-13 Visible Satellite Imagery

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

Infrared Imagery

The second type of imagery is the infrared (IR) satellite (Figure 2-14). With an IR picture, we
are looking at heat radiation being emitted by the clouds and earth. The images show
temperature differences between cloud tops and the ground, as well as temperature gradations of
cloud tops over the surface of the Earth. Temperatures are depicted using color coding similar to
NEXRAD. Warm temperatures (surface) are dark orange, and as temps decrease, colors
progress thru yellow to green to blue to purple (25°C to -68°C).

Figure 2-14 Infrared Satellite Imagery

DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS 2-15

CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Water Vapor Imagery

As the Earth and the atmosphere emit energy, specific wavelengths are absorbed by the
atmosphere, especially by clouds and suspended water vapor. At other wavelengths, the energy
is not absorbed and is transmitted through the atmosphere. Most IR sensors on meteorological
satellites take advantage of the infrared bands that are transmitted through the atmosphere. This
allows accurate measurements of the temperatures of the Earth and cloud tops to be made. Some
satellite sensors, however, study radiation at wavelengths that are readily absorbed by the
atmosphere. Studying the IR energy at these wavelengths allows atmospheric gas concentrations
to be studied without interference from surface features.

Energy emitted at these particular wavelengths is readily absorbed by water vapor in the
atmosphere. The darker regions in water vapor imagery are areas where very little water vapor
exists in the middle and upper troposphere, and the lighter regions are very moist. Water vapor
imagery has become a very valuable tool for weather analysis and prediction in the last ten years
because water vapor imagery shows moisture in the atmosphere, not just cloud patterns. This
allows meteorologists to observe large-scale circulation patterns even when clouds are not
present.

Figure 2-15 Water Vapor Imagery

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

208. WEATHER DEPICTION CHARTS

The Weather Depiction Chart is a facsimile presentation of the compiled METARs, valid as of
the time indicated on the chart (Figure 2-16). It is used in flight planning to determine areas of
IFR/VFR and to determine the minimum ceilings enroute. To help the pilot better understand the
cause of low ceilings and/or poor visibilities, the chart will also include the positions of fronts
from the previous hour. The station models depicted represent individual station observations,
and they are slightly different from the general station model presented earlier in this Chapter.
Because of the purpose of the chart, information presented is kept to a minimum for simplicity.
Therefore, these models have no wind, temperature, or pressure, and indicate only: (1) sky
coverage, (2) ceilings or the height (AGL) of the lowest cloud layer (SCT or greater), (3)
visibilities of six miles or less, and (4) weather and obstructions to visibility, each of which are
described below.

Figure 2-16 Weather Depiction Chart

Sky Cover Symbols

Total sky cover is reported in the station models of the Weather Depiction Chart using the same
methods listed in Figure 2-4. Additionally, a right bracket (]) to the right of the symbol indicates
the METAR is from an automated station.

DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS 2-17

CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Ceiling Heights

The height of the sky cover is plotted in the 6 o'clock position of the station model. Heights are
given in hundreds of feet AGL. Recall the definition of a ceiling, because it also applies to the
Weather Depiction Chart. If the sky cover is broken, overcast, or if the sky cover is an
obscuration, the height will represent the height of the ceiling. If the sky cover is scattered, the
height represents the height of the lowest scattered layer of clouds. When a broken or greater
sky cover is plotted without a height entry, the clouds are thin. If an obscuration is plotted
without a height entry, it indicates a partial obscuration.

Visibilities and Obstructions to Vision

Visibilities of 6 statute miles or less will be entered at the 9 o'clock position of the station model
and will be indicated in miles and fractions of miles. When reported visibility is greater than 6
statute miles, the entry will be omitted. Precipitation and obstructions to vision will follow the
visibility, using the same weather symbols as presented in Figure 2-4. When several types are
occurring simultaneously, only the most significant one or two types will be entered. One
symbol unique to the Weather Depiction Charts is used when clouds are topping the ridges of
mountains, as shown in Figure 2-17.

Figure 2-17 Clouds Topping Ridges Symbol

Legend

In addition to the frontal symbols on the Weather Depiction Chart, three areas associated with
ceilings and visibilities are also depicted by a set of lines and shadings. The legend on the lower
right-hand corner of the chart describes each of these three areas, which is summarized in
Figure 2-18. A solid line enclosing a shaded area indicates IFR conditions: ceilings below 1000
feet and/or visibilities below three miles. A line enclosing an unshaded area indicates
Marginal VFR (MVFR) conditions: ceilings between 1000 and 3000 feet and/or visibility
between three and five miles. The portion of the chart that is not enclosed by lines–shaded or
unshaded–indicates Completely VFR conditions: ceilings of greater than 3000 feet and
visibilities over five miles.

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

Figure 2-18 Weather Depiction Chart Legend

Figure 2-19 ADDS Temp/Wind Charts Supplement (1)

DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS 2-19

CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Figure 2-20 ADDS Temp/Wind Charts Supplement (2)

209. ADDS TEMP/WIND CHARTS SUPPLEMENT

The ADDS temp/wind charts supplement (Figure 2-19 and Figure 2-20) are facsimile
presentations that show the average forecast flight level winds and temperature aloft in knots and
whole degrees Celsius for the time and altitude selected.

These charts are constructed for a range of altitudes and may be selected to determine the
forecast wind and temperature data for the selected time and valid for that time only. They are
used to supplement the FB (winds aloft forecast) products; these provide more specific
winds/temps for selected stations.

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

Station Models in the ADDS wind charts supplement

ADDS temp/wind charts supplement use wind-barb notation to show forecast wind speed and
direction. Wind speeds and directions are read the same way as the station models on the
Surface Analysis Chart (see Figure 2-3).

Valid Time

The computer constructs the ADDS temp/wind charts supplement based on observed winds and
temperatures recorded at a particular time. These charts represent forecast winds and
temperatures for a specific time, rather than a period of time. Since wind speeds generally
change slowly in the upper atmosphere, these winds and temperatures are considered to be
representative forecast averages until the next set of charts is received. Therefore, the
information shown is theoretically accurate for the valid time of the chart only.

Winds-Aloft Forecasts

Winds-Aloft Forecasts are teletype forecasts of upper winds and temperatures for selected
stations within the continental United States (Figure 2-21). They are transmitted twice a day and
the teletype identifier “FD” appears in the heading. Additionally, they are broken into two
segments. Each segment gives a valid time and a for-use time (the forecast period) at the
beginning of each segment; the total forecast is usable for a period of 15 hours. The forecast
represents conditions both as they should occur specifically at the valid time and also the average
conditions as they should occur during the for-use time.

FDUS1 KWBC 180545Z

DATA BASED ON 180000Z

VALID 181200Z FOR USE 0600Z - 1500Z, TEMPS NEG ABV 24000

FT 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000 24000 30000 34000 39000

JAX 1008 1005+08 9900+04 9900-01 3016-15 3027-28 305042 296749 296552
TLH 1110 1207+09 9900+04 9900+00 2816-14 2832-26 295641 297049 296653
PIE 1113 1110+09 1007+05 9900+00 3118-13 3037-26 306040 296948 296252
MIA 1118 1218+10 1010+06 0505+02 3222-13 3141-25 306040 306147 304852

TRI 3010+05 2920+00 2931-05 2946-18 2953-30 297044 298852 299156

GRW 1615 1914+08 2216+03 2421-03 2632-17 2639-29 276243 289052 289557
MEM 1723 1925+09 2024+04 2124-02 2429-16 2537-28 265942 268351 269256

LIT 1829 2034+10 2033+04 2131-02 2333-16 2443-28 256242 258650 750056
SGF 1732 2038+09 2038+04 2136-03 2337-17 2446-29 246644 259851 751357
OKC 1730 1940+11 2043+05 2142-01 2245-01 2358-28 237843 730450 732055
AMA 1925 2140+05 2146-03 2156-18 2271-30 229244 721551 721553

DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS 2-21

CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

VALID 181800Z FOR USE 1500-2100Z. TEMPS NEG ABV 24000

FT 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000 24000 30000 34000 39000

JAX 1512 1611+08 1708+04 1705-01 2913-14 3029-26 315641 317249 316743
TLH 1514 1614+08 1712+04 1811-01 2716-14 2934-25 295639 306547 296354
PIE 1313 1513+09 1511+04 1408+00 3012-13 3035-24 315938 316647 306053
MIA 1017 1219+09 1113+05 0909+01 3317-12 3241-24 326339 316546 315251

TRI 2411+06 2618+01 2827-04 2841-17 2847-29 286744 299452 790256

GRW 1822 2028+12 2128+06 2226-03 2532-17 2642-28 275943 278649 770856
MEM 1828 2134+10 2133+05 2133-02 2335-16 2546-27 266342 268748 761456

LIT 1832 2142+10 2141+04 2139-02 2241-16 2453-27 257141 259348 751756
SGF 1835 2144+10 2145+04 2145-02 2248-17 2359-28 247543 259549 751556
OKC 1832 2044+11 2149+05 2149-02 2256-17 2273-28 239241 730548 731154
AMA 2026 2242+02 2247-06 2258-21 2278-30 710243 721049 229951

Figure 2-21 Winds-Aloft Forecasts

Wind Coding/Decoding Rules

While the Winds-Aloft Forecast may seem like nothing more than a bunch of numbers, it
presents wind information similar to that found in Winds-Aloft Prognostic Charts in an
organized series of four or six-digit groups. The left column lists the reporting station, and the
top row lists the corresponding altitudes for which wind and temperature data are given,
referenced to feet MSL.

Wind information on the Winds-Aloft Forecast is given with a series of four digits. The first two
represent the wind direction to the nearest ten degrees true, and the last two digits represent the
speed in knots. For example, 2435 indicates a wind from 240º T at 35 knots.

For most altitudes, the temperature follows the wind information in a set of two digits that may
or may not include a sign for positive or negative. For example, 2435 + 07 indicates the wind
will be 240°T at 35 knots with a temperature of +7°Celsius. Notice that all temperatures are
negative above 24,000 feet as indicated in the heading information by the phrase "TEMPS NEG
ABV 24000." At these altitudes, all the digits are run together, eliminating the redundant minus
sign between the wind and the temperature. For example, 274650 forecasts a wind from 270° T
at 46 KIAS with a temperature of -50°Celsius.

Special Circumstances

The above procedures are used for all "normal" wind information; however, there are exceptions
for unusual wind conditions. A direction of “99” indicates a variable wind direction. When
forecast wind speeds are less than 5 knots, direction is difficult to determine, and the winds are
called “light and variable,” and the code “9900” will be listed.

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

When a wind speed of 100 knots or greater is forecast, the simple four-digit wind code no longer
works satisfactorily and an additional set of rules is used. For example, if the winds are forecast
to be 230 at 145 knots, the normal code would require five digits, requiring a change to the
format of the entire Winds-Aloft Forecast. Therefore, if you see a direction that would translate
to be greater than 360°T other than “99”, it was not a mistake; it is this extra rule. The wind was
encoded by adding 500° to the direction and subtracting 100 knots from the speed, thus requiring
a total of only four digits again. To decode such winds, then, one must subtract 50 from
“unrealistic” direction codes and add 100 to the indicated speed. For example, a code of 7345
would forecast winds of 230°T at 145 knots. If winds are forecasted to be 200 knots or greater,
the wind group is coded as 199 knots. For example, 8299 would be decoded as 320°T at 199
knots or greater.

Additionally, it is sometimes impractical to forecast the temperature and wind. This is

particularly true for conditions near the surface, where the temperature is more likely to deviate
from the standard lapse rate, and where the winds are more likely to be gusty and variable due to
thermal or mechanical turbulence. So, for the following conditions, wind and temperature are
omitted from the Winds-Aloft Forecast.

1. Wind information is never forecast for altitudes within 1500 feet of the surface.

2. Temperature information is never forecast within 2500 feet of the surface.

210. FLIGHT ALTITUDE SELECTION

Pilots planning a flight can use winds aloft information to their advantage. When the wind
appears to be a tailwind component, they should generally try to take advantage of the situation
by filing for an altitude with the fastest wind speed. When the wind would be a headwind
component, they should generally try to minimize this disadvantage by filing for an altitude with
the least wind speed. However, they must keep in mind several other factors and potential
hazards that may influence the selection of an altitude such as clouds at flight level, visibility at
flight level, icing and the minimum freezing level, thunderstorms, turbulence, and precipitation.
For general planning purposes, ADDS temp/winds supplemental charts are the most useful, as
they give a pictorial representation of the winds. They can quickly narrow the search for more
generally favorable winds.

DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS 2-23

CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

STUDY QUESTIONS

Data Displayed on Weather Imagery Products

1. Which of the following would NOT be found on a Surface Analysis Chart?

a. Fronts
b. National/State borders
c. Areas of moderate or greater turbulence
d. Isobars

2. Which of the following is a true statement about the Surface Analysis Chart?

a. It transmits teletype information describing observed weather for use by

meteorologists and aircrew.
b. Pilots use the chart to obtain an overall facsimile picture of forecast weather.
c. The chart is a computer-produced facsimile presentation based on radar observations
of echo activity.
d. The information displayed on the Surface Analysis Chart is observed weather and is
NOT a forecast.

3. What would a square indicate on a station model plot?

a. An automated station has reported the depicted weather and there is uncertainty about
clear skies above 12,000 ft AGL.
b. A manned station has reported the depicted weather.
c. The sky condition indicated constitutes a ceiling.
d. Ice pellets have been observed on the Surface Analysis Chart.

4. Where is the temperature data located on a Station Model Plot?

a. Left side
b. Right side
c. Bottom
d. Station Model Plots cannot indicate temperature

5. What type of winds would be indicated by the following Station Model Plot?

a. Northwest winds at 15 knots

b. Northeast winds at 15 knots
c. Southwest winds at 15 knots
d. Southwest winds at 55 knots

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

Figure 2-22 Surface Analysis Chart for Questions 6-8

6. The Pensacola area is under the influence of __________ pressure.

a. Steep c. Low
b. High d. Moderate

7. What is the pressure in millibars for the Pensacola area?

a. 1016 c. 2992
b. 1020 d. 1021

8. The orange line symbol in western Canada extending north to south is called a _______.

a. cold front c. trough

b. warm front d. hurricane

9. Which of the following weather products could be used to determine areas of forecast IFR
weather?

a. Surface Analysis Chart c. Visible Satellite Imagery

b. Low Level Significant Weather d. Winds-Aloft Forecasts
Prognostic Chart

DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS 2-25

CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Figure 2-23 Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart for Questions 9-13

10. Which panel of the Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart shows the 24-hour
significant weather forecast?

a. Upper left c. Lower left

b. Upper right d. Lower right

11. What type of weather is forecast to occur off the coast of South Carolina in 24 hours?

a. Showery precipitation covering over half the area

b. Ceilings less than 1000ft and visibility less than 3 miles
c. Slight rain showers and thunderstorms
d. Steady precipitation covering less than half the area

12. What does the blue line circling Arkansas indicate for flight conditions in the next 12
hours?

a. IFR conditions, with ceilings of 600 feet and visibilities of zero

b. Widespread MVFR, with ceilings less than 3000 feet and visibility less than five
miles
c. Moderate turbulence from the surface to 6000 feet
d. Rain showers and thunderstorms

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

13. Which of the following flight conditions could be expected during a flight over eastern
Lake Superior at 1000Z?

a. Cold Front c. Steady rain

b. Marginal VFR d. All of the above

Figure 2-24 Radar Summary Chart for Questions 14-17

14. What are the maximum tops of echoes reported near the Florida Keys?

a. 41,000 feet MSL c. 33,000 feet MSL

b. 69,000 feet MSL d. 52,000 feet MSL

15. What is the direction and speed of movement of the cell over the Nebraska / South Dakota
border?

a. 290 degrees at 10 knots. c. South at 20 knots.

b. North at 30 knots. d. East at 30 knots.

DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS 2-27

CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

16. What is the maximum intensity of the thunderstorm cell north of Michigan?

a. 60 decibels c. 40 decibels
b. 35 decibels d. 25 decibels

17. Which State is not experiencing thunderstorms on this day?

a. Alabama c. Oklahoma
b. California d. Montana

18. Which product allows meteorologists to observe large-scale circulation patterns even when
clouds are not present?

a. Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart

b. Water Vapor Satellite Imagery
c. NEXRAD
d. Weather Depiction Chart

19. Which of the following weather products would not be helpful in determining the intensity
of a severe thunderstorm?

a. Radar Summary Chart c. IR Satellite

b. NEXRAD d. Weather Depiction Chart

20. Which of the following weather phenomena is NOT normally determined by using
NEXRAD?

a. Formation of a tornado c. Height of cloud tops

b. Intensity of precipitation d. Differential wind speeds

21. A/an ______________ shows sunlight reflected from clouds and the Earth.

a. visible satellite image

b. infrared image
c. NEXRAD display
d. water vapor satellite image

22. Which of the following would give the brightest return on a satellite image?

a. The ocean
b. Low clouds
c. Clouds that are higher relative to the others
d. Clouds that are warmer relative to the others

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER TWO

23. The Weather Depiction Chart is a____________________.

a. teletype presentation of TAFs, valid for the period indicated in the heading in the
lower left-hand corner of the chart
b. flight planning tool used by pilots that depicts wind data and frontal locations
c. forecast representation of the Surface Analysis Chart
d. facsimile presentation of the surface METARs, valid as of the time indicated on the
chart

24. The Weather Depiction Chart will not indicate visibility if__________________.

a. the airfield is IFR

b. visibility is reduced to 6 statute miles or less
c. visibility is greater than 6 statute miles
d. obstructions to visibility are indicated

25. Which of the following symbols is unique to the Weather Depiction Chart?

a. c.

b. d.

DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS 2-29

CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Figure 2-25 Weather Depiction Chart for Questions 26 - 29

26. The area from the panhandle to central Texas is under__________ conditions due to
__________ .

a. IFR; obscured, fog c. Warm front; dark, visibility zero

b. VFR; scattered, smoke d. MVFR; overcast, visibility > six miles

27. What is the reported visibility in Mobile, Alabama?

a. Zero c. Five miles

b. Two and one-half miles d. > Six miles

28. What type of cloud cover is reported in Mobile, Alabama?

a. Scattered c. Overcast
b. Broken d. Obscured

29. What is the height of the reported ceiling in Miami?

a. 38 feet AGL c. 3800 feet MSL

b. 380 feet MSL d. 3800 feet AGL

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30. Which of the following is a graphic representation of the winds forecasted at various flight
levels?

a. Weather Depiction Chart c. ADDS Temp/Winds Chart Supplement

b. Winds-Aloft Forecast d. Doppler Radar Summary

31. Which of the following correctly lists the data presented on a ADDS Temp/Winds Chart
Supplement?

a. Wind speed, wind direction, air temperature at altitude

b. Wind speed, wind direction, surface temperature and dew point
c. Wind speed and direction, sky cover, present weather
d. Wind speed and direction, areas of turbulence, location of freezing level

32. How long is the forecast period for a ADDS Temp/Winds Chart Supplement?

a. 1 hours
b. 3 hours
c. 6 hours
d. The ADDS Temp/Winds Chart Supplement is technically not forecast for a period; it
is accurate for the valid time only.

DATA DISPLAYED ON WEATHER IMAGERY PRODUCTS 2-31

CHAPTER TWO METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

VALID 181800Z FOR USE 1500-2100Z. TEMPS NEG ABV 24000

FT 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000 24000 30000 34000 39000

JAX 1512 1611+08 1708+04 1705-01 2913-14 3029-26 315641 317249 316743
TLH 1514 1614+08 1712+04 1811-01 2716-14 2934-25 295639 306547 296354
PIE 1313 1513+09 1511+04 1408+00 3012-13 3035-24 315938 316647 306053
MIA 1017 1219+09 1113+05 0909+01 3317-12 3241-24 326339 316546 315251

TRI 2411+06 2618+01 2827-04 2841-17 2847-29 286744 299452 790256

GRW 1822 2028+12 2128+06 2226-03 2532-17 2642-28 275943 278649 770856
MEM 1828 2134+10 2133+05 2133-02 2335-16 2546-27 266342 268748 761456

LIT 1832 2142+10 2141+04 2139-02 2241-16 2453-27 257141 259348 751756
SGF 1835 2144+10 2145+04 2145-02 2248-17 2359-28 247543 259549 751556
OKC 1832 2044+11 2149+05 2149-02 2256-17 2273-28 239241 730548 731154
AMA 2026 2242+02 2247-06 2258-21 2278-30 710243 721049 229951

Figure 2-26 Winds Aloft Forecasts for Questions 33 - 35

33. What are the strongest flight level winds forecast to exist over PIE at 1800Z?

a. 306° at 53 knots c. 310° at 66 knots

b. 300° at 60 knots d. 260° at 166 knots

34. Which of the following altitudes over MIA is the freezing level predicted to be located?

a. 12,000 feet MSL c. 39,000 feet MSL

b. 12,000 feet AGL d. 24 to 30,000 feet

35. Which of the following altitudes would provide the most favorable winds for a flight over
AMA on a heading of 215°T?

a. FL 240 c. FL 340
b. FL 300 d. FL 390

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 CHAPTER THREE
SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES, MILITARY ADVISORIES, AND PIREPS

300. INTRODUCTION

While the weather products described in the previous two chapters presented the means of
determining basic present and forecast weather conditions, this chapter introduces the systems
used for dissemination of weather warnings, watches, and advisories. When aviators begin their
flight planning routine, checking for any severe weather should be the very first step. Changes to
missions are a commonplace occurrence due to quickly changing weather conditions, and new
aviators will soon appreciate the ability to plan around the weather, when able.

As might be expected, the Severe Weather Watch and In-Flight Weather Advisories pass
massive amounts of critical weather information to a variety of civil and military stations, and
every aviator needs a solid foundation in the understanding of these messages. This can be
possible only via a thorough understanding of the fundamentals of weather mechanics and
related hazards to aviation. Additionally, a great deal of information regarding severe weather
can only be gathered through Pilot Weather Reports, especially when operating over less-
populated areas or overseas. Again, this necessitates that aviators have a solid understanding of
weather phenomena and reporting systems.

All of the severe weather watches, warnings, and advisories are transmitted in text, or teletype,
format. Additionally, some are available in both text and graphic, or facsimile format. As
technology advances, more and more of the text weather messages are transformed by computer
and available as graphic images. Some are even available in plain-language translations over the
Internet. Still, the message format presented here will be used for a number of years to come, as
brevity and accuracy continue to be paramount in ensuring timeliness of distribution to the
greatest number of stations.

301. LESSON TOPIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE: Partially supported by this lesson topic:

Describe displayed data on Severe Weather Watches and In-Flight Weather Advisories, and state
the importance of Pilot Reports (PIREPs).

ENABLING OBJECTIVES: Completely supported by this lesson topic:

1. State the Severe Weather Watch’s two-letter teletype identifier.

2. State the requirements for issuing a Severe Weather Watch.

3. Read and identify data on a Severe Weather Watch message.

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CHAPTER THREE METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

4. State the OPNAVINST 3710.7 requirements for flight planning regarding a Severe
Weather Watch.

5. State the use of In-Flight Weather Advisories.

6. State the teletype letter identifiers of each of the In-Flight Weather Advisories.

7. State the criteria used for issuing each of the In-Flight Weather Advisories.

8. Read and identify data from In-Flight Weather Advisories.

9. State the requirements for and the importance and use of Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs).

302. REFERENCES

1. Aeronautical Information Manual, Section 7

2. Aviation Weather Center, Kansas City, Missouri (http://www.awc-kc.noaa.gov)

3. Chief of Naval Operations Instruction 3710.7 series, NATOPS General Flight and
Operating Instructions

4. DoD Flight Information Publication (Enroute) Flight Information Handbook, Section C

5. FAA Contractions Manual

303. STUDY ASSIGNMENT

Review Chapter Three and answer the Study Questions.

304. SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES

Aviation Severe Weather Watch Bulletins are teletype presentations identified by the letters
“WW” in the heading. WWs originate from the National Storm Prediction Center, and are
sometimes referred to as Severe Weather Forecasts.

WWs are not issued on a scheduled basis, but rather as required by the progress and development
of severe weather. The forecast period is also variable, again depending on the particular type of
weather involved. All times are given in local time, as indicated in the warning itself. When
possible, the area of coverage is limited in size to 10,000 square miles to provide increased
accuracy. Aviators may also encounter a Severe Weather Forecast Alert Message (AWW),
which is a preliminary message issued to alert users that a (WW) is being issued.

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WW Format

The heading of the Aviation Severe Weather Watch Bulletins (Figure 3-1) consists of a few lines
of information including the station identifier of the message originator (KMKC), the teletype
identifier (WW), the date-time group of issue (181845), the bulletin number (29), and the time of
issue (1245 PM CST THUR FEB 18 20XX).

The bulletin is arranged in several paragraphs giving such information as the area of coverage,
the effective time of the watch, the expected type of severe weather, the mean wind vector, and
any amplifying remarks deemed necessary.

Whenever possible, wording in teletype presentations is shortened by abbreviating words or

phrases according to the FAA Contractions Manual. Omitting the vowels usually shortens words
or phrases. For further information on word or phrase contractions, refer to Appendix B of this
text.

WW Issuing Requirements

Aviation Severe Weather Watch Bulletins are issued for two types of expected severe weather
conditions:

1. Funnel clouds or tornadoes.

2. Severe thunderstorms, defined by frequent lightning and one or more of the following:

a. 50 knots of wind or greater

b. 1 inch diameter hail or larger

305. RESTRICTIONS REGARDING SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES

Since WWs restrict the operation of Navy aircraft, aviators should always first check for WWs
when beginning the flight planning process. Otherwise, you may plan a flight and find out
during the weather brief that you are unable to fly that plan.

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WWUS 9 KMKC 181845

MKC WW 181845

BULLETIN - IMMEDIATE BROADCAST REQUESTED

SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH NUMBER 29
NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE KANSAS CITY MO
1245 PM CST THUR FEB 18 20XX

A...THE STORM PREDICTION CENTER HAS ISSUED A SEVERE THUNDERSTORM

WATCH FOR

SOUTH CENTRAL KANSAS

CENTRAL OKLAHOMA
NORTH CENTRAL TEXAS
EAST TEXAS

EFFECTIVE FROM 1 PM CST UNTIL 6 PM CST THIS THURSDAY AFTERNOON

LARGE HAIL...DANGEROUS LIGHTNING…AND DAMAGING THUNDERSTORM

WINDS ARE POSSIBLE IN THESE AREAS.

THE SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH AREA IS ALONG AND 70 STATUTE MILES

EITHER SIDE OF A LINE FROM 70 MILES WEST OF AUSTIN TEXAS TO 35 MILES
WEST OF WICHITA KANSAS.

REMEMBER...A SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH MEANS CONDITIONS ARE

FAVORABLE FOR SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS IN AND CLOSE TO THE WATCH
AREA. PERSONS IN THESE AREAS SHOULD BE ON THE LOOKOUT FOR
THREATENING WEATHER CONDITIONS AND LISTEN FOR LATER STATEMENTS
AND POSSIBLE WARNINGS.

B...OTHER WATCH INFORMATION...THIS SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH

REPLACES SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH NUMBER 28. WATCH NUMBER 28
WILL NOT BE IN EFFECT AFTER 1 PM CST.

C...A FEW SVR TSTMS WITH HAIL SFC AND ALF TO 2 IN. EXTRM TURBC AND SFC
WND GUSTS TO 70 KT. SCTD CBS WITH MAX TOPS TO 500 PSBL. MEAN WIND
VECTOR 22040KT.

D...WITH CLD FNT MOVG SEWD FM WRN KS N CNTRL TX AND DVLPG LOW OK
PANHANDLE MOVG EWD STG CNVRGNC SHLD DVLP ALG CLD FNT AND NR
INTERSECTION WITH WRM FNT. CONTD STG INFLOW OF UNSTABLE AMS.

Figure 3-1 Aviation Severe Weather Watch Bulletin

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OPNAVINST 3710.7 Restrictions

The OPNAVINST 3710.7 Series restrictions for USN/USMC aircraft regarding WWs is listed as
follows:

Except for operational necessity, emergencies, flights involving all-weather research projects or
weather reconnaissance, pilots shall not file into or through areas the National Weather Service
(NWS) has issued a WW unless one of the following exceptions applies:

1. Storm development has not progressed as forecast for the planned route. In such
situations:

a. VFR filing is permitted if existing and forecast weather for the route permits such
flights.

b. IFR flight may be permitted if aircraft radar is installed and operative, thus permitting
detection and avoidance of isolated thunderstorms.

c. IFR flight is permissible in controlled airspace if visual meteorological conditions

(VMC) can be maintained, thus enabling aircraft to detect and avoid isolated
thunderstorms.

2. Performance characteristics of the aircraft permit an enroute flight altitude above existing
or developing severe storms.

NOTES

1. It is not the intent to restrict flights within the areas

encompassed by or adjacent to a WW area unless storms have
actually developed as forecast.

2. Only a DoD forecaster or FSS can make the determination

as to whether storm development has progressed as forecast.

Local Weather Warnings

For weather similar to a WW or SIGMET, local Navy airfields will issue a Thunderstorm
Condition warning, which may restrict flight and ground operations, depending on the level of
Thunderstorm Condition and local regulations. Although governed by local base instructions,
the following conditions have generally been standardized throughout USN bases:

Thunderstorm Condition 2 – Thunderstorm conditions are possible within 6 hrs or within 25

miles of the airfield.

Thunderstorm Condition 1 – Thunderstorm conditions are possible within 1 hr or within 10

miles of the airfield.

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Severe Thunderstorm 1 or 2 – Same as above including the possibility of:

Hail of 3/4 in or greater
Winds of 50 kts or greater
Tornadic activity

306. AREA FORECASTS

The Area Forecast (FA) (Figure 3-2) is a teletype presentation that provides an overview of
weather conditions that could impact flight operations within the United States and adjacent
waters. These forecasts serve primarily for use in preflight planning the enroute portion of
flights by general aviation pilots, civil and military operations, and the NWS and Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) pilot briefers.

FAUS5 KMIA 131745

FA4W
MIAC FA 131745
SYNOPSIS AND VFR CLDS/WX
SYNOPSIS VALID UNTIL 141200
CLDS/WX VALID UNTIL 140600 … OTLK VALID 140600-141200
NC SC GL FL AND CSTL WTRS

SEE AIRMET SIERRA FOR IFR CONDS AND MTN OBSCN.

TS IMPLY SEV OR GTR TURB SEV ICE LLWS AND IFR CONDS.
NON MSL HGTS DENOTED BY AGL OR CIG.

SYNOPSIS … CDFNT XTNDS E/W FM NE GLF ACRS FL ALG A MLB PIE LN AND INTO ATLC WILL BCMG
STNRY
DURG PD. LRG HI PRES CNTR OVR UPR MI WILL MOV SEWD LE BY 12Z.

NC
NRN PTN … SCT 050 SCT 100 23Z CLR OCNL SCT045 MTNS. OTLK … VFR.

SC SCT-BKN 045-050 TOPS FL150. ISOLD -SHRA. AFT 01Z ERN PTNS BCMG CLR.
WRN PTNS BCMG SCT045. OTLK … VFR.

GA
NRN PTN … AGL SCT-BKN 030-040 BKN 100. ISOLD -SHRA. CU TOPS FL150. AFT 01Z SCT045 SCT100. OTLK
… VFR.

SRN PTN … CIG BKN020-025 CU TOPS FL150. WDLY SCT TSRA/SHRA. TS TOPS FL350. AFT 01Z SCT-BKN100.
OTLK … VFR.

FL
CIG BKN010 SCT TSRA. AFT 01Z SCT020-030 SCT-BKN100 ISOLD TSRA AND SHRA CU TOPS FL150. TS TOPS
FL450. OTLK … VFR.

CSTL WTRS
NC/SC WTRS SCT045-050 BCMG CLR. OTLK … VFR.
GA WTRS CIG BKN020. ISOLD TSRA/SHRA. TS TOPS FL350. OTLK … VFR.
FL WTRS CIG BKN010 SCT TSRA. TS TOPS FL450. OTLK … VFR.

Figure 3-2 Area Forecast Example

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FA Format

The FA consists of two sections, the synopsis and VFR clouds/weather. Additionally every FA
will always have the following three lines listed after the heading, before the synopsis and
clouds/weather sections.

1. SEE AIRMET SIERRA FOR IFR CONDS AND MTN OBSCN.

2. TS IMPLY SEV OR GTR TURB SEV ICE LLWS AND IFR CONDS.

3. NON MSL HGTS DENOTED BY AGL OR CIG.

A six-hour categorical outlook follows each 12-hour specific clouds/weather forecast. At a

minimum, the category of the expected prevailing condition–IFR, MVFR, or VFR–and the cause
of the condition is stated in the outlook. These categorical terms correspond with those used
elsewhere (such as the Weather Depiction Chart, Chapter Two), and they are not used otherwise
in the FA.

The FA is generally straightforward and easy to understand. Each uses only approved
abbreviations and contractions, and the weather and obstructions to vision abbreviations are the
same as those used in METARs. All times in the body of the forecasts are stated in two digits
using whole hours of UTC and qualifiers such as BY, UNTIL, AFTER, THRU, and BYD
(beyond). All distances are in nautical miles, speeds in knots, and visibilities in statute miles.
Locations are described by using geographical locations, two-letter state and Great Lakes
identifiers, and three-letter location identifiers. The altitude reference is MSL unless otherwise
noted by the terms AGL or ceiling (CIG).

307. IN-FLIGHT WEATHER ADVISORIES

The Aviation In-Flight Weather Advisory program provides information for pilots of enroute
aircraft via voice communications of the possibility of encountering weather phenomena–which
may not have been forecast at the time of the preflight briefing of sufficient extent and/or
intensity as to be potentially hazardous to aircraft operations. It is intended to serve the needs of
both civilian and military aviation as a "common-system" aviation weather safety program.

There are five types of in-flight messages:

1. Severe Weather Forecast Alerts (AWW)

2. Convective SIGMETs (WST)

3. Non-Convective SIGMETs (WS)

4. Center Weather Advisories (CWA)

5. AIRMETs (WA)

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When these advisories are issued, they describe potentially hazardous forecast weather
conditions. For this reason, you should always check the current WAs, WSs, and WSTs during
your preflight planning, in addition to the WW (an indirect component of the Aviation In-Flight
Weather Advisory system). CWAs and AWWs are used mainly by Air Traffic Control (ATC)
agencies for dissemination of advisories to aircraft in flight, so for preflight planning, they are
not as readily available as the other three advisories.

Within the conterminous US, the National Aviation Weather Advisory Unit (NAWAU) at
Kansas City, MO, has the responsibility for issuing the five warnings. The Weather Service
Forecast Offices (WSFO) will issue them for Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico. These advisories
take into account weather conditions up to and including FL450 (45,000 feet). All heights are
referenced to MSL, except low clouds, where a ceiling layer designated by CIG is referenced to
AGL. All distance measurements are in nautical miles, and directions reference a 16-point
compass. All abbreviations are from the FAA Contractions Manual, while weather elements and
obstructions to vision are the same as those used in METARs.

Severe Weather Forecast Alert (AWW)

The AWW is a preliminary message issued in order to alert pilots that a WW is being issued.
These messages are unscheduled and are issued as required. Normally, pilots will have access to
WWs during preflight planning, and thus will not need to reference AWWs.

Convective SIGMET (WST)

WSTs are issued only for thunderstorms and related convective phenomena (as described below)
over the conterminous US. They are issued on a scheduled basis, hourly at 55 minutes past the
hour, and as special bulletins on an unscheduled basis. Each bulletin covers specific geographic
areas, Eastern (E), Central (C) (Figure 3-3), and Western (W) and are valid for two hours or until
superseded by the next hourly update. Appended to each WST is a convective outlook
(OUTLOOK VALID DTG-DTG), which discusses the expected requirement for WST issuance
during the next 2-6 hours into the future.

WSTs are issued for the following phenomena:

1. Tornadoes

2. Lines of thunderstorms

3. Embedded thunderstorms

4. Thunderstorms producing heavy precipitation affecting 40% or more of an area of at least

3000 square miles

5. Hail at the surface equal to 3/4 inch in diameter or greater and/or surface wind to 50 knots
or greater

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WSUS41 KMKC 221855Z

WSTC
MKCC WST 221855
CONVECTIVE SIGMET 20C
VALID UNTIL 2055Z
ND SD
FROM 90W MOT-GFK-ABR-90W MOT
INTSFYG AREA SEV TS MOV FROM 24045KT. TS TOPS ABV FL450.
WIND GUSTS TO 60 KT RPRTD. +FC…HAIL TO 2 IN…WIND GUSTS
TO 65 KT POSS ND PTN.

CONVECTIVE SIGMET 21C

VALID UNTIL 2055Z
TX
50SE CDS
ISOLD SEV TS D30 MOV FROM 24020KT. TS TOP ABV FL450.
HAIL 2 IN…WIND GUSTS TO 65 KT POSS.

OUTLOOK VALID 222055-230055

AREA 1…FROM INL-MSP-ABR-MOT-INL
SEV TS CONT TO DVLP IN AREA OVR ND. AREA IS EXP TO RMN SEV AND SPRD
INTO MN AS STG PVA MOV OVR VERY UNSTBL AMS WTH -12 LI.

AREA 2…FROM CDS-DEW-LRD-ELP-CDS

ISOLD STG SEV TS WILL DVLP OVR SWRN TX AND WRN TX THRU FCST PD AS
UPR LVL TROF MOV NEWD OVR VERY UNSTBL AMS. LI RMNS IN -8 TO -10
RANGE. DRY LN WILL BE THE FOCUS OF TS DVLPMT.

Figure 3-3 WST Example

For WSTs, a line of thunderstorms is defined as being at least 60 miles long with thunderstorms
affecting at least 40 percent of its length. Embedded thunderstorms, for the purpose of WSTs,
are defined as occurring within and obscured by haze, stratiform clouds, or precipitation from
stratiform clouds. WSTs for embedded thunderstorms are intended to alert pilots that avoidance
by visual or radar detection of the thunderstorm could be difficult or impossible. Note that the
presence of thunderstorms implies the associated occurrence of severe or greater turbulence,
severe icing, and low-level wind shear.

All issued and valid WSTs for a specified geographic area are collected and listed in one place:
a Convective SIGMET Bulletin. The three Convective SIGMET bulletin areas are the Eastern
(E), Central (C) (Figure 3-3), and Western (W) US, separated by the 87 and 107° W lines of
longitude (with sufficient overlap to cover most cases when a phenomenon crosses the
boundaries). These area letters can be found in the heading portion of the message, after the
message type (e.g., WSTC), and after the WST bulletin number (e.g., 20C). Each of these three
bulletins is transmitted hourly (at H+55 minutes) or as special bulletins and is valid for 2 hours
or until superseded by the next hourly update. If there are no conditions within a region meeting
Convective SIGMET criteria at the time of issuance, then a negative bulletin is sent.

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Non-Convective SIGMET (WS)

A SIGMET (Figure 3-4) advises of SIGnificant METeorological conditions other than

convective activity that is potentially hazardous to all aircraft. WSs are issued for the
conterminous US by the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) and are valid for up to 4 hours when
any of the following weather phenomena occur or are forecast over an area of at least 3000
square miles:

1. Severe or extreme turbulence, or Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) not associated with
thunderstorms

2. Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms

3. Dust storms, sandstorms, or volcanic ash lowering surface or flight visibilities to less than
three miles

4. Volcanic eruption

Training Wing commanders are responsible for establishing local guidelines to ensure safety of
flight in and through areas where SIGMETs are in effect.

DFWP WS 051700
SIGMET PAPA 2 VALID UNTIL 052100
AR LA MS
FROM MEM TO 30N MEI TO BTR TO MLU TO MEM
MDT OCNL SEV ICE ABV FRZLVL EXP. FRZLVL 080 TO 120 W. CONDS CONTG BYD 2100Z

Figure 3-4 WS Example

The first issuance of any non-convective SIGMET will always be identified as an Urgent
SIGMET (UWS). Any subsequent issuance will be identified as WS unless the forecaster feels
the situation warrants using UWS to trigger more expeditious communications handling.

Each SIGMET is assigned a unique header to ensure computer systems can distribute and replace
the proper messages as required. Only the phonetic alphabet designators November, Oscar,
Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, and Yankee are used for non-
convective SIGMETs (excludes those designators reserved for scheduled AIRMETs (Sierra,
Tango, and Zulu)). These designators will follow the area designator (SFO, SLC, CHI, DFW,
BOS, and MIA), which is used for distribution. It does not denote the office issuing the forecast;
it denotes the geographical area affected (e.g., DFWP in Figure 3-4).

The first time a SIGMET is issued for a phenomenon associated with a particular weather
system, it is given the next alphabetic designator in the series and is numbered as the first for that
designator (e.g., PAPA 1). Subsequent messages are numbered consecutively, using the same
designator (e.g., PAPA 2, PAPA 3, etc.) until the phenomenon ends or no longer meets SIGMET
criteria. In the conterminous US, this means a phenomenon assigned an alphabetic designator in
one area will retain that designator even if it moves into another area. For example, the first

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issuance for a SIGMET moving into the DFW area from the SLC area might be SIGMET
PAPA 4.

While this is indeed the first SIGMET issued for this phenomenon in the DFW area, it is actually
the fourth issuance for the phenomenon since it met SIGMET criteria, and the previous three
issuances occurred in the SLC area.

While SIGMETs may be issued up to two hours before the onset of any condition forecast to
meet a criterion, note the time in line 1 (Figure 3-4) is the issuance time, not the onset time. The
time indicated in the VALID UNTIL 052100 statement is the SIGMET expiration time. The
difference between the two will not exceed four hours. If it is expected to persist beyond four
hours, a statement to this effect will be included in the remarks of the text. If the conditions do
persist beyond the forecast period, then the SIGMET will be updated and reissued. However, if
conditions end, a SIGMET cancellation will be transmitted.

Center Weather Advisory (CWA)

CWAs are unscheduled in-flight, flow control, air traffic, and aircrew advisories. By nature of
its short lead-time, the CWA is not a flight-planning product. It is generally a nowcast for
conditions beginning within the next two hours. CWAs will be issued:

1. As supplements to an existing SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, or AIRMET.

2. When an In-flight Advisory has not been issued, but observed or expected weather conditions
meet SIGMET/AIRMET criteria based on current PIREPs and reinforced by other sources of
information about existing meteorological conditions.

3. When observed or developing weather conditions do not meet SIGMET, Convective

SIGMET, or AIRMET criteria; e.g., in terms of intensity or area of coverage, but current Pilot
Weather Reports or other weather information sources indicate existing or anticipated
meteorological phenomena will adversely affect the safe flow of air traffic within the Air Route
Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) area of responsibility.

The following example (Figure 3-5) is a CWA issued from the Kansas City, Missouri ARTCC.
The “3” after ZKC indicates this CWA has been issued for the third weather phenomenon to
occur for the day. The “301” in the second line denotes the phenomenon number again (3) and
the issuance number, “01,” for this phenomenon. The CWA was issued at 2140Z and is valid
until 2340Z.

ZKC3 CWA 032140

ZKC CWA 301 VALID UNTIL 032340
ISOLD SVR TSTM OVER KCOU MOVG SWWD 10KTS

Figure 3-5 CWA Example

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AIRMET (WA)

AIRMETs also advise of significant weather phenomena other than convective activity but
indicate conditions at intensities lower than those that trigger SIGMETs. Both are intended for
dissemination to all pilots in the enroute phase of flight to enhance safety, and are available for
preflight planning, as well.

WAUS1 KDFW 210745

DFWS WA 210745
AIRMET SIERRA FOR IFR AND MTN OBSCN VALID UNTIL 211400

AIRMET IFR...TN KY
FROM 30E TRI TO 20S CHA TO 40SW ABY TO MOB TO IGB TO MEM TO DYR TO 30E TRI
OCNL CIG BLW010/VIS BLW 3SM -RA/BR. CONDS SPRDG EWD AND CONTG BYD 14Z AND
IMPVG EXC ERN TN BY 20Z.

AIRMET MTN OBSCN...TN KY

FROM HNN TO 30E TRI TO 30E CHA TO CHA TO HNN
MTNS OCNL OBSCD IN CLDS/PCPN/FG. CONDS CONTG BYD 14A THRU 20Z.

DFWT WA 210745
AIRMET TANGO FOR TURB VALID UNTIL 211400

AIRMET TURB...AR OK TX TN MS LA AND CSTL WTRS

FROM 40S ICT TO ARG TO 20S BWG TO 80S LCH TO LRD TO 40S ICT
LGT OCNL MDT TURB FL140-FL350 ASSOCD WTH STG WNDSHR. CONDS CONTG BYD 14Z
IMPVG BY 20Z.

ELSW...NO SGFNT TURB EXC VC CNVTV ACT

DFWZ WA 210745
AIRMET ZULU FOR ICE AND FRZLVL VALID UNTIL 211400

AIRMET ICE...TN MS OK
OCNL LGT ISOLD MDT RIME ICGICIP FRZLVL TO ARND 120 MS AL AND TN. CONDS CONTG
BYD 14Z IMPVG BY 20Z.

Figure 3-6 WA Example

AIRMET bulletins, each containing one or more AIRMET messages, are issued on a scheduled
basis every six hours beginning at 0145 UTC, and are effective for six hours, beginning at 0200
UTC. Unlike FAs, scheduled AIRMET bulletin issuances occur at the same UTC time,
regardless of their area designator (Figure 3-6). Unscheduled amendments and corrections are
issued as necessary, due to changing weather conditions or issuance/cancellation of a SIGMET.

There are three types of AIRMET messages that are issued within a WA. An AIRMET is issued
when one or more of the following listed conditions occurs (or is expected to occur) and affects
an area of at least 3000 square miles:

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AIRMET Sierra – For widespread IFR conditions (ceilings less than 1000 feet and/or visibility
less than three miles) affecting over 50% of the area or for extensive mountain obscuration.

AIRMET Tango – For moderate turbulence or for sustained surface winds of 30 knots or more.

AIRMET Zulu – For moderate icing or freezing level data.

Although these AIRMET bulletins are issued for widespread phenomena (at least 3000 square
miles), it could be that only a small portion of this total area would be affected at any given time.

As with SIGMETs, the AIRMETs have unique headings that contain the bulletin type letter
following the area designator. For example, when an AIRMET (Figure 3-6) for turbulence is
issued, the communications header might read “DFWT WA 210745,” where "T" indicated it is
an AIRMET Tango bulletin. Also in the heading is the valid period expiration time, which is 6
hours after the scheduled “valid beginning” time, or 6 hours and 15 minutes after the scheduled
issuance time. Each section begins with a text description of the type of AIRMET and a list of
states and/or geographical areas affected. As a minimum, each bulletin will indicate no
significant weather of that type is expected.

There are a few specific rules meteorologists follow when producing WAs that may be helpful
for understanding what weather is and is not forecast. Whenever a SIGMET is in effect, the
AIRMET bulletins for the same phenomena (in the same area) will contain a reference to the
appropriate SIGMET series. For example, “SEE SIGMET XRAY SERIES FOR SEV TURB
AREA.” Additionally, when non-convective low-level wind shear (LLWS–wind shear below
2000 feet AGL) is affecting or expected to affect an area of at least 3000 square miles, the
AIRMET Tango includes an LLWS potential statement as a separate line.

308. TRANSMISSION OF IN-FLIGHT WEATHER ADVISORIES

Since In-Flight Weather Advisories are designed primarily for enroute information of changes in
the forecasts, an initial alert is normally transmitted over ATC frequencies. These alert
announcements give the type of advisory and frequency instruction, which indicates where
further information can be obtained, such as through the Hazardous In-Flight Weather Advisory
Service (HIWAS). Upon hearing an alert notice, if you are not familiar with the advisory or are
in doubt, you should tune in the appropriate frequency or contact the nearest FAA Flight Service
Station (FSS) or Pilot-to-Metro Services (PMSV) to check whether the advisory is pertinent to
your flight. These advisories are broadcast during the valid periods, when they pertain to the
area within 150NM of the FSS. Times, frequencies, and further information can be found in the
DoD Flight Information Publication (Enroute) Flight Information Handbook (FIH), Section C,
and other enroute publications, as taught in the Instrument Flight Rules course.

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309. PIREPS

Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) are a valuable source of information used to supplement ground
station weather observations. Air traffic facilities are required to solicit PIREPs whenever the
following conditions are reported or forecasted: ceilings at or below 5,000 feet, visibility at or
below 5 miles, thunderstorms and related phenomena, icing of a light degree or greater,
turbulence of moderate degree or greater, and wind shear. All pilots are urged to cooperate and
promptly volunteer reports on these conditions, and any other conditions pertinent to aviation,
such as: cloud bases, tops, and layers; flight visibility; precipitation; visibility restrictions; winds
at altitude; and temperatures aloft. Pilots are required to submit a PIREP under the following
conditions:

1. In-flight when requested

2. When unusual or unforecast weather conditions are encountered

3. When weather conditions on an IFR approach differ from the latest observation

4. When a missed approach is executed due to weather

5. When a wind shear is encountered on departure or arrival

Your observed PIREPs should be given to any ground facility with which you have established
communication (e.g., FSS, ARTCC, EFAS-Enroute Flight Advisory Service, etc.). After passing
the immediately pertinent information, you should follow up with a radio call to a Pilot-to-Metro
Service (PMSV) Office to ensure rapid dissemination to other using agencies. If you are not able
to report while in the air, you should make a report to the nearest FSS or Weather Service Office
upon landing, especially if weather encountered was different than forecast.

When airborne, you would consult the Flight Information Handbook for the proper format,
which includes aircraft identification, location, time (UTC), altitude (MSL), type aircraft, sky
cover, visibility and weather, temperature, wind, turbulence, icing, and remarks. Even though
your pilot report should be as complete and accurate as possible, do not be overly concerned with
strict format and phraseology. The important thing is that your PIREP is relayed so others may
benefit from your report (Figure 3-7).

“Pensacola METRO, Texan 608, holding 20 miles south of Navy Pensacola, 150 kts
indicated at 2100Z, one-six thousand, T-6 Texan, IMC in stratus clouds, temperature
minus 15 °C, winds 330 at 25, no turbulence, no icing.”

Figure 3-7 PIREP Example

3-14 SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES, MILITARY ADVISORIES, AND PIREPS

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER THREE

STUDY QUESTIONS

WWUS 9 KMKC 181845

MKC WW 181845

BULLETIN - IMMEDIATE BROADCAST REQUESTED

SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH NUMBER 29
NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE KANSAS CITY MO
1245 PM CST THUR FEB 18 20XX

A. THE STORM PREDICTION CENTER HAS ISSUED A SEVERE THUNDERSTORM

WATCH FOR

SOUTH CENTRAL KANSAS

CENTRAL OKLAHOMA
NORTH CENTRAL TEXAS
EAST TEXAS

EFFECTIVE FROM 1 PM CST UNTIL 6 PM CST THIS THURSDAY AFTERNOON

LARGE HAIL...DANGEROUS LIGHTNING…AND DAMAGING THUNDERSTORM

WINDS ARE POSSIBLE IN THESE AREAS.

THE SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH AREA IS ALONG AND 70 STATUTE

MILES EITHER SIDE OF A LINE FROM 70 MILES WEST OF AUSTIN TEXAS TO 35
MILES WEST OF WICHITA KANSAS.

REMEMBER...A SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH MEANS CONDITIONS ARE

FAVORABLE FOR SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS IN AND CLOSE TO THE WATCH
AREA. PERSONS IN THESE AREAS SHOULD BE ON THE LOOKOUT FOR
THREATENING WEATHER CONDITIONS AND LISTEN FOR LATER
STATEMENTS AND POSSIBLE WARNINGS.

B. OTHER WATCH INFORMATION...THIS SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH

REPLACES SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH NUMBER 28. WATCH NUMBER 28
WILL NOT BE IN EFFECT AFTER 1 PM CST.

C. A FEW SVR TSTMS WITH HAIL SFC AND ALF TO 2 IN. EXTRM TURBC AND
SFC WND GUSTS TO 70 KT. SCTD CBS WITH MAX TOPS TO 500 PSBL. MEAN
WIND VECTOR 22040KT.

D. WITH CLD FNT MOVG SEWD FM WRN KS N CNTRL TX AND DVLPG LOW OK
PANHANDLE MOVG EWD STG CNVRGNC SHLD DVLP ALG CLD FNT AND NR
INTERSECTION WITH WRM FNT. CONTD STG INFLOW OF UNSTABLE AMS.

Figure 3-8 WW for Questions 1 - 3

SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES, MILITARY ADVISORIES, AND PIREPS 3-15

CHAPTER THREE METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

1. What is the effective time period for this WW?

a. 181900Z to 190000Z c. 1 p.m. CST to 6 p.m. CST

b. 181300 CST to 181800 CST d. All of the above are correct

2. Which of the following would be the best altitude to enable flight above the cloud tops in
this WW?

a. FL 280 c. FL 510
b. FL 350 d. FL 700

3. Which of the following conditions would allow a Naval Aviator to file for an IFR flight
through the area covered by this WW?

a. The assigned aircraft has operable weather radar, enabling detection and avoidance of
the line of thunderstorms.
b. The assigned aircraft has operable weather radar, and the weather brief, given by a
NAVMETOC Forecaster at 5 p.m. CST, indicates that there is no line of severe
thunderstorms, and that VMC should prevail.
c. No tornadoes have been reported.
d. No hail or lightning has been reported.

4. Which of the following lists the conditions for issuing a WW?

a. Turbulence and hail c. Tornadoes and severe thunderstorms

b. Hail and lightning d. Icing and gusty surface winds

5. Which of the following is NOT a teletype identifier for an In-Flight Weather Advisory?

a. WST c. WS
b. FA d. WA

6. Which of the following conditions would warrant the issuance of a Convective SIGMET?

a. Tornadoes c. Clear air turbulence

b. Severe icing d. Extensive mountain obscuration

3-16 SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES, MILITARY ADVISORIES, AND PIREPS

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER THREE

WSUS41 KMKC 221855Z

WSTC
MKCC WST 221855
CONVECTIVE SIGMET 20C
VALID UNTIL 2055Z
ND SD
FROM 90W MOT-GFK-ABR-90W MOT
INTSFYG AREA SEV TS MOV FROM 24045KT. TS TOPS ABV FL450.
WIND GUSTS TO 60 KT RPRTD. +FC…HAIL TO 2 IN…WIND GUSTS
TO 65 KT POSS ND PTN.

CONVECTIVE SIGMET 21C

VALID UNTIL 2055Z
TX
50SE CDS
ISOLD SEV TS D30 MOV FROM 24020KT. TS TOP ABV FL450.
HAIL 2 IN…WIND GUSTS TO 65 KT POSS.

OUTLOOK VALID 222055-230055

AREA 1…FROM INL-MSP-ABR-MOT-INL
SEV TS CONT TO DVLP IN AREA OVR ND. AREA IS EXP TO RMN SEV AND SPRD
INTO MN AS STG PVA MOV OVR VERY UNSTBL AMS WTH -12 LI.

AREA 2…FROM CDS-DEW-LRD-ELP-CDS

ISOLD STG SEV TS WILL DVLP OVR SWRN TX AND WRN TX THRU FCST PD AS
UPR LVL TROF MOV NEWD OVR VERY UNSTBL AMS. LI RMNS IN -8 TO -10
RANGE. DRY LN WILL BE THE FOCUS OF TS DVLPMT.

Figure 3-9 WST for Questions 7 - 9

7. WST 21C will be valid until __________ Z.

a. 1855 c. 2055
b. 1955 d. 2155

8. Which of the following times could one expect the next bulletin regarding WST 21C to be
issued?

a. 1855 c. 2055
b. 1955 d. 2155

SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES, MILITARY ADVISORIES, AND PIREPS 3-17

CHAPTER THREE METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

9. Which of the following locations should one expect to be affected by the future movement
of the severe weather described in WST 21C?

a. 100 miles north of CDS c. 100 miles south of CDS

b. 100 miles east of CDS d. 100 miles west of CDS

DFWP WS 051700
SIGMET PAPA 2 VALID UNTIL 052100
AR LA MS
FROM MEM TO 30N MEI TO BTR TO MLU TO MEM
MDT OCNL SEV ICE ABV FRZLVL EXP. FRZLVL 080 TO 120 W. CONDS CONTG
BYD 2100Z

Figure 3-10 WS for Questions 10 - 11

10. Which of the following correctly indicates the expected duration of the severe weather?

a. Two hours c. Four hours

b. Three hours d. More than four hours

11. Which of the following correctly indicates the type of severe weather?

a. Moderate icing
b. Severe icing
c. Moderate, occasionally severe icing above the freezing level
d. Freezing conditions between 0800 and 1200 local

12. Which of the following conditions would warrant the issuance of a Non-Convective
SIGMET?

a. Severe thunderstorms c. Severe CAT

b. Moderate icing d. Extensive mountain obscuration

13. Which of the following conditions would warrant the issuance of an AIRMET?

a. Tornadoes c. Light clear air turbulence

b. Light icing d. Extensive mountain obscuration

3-18 SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES, MILITARY ADVISORIES, AND PIREPS

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER THREE

WAUS1 KDFW 210745

DFWS WA 210745
AIRMET SIERRA FOR IFR AND MTN OBSCN VALID UNTIL 211400

AIRMET IFR...TN KY
FROM 30E TRI TO 20S CHA TO 40SW ABY TO MOB TO IGB TO MEM TO DYR
TO 30E TRI
OCNL CIG BLW010/VIS BLW 3SM -RA/BR. CONDS SPRDG EWD AND CONTG
BYD 14Z AND IMPVG EXC ERN TN BY 20Z.

AIRMET MTN OBSCN...TN KY

FROM HNN TO 30E TRI TO 30E CHA TO CHA TO HNN
MTNS OCNL OBSCD IN CLDS/PCPN/FG. CONDS CONTG BYD 14A THRU 20Z.

DFWT WA 210745
AIRMET TANGO FOR TURB VALID UNTIL 211400

AIRMET TURB...AR OK TX TN MS LA AND CSTL WTRS

FROM 40S ICT TO ARG TO 20S BWG TO 80S LCH TO LRD TO 40S ICT
LGT OCNL MDT TURB FL140-FL350 ASSOCD WTH STG WNDSHR. CONDS
CONTG BYD 14Z IMPVG BY 20Z.

ELSW...NO SGFNT TURB EXC VC CNVTV ACT

DFWZ WA 210745
AIRMET ZULU FOR ICE AND FRZLVL VALID UNTIL 211400

AIRMET ICE...TN MS OK
OCNL LGT ISOLD MDT RIME ICGICIP FRZLVL TO ARND 120 MS AL AND TN.
CONDS CONTG BYD 14Z IMPVG BY 20Z.

Figure 3-11 WA for Questions 14 - 16

14. Which of the following types of weather has caused an AIRMET Sierra (IFR) to be issued
for TN and KY?

a. Blowing snow
b. Light occasionally moderate turbulence associated with strong wind shear
c. Light rain and mist
d. Occasional light and isolated moderate rime icing in clouds and in precipitation

15. The turbulence in the AIRMET should improve by __________ Z.

a. 210745 c. 211400
b. 211345 d. 212000

SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES, MILITARY ADVISORIES, AND PIREPS 3-19

CHAPTER THREE METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

16. Which of the following types of weather has caused an AIRMET Zulu to be issued for TN,
MS, and OK?

a. Blowing snow
b. Light occasionally moderate turbulence associated with strong wind shear
c. Light rain and mist
d. Occasional light and isolated moderate rime icing in clouds and in precipitation

17. Which of the following systems or services would provide an aviator with the means to
receive an In-Flight Weather Advisory?

a. FSS c. Any ATC frequency

b. HIWAS d. All of the above

18. Which of the following situations would require an aviator to submit a PIREP?

a. Encountering un-forecast IFR conditions on a VFR flight plan

b. Breaking out of an IFR layer on final 500 feet below the last reported ceiling
c. Flying through a microburst on final approach
d. All of the above

3-20 SEVERE WEATHER WATCHES, MILITARY ADVISORIES, AND PIREPS

 CHAPTER FOUR
FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM, DD FORM 175-1

400. INTRODUCTION

In general, military aviators are required to submit an appropriate flight plan to the local air
traffic control facility for all flights by using the DD 175 Military Flight Plan. The only
exceptions allowed are use of the daily flight schedule, FAA Flight Plan, or an international
flight plan. Since most training flights will use the daily flight plan, you may not learn about the
DD 175 in detail until the instrument flight rules course. However, this flight plan will be the
type–other than the daily flight schedule–used most often for military flights. Thus, it provides a
realistic background for the introduction of its counterpart, the DD 175-1, the Flight Weather
Briefing Form.

When embarking on flights outside the local area, you will most likely be required to file a DD
175. Flights of this nature also require an increased amount of preflight planning, as these flights
tend to be unique, one-time events. While this provides aviators with a great deal of latitude in
the selection of routes, it also increases the requirements for ensuring the plan includes sufficient
alternative courses of action. Naturally, one of the major areas that require planning for
alternatives is the weather.

This last chapter introduces a simple flight plan for which you will need a weather brief. For
most situations, the local meteorology office will provide this briefing, but there may be
situations when the pilot may need to fill out the DD 175-1, such as when overseas, or when
conducting a telephone briefing. In all situations, though, the aircrew will need to take an active
part in the process of determining the weather. In marginal weather conditions, aircrew will
check the weather before planning, before submitting the planned flight, before takeoff, and
during the flight.

The aircrew should review the weather and build an overall picture prior to the formal weather
brief by a meteorologist. In this manner, aircrew will have more time to consider how the
weather conditions may affect their flight, and they will be better prepared to ask questions of the
briefer, enabling a two-way conversation to occur. While meteorologists are certainly the most
knowledgeable source for weather information, the aircrew is the most knowledgeable about
their mission. The briefer can best prepare the aircrew for their flight only when aviators ask
questions during the briefing about areas they would like further information or explanation.

401. LESSON TOPIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE: Partially supported by this lesson topic:

Describe indicated data on the DD 175-1, “Flight Weather Briefing Form,” and state the sources
of hazardous weather information used to complete the form.

FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM, DD FORM 175-1 4-1

CHAPTER FOUR METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

ENABLING OBJECTIVES: Completely supported by this lesson topic:

1. List the five sections of the DD 175-1 and the information contained in each.

2. State the requirements for completing the takeoff data section of the DD 175-1.

3. State the first weather source that should be checked when flight planning.

4. State the teletype/facsimile sources for information on thunderstorm activity enroute.

5. State the teletype/facsimile sources for information on turbulence enroute.

6. State the teletype/facsimile sources for information on icing and the minimum freezing
level.

7. State the teletype/facsimile sources for winds aloft and temperature enroute.

8. State the considerations in the selection of a flight level.

9. Determine if an alternate is required and state the source used for selecting the best possible
alternate.

10. State the OPNAVINST 3710.7 requirements for the assignment of a Void Time on a DD
175-1.

11. State who maintains the ultimate responsibility for the weather briefing.

402. REFERENCES

1. Chief of Naval Operations Instruction 3710.7 series, NATOPS General Flight and
Operating Instructions

2. Aeronautical Information Manual

403. STUDY ASSIGNMENT

Review Chapter Four and answer the Study Questions.

404. DD 175 MILITARY FLIGHT PLAN

A partially completed DD 175 is pictured below in Figure 4-1. This form is used to provide
ATC agencies with the planned route of flight, for easier handling and direction of aircraft. It
contains basic information on the top-right, such as the date, aircraft call sign, and type of
aircraft. The center section presents the route, including departure point, time, destination, and
estimated time enroute (ETE), as well as requested altitude and route(s) of flight. At the bottom,
above the list of crewmembers/passengers, the DD 175 provides space for other important
details, such as the selected alternate landing field and an indication of a review of the weather.

4-2 FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM, DD FORM 175-1

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER FOUR

Figure 4-1 DD Form 175, Military Flight Plan

For this chapter, you will use the following scenario, which began as an assignment to fly from
Millington Regional Jetport, Tennessee (NQA), to Tinker AFB, Oklahoma (TIK). Before
choosing the route of flight, our aviators first check for any weather warnings/watches.
Remember, the first step for any flight planning should always be to check for any WW, or In-
Flight Weather Advisory that may affect the flight, because severe weather or a valid WW may
result in a change of plans or the cancellation of the flight (as stated in Chapter Three).

Our aviators found no weather warnings affecting these bases or the area in between them.
However, at this point, they determined the weather was unmistakably not VFR and the forecast
weather at KTIK (ETA +/- 1 hr) is below 3000-3 but at or above published minimums, so two
possible alternate airfields were chosen, along with the following data, which has already been
entered on the DD 175 above:

Planned route–KNQA to KTIK

Departure time/date–1230Z, 25 July 20XX

ETE–2 hours, 12 minutes

FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM, DD FORM 175-1 4-3

CHAPTER FOUR METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Possible alternates–KSPS and KTUL

ETE to either alternate–38 minutes

Aircraft designator and TD code–“TEX2/G”

It is at this point we join the scenario to see how weather fits into the preflight planning process.
As stated above, this DD 175 is partially filled out. Notice there are three blocks containing
asterisks (**). Normally, when flight planning, the DD 175 can be completed to the point of
leaving these three blocks empty, until the time of the weather brief. At this point–just before
the weather briefing–a final check of the weather can be made, and two of those three blocks can
be filled in. The alternate airfield block is selected according to the procedures described in
Chapter One and the altitude block will be discussed shortly. Then, a copy of the DD 175 is
given to the weather office for a briefer to prepare a DD 175-1. After receiving the weather
briefing, the last block can be filled in (the weather briefing number), and the flight plan can be
turned in to Base Operations or the local ATC agency for filing and entering in to the ATC
computer system.

405. DD 175-1 FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM

The DD 175-1 Flight Weather Briefing Form provides a common format for all military (and
DoD) aircrew to receive a weather briefing from the local meteorology office regardless of
location. However, when using other types of flight plans, such as the daily flight schedule, the
DD 175-1 might not be filled out, but a substitute presenting this information must still be used
to give the aircrew a complete picture of the expected weather. For this reason, OPNAVINST
3710.7 states the following requirements regarding the use of the Flight Weather Briefing form:

A DD 175-1, flight weather briefing, shall be completed for all flights to be conducted in
Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC). For VFR flights using the DD 175, the following
certification on the flight plan may be used in lieu of a completed DD 175-1:

“Brief Time: _____________ Brief NO: ______________________

“Briefing Void _______Z, Flight as planned can be conducted entirely under
Visual Flight Rules. Verbal briefing given and hazards explained. No
SIGMETS or WWs exist. Following AIRMETS or other warnings are known to be
currently in effect along planned route of flight:
______________________________________.
FLT LVL Winds: ___________________
______________________________
(Signature of Forecaster

The above certification is known as the VFR Certification Stamp. In order to use the VFR
Stamp, the pilot must file VFR for the entire planned route, the pilot must request the stamp, and
the stamp is available only at the forecaster’s discretion.

4-4 FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM, DD FORM 175-1

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER FOUR

The primary method for requesting and obtaining flight route weather briefings ashore is online
through the Web-enabled FWB system (https://fwb.metoc.navy.mil) operated by DoD-qualified
meteorological forecasters at the Naval Aviation Forecast Center (NAFC), its satellite
components, or within the Marine Corps Weather Services.

Figure 4-2 shows a blank Flight Weather Briefing Form divided into five sections: Takeoff
Data, Enroute & Mission Data, Aerodrome Forecasts, Comments/Remarks, and the Briefing
Record. In fact, the DD 175-l was designed to provide specific information corresponding to the
three phases of any flight-takeoff, enroute, and landing as found in the first, second, and third
sections.

FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM, DD FORM 175-1 4-5

CHAPTER FOUR METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Figure 4-2 DD Form 175-1 Flight Weather Briefing Form

4-6 FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM, DD FORM 175-1

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER FOUR

While Figure 4-2 shows a blank form, from now on, this chapter will use a filled-out DD 175-1
so that you may become more familiar with the data presented therein. As might be expected,
winds, altitudes, and other data will be presented in the common weather formats used
throughout this book. For example, winds are given in a three-digit heading, two- (or three-)
digit speed format, and altitudes are given in three digits, representing hundreds of feet MSL or
the corresponding flight level or AGL (cloud bases).

406. PART I: TAKEOFF DATA SECTION

The briefer uses the data from the DD 175 to complete the Takeoff Data section of the
DD 175-1. This section identifies the flight for which the form is being prepared (first three
blocks) and the forecast conditions for takeoff and climb out. Completion of the remaining
takeoff data blocks is not normally required unless the pilot or person receiving the brief
specifically states this information is needed or desired. However, local weather warnings that
apply to the takeoff airfield, such as a SIGMET, are always entered. This type of entry consists
of the name of the warning and time that the warning is valid (e.g., TSTM COND II until 13Z).
Although they are not required, the remaining blocks are usually filled in with data gathered
from TAFs, FDs, and weather warning sources. Notice in Figure 4-3 that data from the DD 175
appears in Part I. The date, aircraft type, and departure point correspond with the flight plan
submitted to METRO.

Figure 4-3 Part I: Takeoff Data Section

407. PART II: ENROUTE AND MISSION DATA SECTION

The Enroute Data section of the DD 175-1 provides space for information about expected
weather conditions within a range of 25 nautical miles of the intended route, and surface to 5,000
feet above the intended flight path, plus destination conditions at altitude.

NOTE

25 nautical miles and 5000 feet are guidelines only–each mission is

briefed on any phenomena that could occur, considering aircraft
capability, mobility, versatility, and mission variations.

An up arrow () indicates conditions during the climb, and a down arrow () relates to the
descent.

FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM, DD FORM 175-1 4-7

CHAPTER FOUR METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Figure 4-4 Part II: Enroute and Mission Data Section

Block 14: Flight Level Winds/Temperature

This block is filled in with data from the Winds-Aloft Forecasts (FDs) and ADDS temp/winds
chart supplement. However, forecasters will generally not choose a flight altitude for you; that is
your decision to make before requesting a DD 175-1. Thus, the sources used to fill in the
following blocks should be given an overview by the aircrew before the flight weather brief in
order to select a flight altitude, as will be discussed in section 408, Selection of a Flight Level.

Block 15: Space Weather

This block is optional for Navy/Marine Corps flights and it indicates degradations in
Communication/Navigation frequencies (FREQ), Global Positioning System (GPS), Radiation
(RAD) as applicable to the specific mission and the boundaries of the degradation.

Block 16: Solar/Lunar

This block is optional for Navy/Marine Corps flights and will indicate the Begin Morning
Nautical Twilight (BMNT), Sunrise (SR), Sunset (SS), End Evening Nautical Twilight (EENT),
Moonrise (MR), and Percent Moon Illumination (ILLUM) for the location specified by the
aircrew.

Blocks 17 and 18: Clouds and Visibility at Flight Level

Clouds at flight level and minimum visibility at flight level will generally be apparent from the
overall weather picture provided during the weather briefing. This information may be
supplemented with Pilot Weather Reports, which are also useful in obtaining other information
not readily accessible in other specific charts and reports. These are available in Teletype format
under the heading “UA.”

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER FOUR

Notice there are three boxes within Block 17 that may be checked. A check in the "YES" box
represents a forecast for greater than 45% of the time spent in clouds at the flight level in Block
14. A check in the "NO" box indicates less than 1% of the time will be spent in clouds, while a
check in the "IN AND OUT" box indicates between 1% and 45% of the flight will be through
clouds. If it is more practical to check more than one block to better represent cloud conditions,
then the corresponding locations will be entered above the additional blocks.

Obstructions at Flt Level (Block 18), indicates obscurations that could potentially restrict inflight
visibility when outside of clouds (e.g., Fog, Haze, Smoke, etc.). If applicable, the minimum
visibility and location will be indicated.

Block 19: Minimum Ceiling

This is the lowest ceiling along the route of flight in hundreds of feet AGL and its location.
Information regarding the minimum ceiling can be derived quickly from the pictorial
presentation of the Weather Depiction Chart. Additionally, the Area Forecasts (FA) and any
AIRMET Sierras (WA) will also indicate conditions of IFR.

Block 20: Maximum Cloud Tops

The cloud tops indicated in Block 20 are given in hundreds of feet MSL for clouds located
around the aircraft's flight level. For observed data, maximum tops can be determined from the
Radar Summary Chart. Pilot Reports are also a good source, when they are available.
Forecasters may refer to satellite imagery to determine which observed clouds would be moving
into the flight area, thus providing a forecast of tops. The Area Forecasts (FA) may also be used
to provide forecast information.

Block 21: Minimum Freezing Level

This is the height and location of the lowest freezing level in hundreds of feet MSL. To
determine the minimum freezing level enroute, there are a number of products available to
meteorologists and aircrew. These include observed data from Winds-Aloft Forecasts (FD) and
ADDS temp/winds charts supplement.

Notice that Blocks 19 through 25 will include a location as part of the information presented in
each box, and that these locations are not required to coincide with each other, to give forecasters
maximum flexibility in describing the weather. For example, while the flight is planned for
NQA to TIK, the minimum ceiling will be found between LIT and TIK, while the maximum
cloud tops should be experienced throughout the route, and the freezing level of 10,500’ MSL
extends beyond the route of flight, from Tennessee to Oklahoma.

Block 22: Thunderstorms

Thunderstorms will be one of the patterns most obvious when building an overview of the
weather. Of course, the Radar Summary Chart, as well as national NEXRAD composites and
satellite imagery, give a pictorial view of observed thunderstorm activity. Other sources, such as

FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM, DD FORM 175-1 4-9

CHAPTER FOUR METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

the Surface Prognostic Chart, Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart, WW, and WST
also provide thunderstorm information. A look at any one or more of these can give an instant
indication when thunderstorms are present along the route of flight. Determining the extent of
their severity and coverage, however, will likely be best described during the weather brief.

Block 22 provides means for communicating all pertinent facets of thunderstorm activity,
starting with any thunderstorm warnings applicable to the route of flight (in addition to Block 11
in Part I, which is for warnings applicable to the local airfield). Any warnings listed here should
also have comments made in the remarks section (Part IV) to elaborate on the warning. The next
set of boxes can be checked to indicate the type and amount of coverage, in addition to providing
the maximum cloud tops of the thunderstorms, when that information is available, along with the
geographic location where the aircrew can expect to encounter the indicated thunderstorm
activity. More than one box may be checked to indicate various possible conditions, so aircrew
should be sure to ask for further details if the explanation given during the brief is unclear.

Finally, observe the typed notice above the location box that reads, “HAIL, SEVERE
TURBULENCE & ICING, HEAVY PRECIPITATION, LIGHTNING & WIND SHEAR
EXPECTED IN AND NEAR THUNDERSTORMS”. This is yet another reminder of the
extremely hazardous nature of thunderstorms. Even though there is little extra space on the
DD 175-1, some experienced aviators and meteorologists thought that it was very important for
aviators to read this message every time their attention is focused on Block 22 (Figure 4-5).

Figure 4-5 Part II: Enroute and Mission Data Section

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER FOUR

Block 23: Turbulence

The format of the Turbulence Block is similar to that of the Thunderstorm Block, beginning with
a section for advisories, any of which should also have further remarks made in Part IV. Since
turbulence will be experienced in all thunderstorms, this section is only for turbulence not
associated with thunderstorms. Good sources of forecast information include the WS, WA
(Tango), Surface Prognostic Chart, and Low-Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart.
PIREPs, when available, are also an excellent source of observed information on turbulence.

Blocks 24 and 25: Icing and Precipitation

Much like the sources for turbulence, the icing sources include the WS, WA (Zulu), Surface
Prognostic Chart, Low-Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart, and PIREPs. Also, like the
other blocks, Block 24 includes spaces for indicating types, intensities, and locations of icing.

Expected precipitation for Block 25 can be determined from any or all surface weather products,
including the Surface Prognostic Chart, Low-Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart, Radar
Summary Chart, and possibly even the WA (Sierra). As with the previous three blocks, Block
25 indicates types, intensities and locations of precipitation along the intended route of flight.

408. SELECTION OF A FLIGHT LEVEL

Now that we have described the various weather sources used by meteorologists to fill out the
Part II, Enroute & Mission Data section of the DD 175-1, it will be easier to discuss the various
considerations in the selection of an enroute flight level. When building an overview of the
weather after preflight planning, before turning in the flight plan to METRO, an aviator should
strive to build a good idea of where the most hazardous conditions exist, in order to avoid them
when possible. Depending on the mission of the flight, and whether intending to fly IFR or
VFR, the location, severity, and intensity of the following aspects of the weather will guide the
selection of a flight level:

1. Wind component– headwind/tailwind 5. Thunderstorms

2. Minimum ceilings/maximum cloud tops 6. Turbulence
3. Visibility at flight level 7. Icing
4. Minimum freezing level 8. Precipitation

Notice this list of considerations corresponds with conditions forecast in Blocks 14 through 25 in
Part II of the DD 175-1. Taking into account all the hazards associated with the foregoing
conditions, an aviator can make an informed decision to select a group of altitudes that excludes
as many of these hazards as possible.

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CHAPTER FOUR METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

409. PART III: AERODROME FORECASTS SECTION

The Aerodrome Forecast section of the DD 175-1 provides space for information about forecast
weather conditions at the destination and alternate airfields, plus any planned intermediate stops.
The format follows closely the TAF format from which the information is gathered, except that it
is presented in columns for easier reading (Figure 4-6).

Figure 4-6 Part III: Aerodrome Forecasts Section

Notice, though, that Part III does not list the whole TAF for the particular aerodrome. It will
only list the item (from one or more lines, including applicable change groups) that applies to the
required valid time, based on the ETA stated on the DD 175 flight plan. As described in Chapter
One, the Navy requires that destination (and alternate) weather be forecast for the flight to
include the period of ±1 hour of the planned ETA.

In Block 30, the cloud layers are listed because ceilings are the primary weather factor used to
determine whether an alternate is required. The preceding block (#29) lists the visibility at the
field, as this is the other factor in the requirement for an alternate. Using Figure 4-6, which
airfield, SPS or TUL, would be the best choice for an alternate (assuming all airfields have
precision approach minimums of 200-1/2)? Review Chapter One if necessary, because when the
weather is problematic, it will be at this point in the preflight process that the determination of
the alternate is made. An aviator can wait until after the DD 175-1 is briefed to select an
alternate, but it must be indicated by the time the DD 175 flight plan is submitted to Base
Operations. The instructor will conduct a discussion of this decision during class.

To build a weather overview before the weather brief, an aviator would be duplicating the efforts
of the meteorologist to leaf through the many lists of TAFs available. However, an overview of
destination weather can be quickly gathered from the facsimile sources. Aviators can check the
Surface Analysis Chart for observed pressure systems and fronts, and the Surface Prognostic
Chart for a forecast of the same information. Additionally, since TAFs are transmitted less often
than METARs, the reliability of a forecast can be determined during the weather briefing by
comparing existing weather conditions with forecast weather conditions at the destination (or by
comparing the METAR to the TAF).

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER FOUR

410. PART IV: COMMENTS/REMARKS SECTION

This section provides space for miscellaneous information concerning any portion of the flight
(Figure 4-7). Remarks include any significant details or data not covered elsewhere and deemed
pertinent, such as low-level wind shear, and runway conditions. When applicable and available,
the latest runway conditions and braking action code will be given in Block 32. Weather
personnel may request that you make a PIREP for a specific location along your route of flight
where data is unavailable through other means. If so, the appropriate location, type weather, and
METRO frequency will be listed in Block 33. Amplifying remarks on any WWs, SIGMETs,
AIRMETs, or similarly issued warnings or advisories are required in Block 35. The latest hourly
surface observation for the destination may also be included here. If space is a problem, an
additional DD 175-1 will be used as a continuation sheet and indicated in Block 34.

Figure 4-7 Part IV: Comments/Remarks Section

411. PART V: BRIEFING RECORD SECTION

The actual time the briefing is completed is entered in Block 36 of Part V (Figure 4-8). Block 37
provides the flimsy briefing number, which is the number identifying that particular weather
brief. It is made up of a two-digit month, followed by a sequential number for that month (e.g.,
02-35 indicates the 35th DD Form 175-1 completed in February). This flimsy briefing number
should be transferred to the DD 175 flight plan before submitting it to Base Operations, to
indicate the aircrew has received a weather brief from a qualified forecaster.

Figure 4-8 Part V: Briefing Record Section

Assignment of Void Time

Block 40 will show the void time of the weather brief. In accordance with OPNAVINST 3710.7,
Navy and Marine Corps forecasters are required to have flight weather briefings (DD 175-1 or
VFR stamps), available for briefing 2 1/2 hours prior to the ETD and to assign briefing void
times that do not exceed ETD plus one-half hour. For example, for an ETD of 2200Z, the
weather may be briefed no earlier than 1930Z, and actual departure must be no later than 2230Z.

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CHAPTER FOUR METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

If it appears that takeoff will not occur within this three hour window (a total of 3 hours after the
brief availability time) the weather brief has to be updated or the flight cancelled. The update
can be accomplished via telephone before walking for the flight, or from the cockpit via radio
before takeoff. If the weather brief as first given is still applicable, then it may be extended, and
the aircrew should indicate this in Blocks 41 - 42. Depending on conditions, however, it may
have to be rebriefed completely. In either case, the new void time for a rebriefed forecast is
subject to the same limitations as the original void time: one-half hour after the new ETD
(provided to the forecaster by the aircrew so that the appropriate weather could be determined).
This new void time needs to be entered in Block 41 by the aircrew, and the time in Block 42
should reflect the time the rebriefing is completed. Blocks 41 and 42 are also provided for
aircrew to indicate the initials of the forecaster who updated the weather brief. Finally, Block 39
is filled in at the time of the original brief to indicate the rank and last name of the person
receiving the briefing, noted for METRO records.

Responsibility for the Brief

The ultimate responsibility for obtaining a complete weather briefing rests with the pilot in
command. A forecaster will usually be present to provide the weather briefing, but this in no
way relieves the pilot of the responsibility for the safe conduct of the flight. A recommended
procedure for the professional pilot is to review pertinent weather information to build an overall
picture of the weather and consult with the forecaster for a complete briefing. A pilot using this
technique can communicate with the forecaster on a two-way basis rather than relying on the
forecaster to provide all the relevant information. In case conditions do not develop as forecast,
a pilot will then be able to make an intelligent decision based on information gained during the
preflight weather briefing. Upon completion of this unit, it is recommended that you visit your
local meteorological office to get a feel for how it operates and how the staff displays weather
information or otherwise makes data available to aviators.

4-14 FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM, DD FORM 175-1

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER FOUR

STUDY QUESTIONS

Flight Weather Briefing Form, DD Form 175-1

1. Which of the following correctly lists the five sections of the DD 175-1?

a. Takeoff Data, Enroute Data, Landing Data, Flight Level Data, Void Time
b. Mission Data, Takeoff Data, Enroute Data, Terminal Forecasts, Briefing Record
c. Takeoff Data, Enroute & Mission Data, Aerodrome Forecasts, Comments/Remarks,
Briefing Record
d. Mission/Takeoff Data, Enroute Data, Terminal Forecasts, Briefing Record, Void
Time

2. All information in Part I of the DD 175-1 must always be completed for all IFR flights.

a. True b. False

3. Which of the following should be the first source to check when beginning the flight
planning process?

a. WW c. FD
b. WD d. FA

4. Which of the following sources of information would be the best for determining the flight
level winds and temperatures enroute?

a. ADDS Temp/Winds Chart Supplement c. Weather Depiction Chart

b. Winds-Aloft Forecasts d. Radar Summary Chart

5. Which of the following sources of information would be the best for determining minimum
ceilings enroute?

a. Weather Depiction Chart c. METAR

b. TAF d. PIREP

6. Which of the following sources of information would be the best for determining the
maximum cloud tops enroute?

a. Weather Depiction Chart c. FD

b. METAR d. Radar Summary Chart

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CHAPTER FOUR METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

7. Which of the following sources of information would be the best for determining the
minimum freezing level enroute?

a. Weather Depiction Chart c. Low Level Sig Weather Prog Chart

b. AIRMET Sierra d. Radar Summary Chart

8. Which of the following sources of information would be the best for determining the
intensity and coverage of thunderstorms enroute?

a. Weather Depiction Chart c. Low Level Sig Weather Prog Chart

b. AIRMET Sierra d. Radar Summary Chart

9. Which of the following sources of information would NOT be used for determining the
intensity and location of turbulence enroute?

a. SIGMET c. Low Level Sig Weather Prog Chart

b. AIRMET Tango d. Surface Analysis Chart

10. Which of the following sources of information would be the best for determining if any
icing will be encountered enroute?

a. CWA c. Weather Depiction Chart

b. AIRMET Zulu d. Surface Analysis Chart

11. Which of the following sources of information would NOT be used for determining the
type of precipitation that may be encountered enroute?

a. Surface Analysis Chart c. Low Level Sig Weather Prog Chart

b. Surface Prognostic Chart d. Radar Summary Chart

12. Which of the following types of information would NOT be a main consideration in the
selection of the best flight level?

a. Wind component c. RCR

b. Thunderstorms d. Icing

13. Which of the following would be the best choice for an alternate landing airfield, given the
information presented throughout this chapter and the section discussing Figure 4-6?

a. An alternate is not required c. KTUL

b. KSPS d. KTIK

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METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING CHAPTER FOUR

14. Which of the following sources of information would be the best for determining whether
an alternate is required?

a. METAR c. FA
b. TAF d. Weather Depiction Chart

15. Which of the following correctly states the maximum length of time after the ETD that a
DD 175-1 can be valid, according to OPNAVINST 3710.7?

a. ½ hour c. 1 ½ hours
b. 1 hour d. 3 hours

16. Which of the following correctly states the maximum overall length of time a DD 175-1
can be valid, according to OPNAVINST 3710.7?

a. ½ hour c. 1 ½ hours
b. 1 hour d. 3 hours

17. Which of the following people maintains the ultimate responsibility for the weather
briefing?

a. Meteorologist c. Commanding Officer

b. Navigator/co-pilot d. Pilot in command

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THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

4-18 FLIGHT WEATHER BRIEFING FORM, DD FORM 175-1

 APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY

Actual Time Of Observation – For METAR reports, it is the time the last element of the report
is observed or evaluated. For SPECI reports, it is the time that the criteria for a SPECI were met
or noted.

Adiabatic – The word applied in the science of thermodynamics to a process during which no
heat is communicated to or withdrawn from the body or system concerned. Adiabatic changes of
atmospheric temperatures are those that occur only in consequence of compression or expansion
accompanying an increase or a decrease of atmospheric pressure.

Aircraft Mishap – An inclusive term to denote the occurrence of an aircraft accident or incident.

Altimeter Setting – Pressure of the reporting station converted in order to produce a reading on
altimeters of field elevation at 10 feet above the runway (normal installation height of the
altimeter). Altimeter settings are given in inches of mercury or millibars and represent sea level
pressure.

Atmospheric Pressure – The force exerted by the weight of the atmosphere from the level of
measurement to its outer limits.

Augmented Report – A meteorological report prepared by an automated surface weather

observing system for transmission with certified weather observers signed on to the system to
add information to the report.

Automated Report – A meteorological report prepared by an automated surface weather

observing system for transmission, and with no certified weather observers signed on to the
system.

Blowing Dust – Dust raised by the wind to moderate heights above the ground and restricting
horizontal visibility to less than seven miles. If visibility reduced to between 5/8 and 5/16 then a
duststorm; if less than 5/16, a severe duststorm.

Blowing Sand – Sand raised by the wind to moderate heights above the ground and restricting
horizontal visibility to less than seven miles. If visibility reduced to between 5/8 and 5/16 then a
Sandstorm; if less than 5/16, a severe Sandstorm.

Blowing Snow – Snow particles raised and stirred violently by the wind to moderate or great
heights. Visibility is poor (six miles or less) and the sky may become obscured when the
particles are raised to great heights.

Blowing Spray – Spray raised in such quantities as to reduce the visibility at eye level (6 feet on
shore, 33 feet at sea) to six miles or less.

GLOSSARY A-1
APPENDIX A METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Broken Layer – A cloud layer covering whose summation amount of sky cover is 5/8
through 7/8.

Calm – A condition when no motion of the air is detected.

Ceiling – The height above the earth's surface (field elevation or ground elevation) of the lowest
non-surface based layer that is reported as broken or overcast, or the vertical visibility into an
indefinite ceiling.

Ceilometer – A device used to evaluate the height of clouds or the vertical visibility into a
surface-based obscuration.

Celsius – The ninth General Conference of Weights and Measures, held in October 1948,
adopted the name Celsius in place of centigrade in honor of its originator, Anders Celsius (1704-
1744), a Swedish astronomer who devised the scale.

Clear-Air Turbulence (CAT) – Turbulence encountered when flying through air devoid of
clouds, produced primarily by thermals and wind shear, including proximity to the jet stream.

Clear Sky (SKC) – The state of the sky when it is cloudless.

Cloud-Air Lightning (CA) – Streaks of lightning, which pass from a cloud to the air, but do not
strike the ground.

Cloud-Cloud Lightning (CC) – Streaks of lightning reaching from one cloud to another.

Cloud-Ground Lightning (CG) – Lightning occurring between cloud and ground.

Cloud Height – The height of the base of a cloud or cloud layer above the surface of the Earth.

Contour Line – A line connecting points of equal (constant) elevation on a surface map.

Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) – The time in the zero meridian time zone.

Cumulus – A principal cloud type in the form of individual, detached elements that are generally
dense and possess sharp non-fibrous outlines.

Cumulonimbus – An exceptionally dense and vertically developed cloud, occurring either

isolated or as a line or wall of clouds with separated upper portions. These clouds appear as
mountains or huge towers, at least a part of the upper portions of which are usually smooth,
fibrous, or striated, and almost flattened.

Designated RVR Runway – A runway at civilian airports designated by the FAA for reporting
RVR in long-line transmissions.

Dew Point – The temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled at constant pressure
and constant water-vapor content in order for saturation to occur.

A-2 GLOSSARY
METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX A

Dispatch Visual Range – A visual range value derived from an automated visibility sensor.

Drizzle – Fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops (diameter less than
0.02 inch or 0.5 mm) very close together. Drizzle appears to float while following air current,
although unlike fog droplets, it falls to the ground.

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate – The rate of decrease of temperature with height, approximately
equal to 3 °C per 1000 feet. This is close to the rate at which an ascending body of unsaturated
air will cool by adiabatic expansion.

Duststorm – An unusual, frequently severe weather condition characterized by strong winds

and dust-filled air over an extensive area and visibility reduced to between 5/8 and 5/16 SM.

Few – A layer whose summation amount of sky cover is 1/8 through 2/8.

Field Elevation – The elevation above sea level of the highest point on any of the runways of the
airport.

Fog – A visible aggregate of minute water particles (droplets) which are based at the Earth's
surface and reduce horizontal visibility to less than 5/8 statute mile and, unlike drizzle, it does
not fall to the ground.

Freezing – A descriptor, FZ, used to describe drizzle and/or rain that freezes on contact with the
ground or exposed objects, and used also to describe fog that is composed of minute ice crystals.

Freezing Drizzle – Drizzle that freezes upon impact with the ground, or other exposed objects.

Freezing Fog – A suspension of numerous minute ice crystals in the air, or water droplets at
temperatures below 0 °Celsius, based at the Earth's surface, which reduces horizontal visibility.
Also called ice fog.

Freezing Precipitation – Any form of precipitation that freezes upon impact and forms a glaze
on the ground or exposed objects.

Freezing Rain – Rain that freezes upon impact and forms a glaze on the ground or exposed
objects.

Frozen Precipitation – Any form of precipitation that reaches the ground in solid form (snow,
small hail and/or snow pellets, snow grains, hail, ice pellets, and ice crystals).

Funnel Cloud – A violent, rotating column of air which does not touch the ground, usually
appended to a cumulonimbus cloud (see tornado and waterspout).

Glaze – Ice formed by freezing precipitation covering the ground or exposed objects.

Graupel – Granular snow pellets, also called soft hail.

GLOSSARY A-3
APPENDIX A METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Gust – Rapid fluctuations in wind speed with a variation of 10 knots or more between peaks and
lulls.

Hail – Precipitation in the form of small balls or other pieces of ice falling separately or frozen
together in irregular lumps.

Haze – A suspension in the air of extremely small, dry particles invisible to the naked eye and
sufficiently numerous to give the air an opalescent appearance.

Hectopascal – A unit of measure of atmospheric pressure equal to 1 Millibar or 0.02953

inches of Mercury (Hg) and abbreviated hPa.

Ice Crystals (Diamond Dust) – A fall of unbranched (snow crystals are branched) ice crystals in
the form of needles, columns, or plates.

Ice Pellets (PL) – Precipitation of transparent or translucent pellets of ice, which are round or
irregular, rarely conical, and which have a diameter of 0.2 inch (5 mm), or less. There are two
main types:

1. Hard grains of ice consisting of frozen raindrops, or largely melted and refrozen
snowflakes.

2. Pellets of snow encased in a thin layer of ice which have formed from the freezing of either
droplets intercepted by the pellets or of water resulting from the partial melting of the pellets.

In-Cloud Lightning (IC) – Lightning which takes place within the thundercloud.

Indefinite Ceiling – The ceiling classification applied when the reported ceiling value represents
the vertical visibility upward into surface-based obscuration.

INSOLATION – INcoming SOLar radiATION. The total amount of energy radiated by the Sun
that reaches the Earth’s surface. Insolation is the primary source for all weather phenomena on
the Earth.

Intensity Qualifier – Intensity qualifiers are used to describe whether a phenomenon is light (–),
moderate (no symbol used), or heavy (+).

Isobar – A line on a chart or diagram drawn through places or points having the same
barometric pressure. (Isobars are customarily drawn on weather charts to show the horizontal
distribution of atmospheric pressure reduced to sea level or the pressure at some specified
altitude.)

Isotach – A line joining points of equal wind speed.

Isotherm – A line on a chart or diagram drawn through places or points having equal
temperature.

A-4 GLOSSARY
METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX A

Low Drifting – A descriptor, DR, used to describe snow, sand, or dust raised to a height of less
than six feet above the ground.

Low Drifting Dust – Dust raised by the wind to less than six feet above the ground; visibility is
not reduced below seven statute miles at eye level, although objects below this level may be
veiled or hidden by the particles moving nearly horizontal to the ground.

Low Drifting Sand – Sand raised by the wind to less than six feet above the ground; visibility is
not reduced below seven statute miles at eye level, although objects below this level may be
veiled or hidden by the particles moving nearly horizontal to the ground.

Low Drifting Snow – Snow raised by the wind to less than six feet above the ground; visibility
is not reduced below seven statute miles at eye level, although objects below this level may be
veiled or hidden by the particles moving nearly horizontal to the ground.

Manual Station – A station, with or without an automated surface weather observing system,
where the certified observers are totally responsible for all meteorological reports that are
transmitted.

METAR/SPECI – An evaluation of select weather elements from a point or points on or near

the ground according to a set of procedures. It may include type of report, station identifier, date
and time of report, a report modifier, wind, visibility, runway visual range, weather and
obstructions to vision, sky condition, temperature and dew point, altimeter setting, and Remarks.

Millibar – (Bar – a unit of pressure equal to 1,000,000 dynes per square centimeter.) A millibar
is equal to 1/1000 of a bar.

Mist – A hydrometer consisting of an aggregate of microscopic and more-or-less hygroscopic

water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere that reduces visibility to less than six
statute miles but greater than or equal to 5/8 statute mile.

Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate – See Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate.

Non-Uniform Sky Condition – A localized sky condition which varies from that reported in the
body of the report.

Non-Uniform Visibility – A localized visibility which varies from that reported in the body of
the report.

Obscuration – Any aggregate of particles in contact with the earth's surface that is dense enough
to be detected from the surface of the earth. Also, any phenomenon in the atmosphere, other
than precipitation, that reduces the horizontal visibility.

Obscured Sky – The condition when the entire sky is hidden by a surface-based obscuration.

Overcast – A layer of clouds whose summation amount of sky cover is 8/8.

GLOSSARY A-5
APPENDIX A METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Partial – A descriptor, PR, used only to report fog that covers part of the airport.

Partial Fog – Fog covering part of the station and which extends to at least six feet above the
ground and apparent visibility in the fog is less than 5/8 SM. Visibility over parts of the station
is less than or equal to 5/8 SM.

Partial Obscuration – The portion of the sky cover (including higher clouds, the moon, or stars)
hidden by weather phenomena in contact with the surface.

Patches – A descriptor, BC, used only to report fog that occurs in patches at the airport.

Patches (of) Fog – Fog covering part of the station which extends to at least six feet above the
ground and the apparent visibility in the fog patch or bank is less than 5/8 SM. Visibility in parts
of the observing area is greater than or equal to 5/8 SM, when the fog is close to the point of
observation, the minimum visibility reported will be less than 5/8 SM.

Peak Wind Speed – The maximum instantaneous wind speed since the last METAR that
exceeded 25 knots.

Precipitation Discriminator – A sensor, or array of sensors, that differentiates between

different types of precipitation (liquid, freezing, frozen).

Pressure Falling Rapidly – A decrease in station pressure at a rate of 0.06 inch of mercury or
more per hour which totals 0.02 inch or more.

Pressure Rising Rapidly – An increase in station pressure at a rate of 0.06 inch of mercury or
more per hour which totals 0.02 inch or more.

Prevailing Visibility – The visibility considered representative of conditions at the station; the
greatest distance that can be seen throughout at least half the horizon circle, not necessarily
continuous.

Radiosonde – A balloon-borne instrument used to measure the temperature, pressure and

humidity aloft.

Rain – Precipitation of liquid water particles, either in the form of drops larger than 0.02 inch
(0.5 mm) or smaller drops which, in contrast to drizzle, are widely separated.

Rotor Cloud – A turbulent cloud formation found in the lee of some large mountain barriers.
The air in the cloud rotates around an axis parallel to the mountain range.

Runway Visual Range (RVR) – An instrumentally derived value, based on standard

calibrations, that represents the horizontal distance a pilot may see down the runway from the
approach end.

A-6 GLOSSARY
METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX A

Sandstorm – Particles of sand ranging in diameter from 0.008 to 1 mm that are carried aloft by
a strong wind. The sand particles are mostly confined to the lowest ten feet, and rarely rise
more than fifty feet above the ground and visibility reduced to between 5/8 and 5/16 SM.

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate – A rate of decrease of temperature with height equal to the
rate at which an ascending body of saturated air will cool during adiabatic expansion. This value
will vary, but is considered to average about 1.5ºC per 1000 feet.

Scattered – A layer whose summation amount of sky cover is 3/8 through 4/8.

Scheduled Time Of Report – The time a scheduled report is required to be available for
transmission.

Sea-Level Pressure – The pressure value obtained by the theoretical reduction or increase of
barometric pressure to sea-level; measured in hectopascals (millibars).

Sector Visibility – The visibility in a specified direction that represents at least a 45º arc of the
horizon circle.

Shallow – A descriptor, MI, used only to describe fog when the visibility at six feet above the
ground is 5/8 statute mile or more and the apparent visibility in the fog layer is less than 5/8
statute mile.

Shallow Fog – Fog in which the visibility at six feet above ground level is 5/8 statute mile or
more and the apparent visibility in the fog layer is less than 5/8 statute mile.

Shower(s) – A descriptor, SH, used to qualify precipitation characterized by the suddenness with
which they start and stop, by the rapid changes of intensity, and usually by rapid changes in the
appearance of the sky.

Significant Clouds – Cumulonimbus, cumulonimbus mammatus, towering cumulus,

altocumulus castellanus, and standing lenticular or rotor clouds.

Sky Condition – The state of the sky in terms of such parameters as sky cover, layers and
associated heights, ceiling, and cloud types.

Sky Cover – The amount of the sky, which is covered by clouds or partial obscurations in
contact with the surface.

Smoke – A suspension in the air of small particles produced by combustion. A transition to haze
may occur when smoke particles have traveled great distances (25 to 100 statute miles or more)
and when the larger particles have settled out and the remaining particles have become widely
scattered through the atmosphere.

Snow – Precipitation of snow crystals, mostly branched in the form of six-pointed stars; for
automated stations, any form of frozen precipitation other than hail.

GLOSSARY A-7
APPENDIX A METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Snow Grains – Precipitation of very small, white opaque grains of ice; the solid equivalent of
drizzle.

Snow Pellets – Precipitation of white, opaque grains of ice. The grains are round or sometimes
conical. Diameters range from about 0.08 to 0.2 inch (two to five mm).

SPECI – A surface weather report taken to record a change in weather conditions that meets
specified criteria or is otherwise considered to be significant.

Spray – An ensemble of water droplets torn by the wind from an extensive body of water,
generally from the crests of waves, and carried up into the air in such quantities that it reduces
the horizontal visibility.

Squall – A strong wind characterized by a sudden onset in which wind speeds increase to at least
16 knots and are sustained at 22 knots or more for at least one minute.

Standard Atmosphere – A hypothetical vertical distribution of the atmospheric temperature,

pressure, and density, which by international agreement is considered to be representative of the
atmosphere for pressure-altimeter calibrations and other purposes (29.92 in-Hg or 1013 Pa).

Standing Lenticular Cloud – A more or less isolated cloud with sharp outlines that is generally
in the form of a smooth lens or almond. These clouds often form on the lee side of and generally
parallel to mountain ranges. Depending on their height above the surface, they may be reported
as stratocumulus standing lenticular cloud (SCSL), altocumulus standing lenticular (ACSL), or
cirrocumulus standing lenticular cloud (CCSL).

Station Elevation – The officially designated height above sea level to which station pressure
pertains. It is generally the same as field elevation at an airport station.

Station Identifier – A three or four-alphabetic character code group used to identify the
observing location.

Station Pressure – Atmospheric pressure computed for the level of the station elevation.

Summation Layer Amount – A categorization of the amount of sky cover at and below each
reported layer of cloud.

Summation Principle – This principle states that the sky cover at any level is equal to the
summation of the sky cover of the lowest layer, plus the additional sky cover present at all
successively higher layers up to and including the layer being considered.

Surface Visibility – The prevailing visibility determined from the usual point of observation.

Synoptic Chart – A chart, such as the ordinary weather map, which shows the distribution of
meteorological conditions over an area at a given moment.

A-8 GLOSSARY
METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX A

Thunderstorm – A descriptor, TS, used to qualify precipitation produced by a cumulonimbus

cloud that is accompanied by lightning and thunder, or for automated systems, a storm detected
by lightning detection systems.

Time Of Occurrence – A report of the time weather begins and ends.

Tornadic Activity – The occurrence or disappearance of tornadoes, funnel clouds, or

waterspouts.

Tornado – A violent, rotating column of air touching the ground; funnel cloud touches the
ground (see funnel cloud and water spout).

Tower Visibility – The prevailing visibility determined from the airport traffic control tower
when the surface visibility is determined from another location.

Towering Cumulus – A descriptive term for a cloud with generally sharp outlines and with
moderate to great vertical development, characterized by its cauliflower or tower appearance.

Unknown Precipitation – Precipitation type that is reported if the automated station detects the
occurrence of light precipitation but the precipitation discriminator cannot recognize the type.

Variable Ceiling – A ceiling of less than 3000 feet which rapidly increases or decreases in
height by established criteria during the period of observation.

Variable Layer Amounts – A condition when the reportable amount of a layer varies by one or
more reportable values during the period it is being evaluated (variable sky condition).

Variable Prevailing Visibility – A condition when the prevailing visibility is less than three
statute miles and rapidly increases and decreases by 1/2 mile or more during the period of
observation.

Variable Wind Direction – A condition when (1) the wind direction fluctuates by 60º or more
during the two-minute evaluation period and the wind speed is greater than six knots; or (2) the
direction is variable and the wind speed is six knots or less.

Vertical Visibility – A subjective or instrumental evaluation of the vertical distance into a

surface-based obscuration that an observer would be able to see.

Vicinity – A proximity qualifier, VC, used to indicate weather phenomena observed between
five and ten statute miles of the usual point of observation but not at the station.

Virga – Visible wisps or strands of precipitation falling from clouds that evaporate before
reaching the surface.

Visibility – The greatest horizontal distance at which selected objects can be seen and identified
or its equivalent derived from instrumental measurements.

GLOSSARY A-9
APPENDIX A METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Volcanic Ash – Fine particles of rock powder that originate from a volcano and that may remain
suspended in the atmosphere for long periods. The ash is a potential hazard to aircraft operations
and may be an obscuration.

Volcanic Eruption – An explosion caused by the intense heating of subterranean rock which
expels lava, steam, ashes, etc., through vents in the earth's crust.

Waterspout – A violent, rotating column of air that forms over a body of water, and touches the
water surface; tornado or funnel cloud that touches a body of water (see funnel cloud and
tornado).

Well-Developed Dust/Sand Whirl – An ensemble of particles of dust or sand, sometimes

accompanied by small litter, raised from the ground in the form of a whirling column of varying
height with a small diameter and an approximately vertical axis.

Widespread Dust – Fine particles of earth or other matter raised or suspended in the air by the
wind that may have occurred at or far away from the station.

Wind Shift – A change in the wind direction of 45º or more in less than 15 minutes with
sustained wind speeds of 10 knots or more throughout the wind shift.

A-10 GLOSSARY
 APPENDIX B
COMMON WEATHER CONTRACTIONS

ABT........................................................................................................................................... about
ABV ......................................................................................................................................... above
AC .................................................................................................................................. altocumulus
ACS ..........................................................................................................................................across
ACFT ..................................................................................................................................... aircraft
ACRS .......................................................................................................................................across
ACTVTY/ACT ......................................................................................................................activity
ADJ ...................................................................................................................................... adjacent
ADVY .................................................................................................................................. advisory
AFT ............................................................................................................................................ after
AGL .................................................................................................................... above ground level
AHD ......................................................................................................................................... ahead
ALF ............................................................................................................................................ aloft
ALG ..........................................................................................................................................along
ALQDS ......................................................................................................................... all quadrants
AMS ..................................................................................................................................... air mass
AOB .................................................................................................................................at or below
APRNT ................................................................................................................................ apparent
ARPT ...................................................................................................................................... airport
ATLC ....................................................................................................................................Atlantic
AUTO .......................................................................................................automated weather report

B ............................................................................................................................................... began
BA ...............................................................................................................................braking action
BC ..........................................................................................................................................patches
BCM ...................................................................................................................................... become
BCMG ................................................................................................................................ becoming
BGNG ................................................................................................................................beginning
BHND .....................................................................................................................................behind
BINOVC ...............................................................................................................breaks in overcast
BKN ....................................................................................................................................... broken
BL ........................................................................................................................................ blowing
BLDPS ................................................................................................................................. buildups
BLO/BLW................................................................................................................................ below
BNDRY.............................................................................................................................. boundary
BR ............................................................................................................................................... mist
BRFLY .................................................................................................................................... briefly
BTWN .................................................................................................................................. between
BYD ....................................................................................................................................... beyond

COMMON WEATHER CONTRACTIONS B-1

APPENDIX B METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

C .............................................................................................................................................. ceiling
CA ................................................................................................................................... clear above
CAT.....................................................................................................................clear air turbulence
CBS/CB...................................................................................................................... cumulonimbus
CDFNT/CFP ...................................................................................................................... cold front
CDT............................................................................................................... Central Daylight Time
CHC ....................................................................................................................................... chance
CI.............................................................................................................................................. cirrus
CIG .......................................................................................................................................... ceiling
CIGS ..................................................................................................................................... ceilings
CLD............................................................................................................................................. cold
CLDS ...................................................................................................................................... clouds
CLR .............................................................................................. clear (used at automated stations)
CLSD ...................................................................................................................................... closed
CNCL ...................................................................................................................................... cancel
CNTRD/CNTR .................................................................................................................... centered
CNTRL/CTRL ........................................................................................................................ central
CNSDBLY .................................................................................................................... considerably
CNVGNC ...................................................................................................................... convergence
CNVTV ............................................................................................................................ convective
CONDS ............................................................................................................................. conditions
CON/CONTD ...................................................................................................................... continue
CONS ............................................................................................................................... continuous
CONTG ............................................................................................................................ continuing
COR .................................................................................................................................. correction
CST ............................................................................................................... Central Standard Time
CSTL ...................................................................................................................................... coastal
CTC ........................................................................................................................................ contact
CU ....................................................................................................................................... cumulus
CUFA ..........................................................................................................................cumulofractus

D.................................................................................................................................................. dust
DCRG .............................................................................................................................. decreasing
DEP ........................................................................................................................................... depth
DMSHG ......................................................................................................................... diminishing
DR ........................................................................................................................... dropping rapidly
DR ...................................................................................................................................low drifting
DRFTG ..................................................................................................................................drifting
DS ..................................................................................................................................... dust storm
DSIPTG............................................................................................................................ dissipating
DSNT ...................................................................................................................................... distant
DU ......................................................................................................................... (widespread) dust

B-2 COMMON WEATHER CONTRACTIONS

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX B

DURG ..................................................................................................................................... during

DURGC......................................................................................................................... during climb
DURGD ..................................................................................................................... during descent
DVLP/DVLPG ................................................................................................... develop/developing
DVR ................................................................................................................. dispatch visual range
DZ ........................................................................................................................................... drizzle

E ........................................................................................................................................ ended/east
EBND ................................................................................................................................ eastbound
ELSW .................................................................................................................................elsewhere
ELY ....................................................................................................................................... easterly
EMBDD ............................................................................................................................ embedded
ERN........................................................................................................................................ eastern
EST .................................................................................................................................... estimated
EWD ................................................................................................................................... eastward
EXCP/EXC ............................................................................................................................. except
EXPCD/EXPCTD/EXPTD/EXP ........................................................................................ expected
EXTDS .................................................................................................................................. extends
EXTM/EXTRM .................................................................................................................... extreme

FAP .............................................................................................................................final approach

FEW ................................................................................................................................. few clouds
FC .............................................................................................................................. funnel cloud(s)
FCST ..................................................................................................................................... forecast
FG ................................................................................................................................................ fog
FIBI ................................................................................................. filed but impractical to transmit
FL ..................................................................................................................................... flight level
FLT ........................................................................................................................................... flight
FM .............................................................................................................................................. from
FNT ............................................................................................................................................ front
FNTL....................................................................................................................................... frontal
FRQ ...................................................................................................................................... frequent
FQTLY .............................................................................................................................. frequently
FRMG ...................................................................................................................................forming
FROPA ...................................................................................................................... frontal passage
FRTHR ....................................................................................................................................further
FRZLVL ......................................................................................................................freezing level
FT .................................................................................................................................................feet
FU ........................................................................................................................................... smoke
FXD........................................................................................................................................... fixed
FVRBL............................................................................................................................... favorable
FZ ......................................................................................................................................... freezing

COMMON WEATHER CONTRACTIONS B-3

APPENDIX B METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

FZRNO ........................................................................................ freezing rain sensor not available

G..................................................................................................................................... gust/gusting
GND ....................................................................................................................................... ground
GR ................................................................................................................................ hail (graupel)
GRT/GTR .............................................................................................................................. greater
GS ................................................................................................................. small hail/snow pellets
GULFMEX/GLF.......................................................................................................Gulf of Mexico

H/HZ .......................................................................................................................................... haze

HALF ................................................................................................................................. haze aloft
HGTS ..................................................................................................................................... heights
HI ............................................................................................................................................... high
HLSTO/GR/GS ................................................................................................................... hailstone
HZ .............................................................................................................................................. haze

IC.............................................................................................................................icing/ice crystals
ICGIC ......................................................................................................................... icing in clouds
ICGICIP ........................................................................................icing in clouds & in precipitation
IFR ...............................................................................................................Instrument Flight Rules
IMPVG/IPVG ................................................................................................................... improving
INC ...................................................................................................................................... in clouds
IN ................................................................................................................................................ inch
INCRG .............................................................................................................................. increasing
INSTBY .............................................................................................................................instability
INTMT ............................................................................................................................ intermittent
INTSFYG ....................................................................................................................... intensifying
INVOF .......................................................................................................................... in vicinity of
ISLTD/ISOLD ...................................................................................................................... isolated

JSTR................................................................................................................................... jet stream

K/FU ....................................................................................................................................... smoke

KALF .............................................................................................................................. smoke aloft
KOCTY .................................................................................................................... smoke over city
KT .............................................................................................................................................. knot

B-4 COMMON WEATHER CONTRACTIONS

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX B

KTS ........................................................................................................................................... knots

LCL ............................................................................................................................................ local

LCLY ......................................................................................................................................locally
LGT ............................................................................................................................................ light
LI ..................................................................................................................................... lifted index
LLWS ............................................................................................................... low level wind shear
LN ................................................................................................................................................line
LO ................................................................................................................................................low
LOC....................................................................................................................... location identifier
LRG............................................................................................................................................large
LTG ..................................................................................................................................... lightning
LTGCA ............................................................................................................ lightning cloud to air
LTGCCCG ................................................................. lightning cloud to cloud and cloud to ground
LTGCG ..................................................................................................... lightning cloud to ground
LTGIC ................................................................................................................... lightning in cloud
LTL ............................................................................................................................................ little
LTLCHG ........................................................................................................................ little change
LVL ............................................................................................................................................ level
LWR ......................................................................................................................................... lower
LWRG ................................................................................................................................. lowering
LYR/LYRD...................................................................................................................layer/layered

M .............................................................................................................................minus; less than

MALS ..........................................................................medium intensity approach lighting system
MALSF……………………………………………………………MALS with Sequence Flashers
MALSR………………………………… ........... MALS with Runway Alignment Indicator Lights
MAX ................................................................................................................................. maximum
MDT/MOD ......................................................................................................................... moderate
MEGG .................................................................................................................................. merging
METAR............................................................................................ aviation routine weather report
MI.............................................................................................................................................. miles
MI.......................................................................................................................................... shallow
MOGR................................................................................................................ moderate or greater
MOV .........................................................................................................................................move
MOVD ....................................................................................................................................moved
MOVG\MVG ........................................................................................................................ moving
MSL ........................................................................................................................... mean sea level
MST ........................................................................................................................................... most
MSTLY ...................................................................................................................................mostly
MSTR...................................................................................................................................moisture
MT..................................................................................................................................... mountains

COMMON WEATHER CONTRACTIONS B-5

APPENDIX B METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

MTN/MTNS .....................................................................................................mountain/mountains
MULTILYRD .............................................................................................................. multi layered
MVFR ................................................................................................. Marginal Visual Flight Rules
MXD ........................................................................................................................................mixed

N................................................................................................................................................ north
NE ....................................................................................................................................... northeast
NEG ..................................................................................................................................... negative
NEWD......................................................................................................................... northeastward
NMRS ................................................................................................................................ numerous
NNEWD............................................................................................................ north-northeastward
NR ............................................................................................................................................... near
NRLY .......................................................................................................................................nearly
NRN ..................................................................................................................................... northern
NW ..................................................................................................................................... northwest
NWD ................................................................................................................................. northward
NWLY..........................................................................................................................northwesterly

OBSCD ............................................................................................................................... obscured

OBSCG .............................................................................................................................. obscuring
OBSCN ........................................................................................................................... obscuration
OCNL................................................................................................................................ occasional
OCNLY ..........................................................................................................................occasionally
OMTS ....................................................................................................................... over mountains
OTLK .................................................................................................................................... outlook
OTRW ................................................................................................................................ otherwise
OTS .............................................................................................................................. out of service
OVC ..................................................................................................................................... overcast
OVHD ................................................................................................................................. overhead
OVR ........................................................................................................................................... over

P ............................................................................................................................. plus; greater than

PCPN............................................................................................................................. precipitation
PE ...................................................................................................................................... ice pellets
PNHDL ............................................................................................................................. panhandle
PK .............................................................................................................................................. peak
PK WND ........................................................................................................................... peak wind
PO .................................................................................................. well-developed dust/sand whirls
PR............................................................................................................................................ partial
PRCTN............................................................................................................................ precautions

B-6 COMMON WEATHER CONTRACTIONS

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX B

PRD ......................................................................................................................................... period

PRES .................................................................................................................................... pressure
PRESFR ....................................................................................................... pressure falling rapidly
PRESRR......................................................................................................... pressure rising rapidly
PSBL/POSS ......................................................................................................................... possible
PTN/PTNS ............................................................................................................... portion/portions
PY ............................................................................................................................................. spray

R .............................................................................................................................................runway
RA ............................................................................................................................................... rain
RDG .......................................................................................................................................reading
REPTD/RPRTD/RPTD........................................................................................................ reported
RGD ........................................................................................................................................ragged
RMN ...................................................................................................................................... remain
RMNDR ............................................................................................................................ remainder
RQR ....................................................................................................................................... require
RTD....................................................................................................... routine delayed observation
RVR .................................................................................................................. runway visual range
RVRNO................................................................................................................ RVR not available
RWU ................................................................................................ rain shower intensity unknown
RWY/RY................................................................................................................................runway

S ................................................................................................................................................ south
SA .............................................................................................................................................. sand
SCSL ...................................................................................stratocumulus standing lenticular cloud
SCT ..................................................................................................................................... scattered
SE ........................................................................................................................................ southeast
SECS .....................................................................................................................................sections
SERN .............................................................................................................................southeastern
SEWD .........................................................................................................................southeastward
SEV/SVR ................................................................................................................................ severe
SFC ........................................................................................................................................ surface
SG .................................................................................................................................. snow grains
SGFNT/SIG ...................................................................................................................... significant
SH ...................................................................................................................................... shower(s)
SHD/SHLD ............................................................................................................................. should
SHFTG .................................................................................................................................. shifting
SHLW ................................................................................................................................... shallow
SHWRS ................................................................................................................................ showers
SIG CLD ................................................................................................................. significant cloud
SKC ..................................................................................................................................... sky clear
SLD ............................................................................................................................................ solid

COMMON WEATHER CONTRACTIONS B-7

APPENDIX B METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

SLGT.........................................................................................................................................slight
SLP ........................................................................................................................ sea level pressure
SLPG ...................................................................................................................................... sloping
SLPNO ............................................................................................. sea level pressure not available
SLY ..................................................................................................................................... southerly
SM ................................................................................................................................. statute miles
SMTH .................................................................................................................................... smooth
SN ............................................................................................................................................. snow
SNBXX ................................................................................. snow began xx minutes after the hour
SPECI............................................................................................................... a special observation
SPRDG............................................................................................................................... spreading
SQ .......................................................................................................................................... squalls
SQLN ................................................................................................................................ squall line
SRN ...................................................................................................................................... southern
SS ..................................................................................................................................... sand storm
ST ............................................................................................................................................ stratus
STFRA ........................................................................................................................... stratofractus
STG ..........................................................................................................................................strong
STN ......................................................................................................................................... station
STNRY .............................................................................................................................. stationary
SVRL ..................................................................................................................................... several
SW..........................................................................................................snow showers or southwest
SWWD .......................................................................................................................southwestward
SYNS ................................................................................................................................... synopsis

TAF ...................................................................................................... terminal aerodrome forecast

TCU....................................................................................................................... towering cumulus
TE................................................................................................................................ thunder ended
TEMPS.......................................................................................................................... temperatures
THN ............................................................................................................................................ thin
THRU.................................................................................................................................... through
THSD .................................................................................................................................. thousand
TIL ............................................................................................................................................. until
TS/TSTMS ..................................................................................................................thunderstorms
TURB ................................................................................................................................ turbulence
TWR......................................................................................................................................... tower

UDDF ..........................................................................................................updrafts and downdrafts

UNK/UNKN ....................................................................................................................... unknown
UNSTBL .............................................................................................................................. unstable
UP ................................................................................................................. unknown precipitation
UPR .......................................................................................................................................... upper

B-8 COMMON WEATHER CONTRACTIONS

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX B

UTC...................................................................................................... Coordinated Universal Time

V............................................................................................................................................ variable
VA ..................................................................................................................................volcanic ash
VC/VCNTY .......................................................................................................................... vicinity
VFR .................................................................................................................... Visual Flight Rules
VIS ...................................................................................................................................... visibility
VLYS ..................................................................................................................................... valleys
VOR ..........................................................................Very high frequency Omni-directional Range
VR .................................................................................................................................. visual range
VRB/VRBL........................................................................................................................... variable
VRY ........................................................................................................................................... very
VSBYDR .............................................................................................. visibility decreasing rapidly
VV .......................................................................................................................... vertical visibility

W ................................................................................................................................................ west
WBND ............................................................................................................................. westbound
WDLY.....................................................................................................................................widely
WL .............................................................................................................................................. will
WM .......................................................................................................................................... warm
WND ..........................................................................................................................................wind
WRN ..................................................................................................................................... western
WS.................................................................................................................................... wind shear
WSCONDS .................................................................................................... wind shear conditions
WSHFT ............................................................................................................................. wind shift
WTRS ..................................................................................................................................... waters
WX ........................................................................................................................................ weather

XCP/XCPT ............................................................................................................................. except

XTNDG.............................................................................................................................. extending

Z ............................................................................................................................ Zulu Time (UTC)

COMMON WEATHER CONTRACTIONS B-9

APPENDIX B METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

WIND DIRECTIONS (8 POINTS)

N NORTH 000° or 360°

NE NORTHEAST 045°
E EAST 090°
SE SOUTHEAST 135°
S SOUTH 180°
SW SOUTHWEST 225°
W WEST 270°
NW NORTHWEST 315°

For additional contractions, acronyms, and locations not found in this Appendix, consult Section
14 of the AC 00-45E, Aviation Weather Services, available at the following location:
http://www.faa.gov/avr/afs/afs400

B-10 COMMON WEATHER CONTRACTIONS

 APPENDIX C
SELECTED WEATHER INFORMATION RESOURCES

Aviation Weather Center Homepage

http://www.aviationweather.gov

Frequently Asked Questions

http://www.aviationweather.gov/static/faq

Contractions frequently used in National Weather Service products

http://www.aviationweather.gov/static/info

Direct User Access Terminal Service – Free access to GTE DUATS is available to U.S. pilots
and student pilots who hold current medical certificates, flight instructors without current
medicals, aviation ground instructors, glider/balloon pilots, and other approved users in the U.S.
aviation community.
http://www.duats.com/

Landings.com Aviation Weather Information

http://www.landings.com/_landings/pages/wthr/av_weather.html

National Hurricane Center/Tropical Prediction Center

http://www.nhc.noaa.gov

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration – Home Page

http://www.noaa.gov/

National Weather Service Home Page

http://www.weather.gov/

Storm Prediction Center

http://www.spc.noaa.gov/

USA Today Aviation Weather links

http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/weather/wpilots0.htm

The Weather Channel – Home Page

http://www.weather.com

Flight Weather Briefer

https://fwb.metoc.navy.mil

SELECTED WEATHER INFORMATION RESOURCES C-1

APPENDIX C METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

C-2 SELECTED WEATHER INFORMATION RESOURCES

 APPENDIX D
ANSWERS TO STUDY QUESTIONS

CHAPTER 1

METAR Questions

1. A 8. B 15. B 22. A
2. A 9. B 16. C 23. D
3. C 10. D 17. B 24. B
4. B 11. C 18. A
5. C 12. D 19. D
6. D 13. C 20. A
7. C 14. A 21. D

TAF QUESTIONS

25. D 29. D 33. A 37. C

26. C 30. B 34. A 38. B
27. B 31. D 35. C 39. Yes
28. A 32. D 36. D

40. NTU ETA 1300Z: 100 / 1/2; ETA 1900Z: 2000/3; ETA 0900Z: 700/4
(CIG)/(VSBY)

41. DOV ETA 1400Z: 200 / 1/2; ETA 1800Z: 700/3; ETA 0100Z: 700/5

42. NBE ETA 1415Z: 500 / 1; ETA 1920Z: 2000/3; ETA 0130Z: 500/2

43. TIK ETA 1300Z: 400 / 1; ETA 1545Z: 400/1/2; ETA 0300Z: 5000/≥7

44. SPS ETA 1310Z: 800/3; ETA 1730Z: 1500/≥7; ETA 2300Z: 3000/≥7

ANSWERS TO STUDY QUESTIONS D-1

APPENDIX D METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

45.
NQA/ETA 0700Z NBG/ETA 1600Z NMM/ETA 0730Z
2 HOUR WINDOW 06-08Z 15-17Z 0630-0830Z
CEILING (MIN) 800 2500 NONE
VISIBILITY(MIN) 1/TSSHRA <7 / None 1 / BR
/WEATHER(S)
ALTIMETER (LOWEST) 30.08 30.25 30.18
WINDS (MAX) 200/25G35 130/12 CALM
ICING (TYPE/ALTITUDES) NONE MOD IN CLD/ NONE
13-22K FT
TURB (TYPE/ALTITUDES) MOD IN CLR MOD IN CLR OCNL/ SEV IN CLR
OCNL/11-14K FT 13-16K FT OCNL/20-25K FT

46. NQA - Yes

NBG - No
NMM - Yes

47. NQA - Yes

NBG - Yes
NMM - Yes

48. NQA - Ceilings and visibility

NBG - Ceilings only
NMM - Visibility only

CHAPTER 2

1. C 9. B 17. C 25. B 33. C

2. D 10. B 18. B 26. A 34. D
3. A 11. C 19. D 27. D 35. A
4. A 12. D 20. C 28. A
5. B 13. D 21. A 29. D
6. B 14. B 22. C 30. C
7. D 15. D 23. D 31. A
8. C 16. A 24. C 32. D

D-2 ANSWERS TO STUDY QUESTIONS

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX D

CHAPTER 3

1. D 5. B 9. B 13. D 17. D
2. C 6. A 10. D 14. C 18. D
3. B 7. C 11. C 15. D
4. C 8. B 12. C 16. D

CHAPTER 4

1. C 5. A 9. D 13. B 17. D
2. B 6. D 10. B 14. B
3. A 7. C 11. A 15. A
4. A 8. D 12. C 16. D

ANSWERS TO STUDY QUESTIONS D-3

APPENDIX D METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

D-4 ANSWERS TO STUDY QUESTIONS

 APPENDIX E
FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE

KCBM 151755Z 00000KT 10SM SCT012 BKN029 OVC120 M06/M07 A2998 RMK IR18
SLP156

KFFO 100056Z 01023G35KT 1/2SM -SN BLSN SCT000 OVC005 M01/M03 A2964
RMK VIS3/8V5/8 BLSN SCT000 CIG004V006 SLP034

KHAR 151757Z 05015G27KT 1 1/2SM RA BR BKN011 OVC015 07/05 A2986

RMK PK WND 05030/32 SLP112

KNBU 202258Z 28017G27KT 3/4SM SHSN BLSN VV008 M14/M17 A2952 RMK
PK WND 28037/47 SNB30 SLP997

KOZR 081255Z 22012G26KT 15SM OVC017 23/17 A2987 RMK TOPS OVC045
SLP115

KPAM 151757Z 17015G25KT 5SM HZ SCT007 BKN040 OVC050 22/21 A2998

RMK SCT007VBKN SLP125

KRDR 151756Z 09009KT 15SM SCT050 BKN090 OVC200 M15/M18 A2997

RMK PSR09P SLP149

KTIK 150856Z 09009KT 1 1/4SM R22L/600V1000FT DZ BR VV003 A2999

RMK SLP156

KTVL 302145Z 20015KT 30SM SKC 19/M05 A3001

Figure E-1 Sample METAR Printout

KTVL 302145Z 20015KT 30SM SKC 19/M05 A3001

FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE E-1

APPENDIX E METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Ic TYPE OF ICING B TYPE OF TURBULENCE

Code Description Code Description
0 No icing 0 None
1 Light icing 1 Light turbulence
2 Light Icing In Cloud 2 Moderate turbulence in clear air, occasional
3 Light icing in precipitation 3 Moderate turbulence in clear air, frequent
4 Moderate icing 4 Moderate turbulence in cloud, occasional
5 Moderate icing in cloud 5 Moderate turbulence in cloud, frequent
6 Moderate icing in precipitation 6 Severe turbulence in clear air, occasional
7 Severe icing 7 Severe turbulence in clear air, frequent
8 Severe icing in cloud 8 Severe turbulence in cloud, occasional
9 Severe icing in precipitation 9 Severe turbulence in cloud, frequent
X Extreme turbulence

Figure E-2 TAF Icing and Turbulence Codes

E-2 FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX E

KLAX 302012Z 3018/3124 27010KT 3SM HZ SCT009

TEMPO 3022/3102 BKN015
FM310200 27008KT 3SM BR OVC015
FM310600 13005KT 2SM BR OVC009

TAF KLFI 3018/3124 02008KT 1600 RA FG OVC004 640806 QNH3000INS

TEMPO 3018/3022 VRB05KT 0800 FG VV001
BECMG 3022/3023 02011KT 6000 HZ BKN007 BKN020 OVC300 650806 QNH2993INS
OCNLRA
TEMP 3100/3104 19006KT 4800 SHRA SCT009 BKN020

TAF KNBG 3018/3118 01005KT 3200 BR OVC006 QNH3013INS

FM310300 02008KT 0800 FG VV002 QNH3016INS
FM311400 05010KT 4800 RA BKN005 OVC012 QNH3009INS

KOAK 301730Z 3018/3124 26010KT P6SM SCT250

BECMG 3020/3021 28016G24KT
FM310400 27010KT P6SM SKC
FM311000 24006KT P6SM SKC

KPDQ 301941Z 3018/3118 26015G22KT P6SM -SHRA SCT020 BKN040 OVC070

TEMPO 3020/3022 5SM -SHRA BKN020
FM302200 29010G20KT P6SM SCT030 BKN050
TEMPO 3022/3103 4SM -SHRA BKN030
FM310300 26010G20KT P6SM SCT020 BKN040
TEMPO 3103/3109 -SHRA BKN030

KATL 301356Z 3014/3128 07010G18KT P6SM BKN020

FM301600 08012G18KT P6SM FEW040
FM310300 06010KT P6SM FEW060
FM310900 08006KT P6SM SCT150
FM311400 08012KT P6SM SCT1500

KMIA 301358Z 3014/3112 19010KT P6SM VCSH SCT020 SCT050 BKN080

FM301700 15009KT P6SM VCTS BKN035CB
FM310000 14004KT P6SM VCSH FEW025 BKN050

KSAN 301958Z 3018/3124 21010KT P6SM SCT018

TEMPO 3020/3023 BKN015
FM310200 19007KT P6SM BKN015
FM310800 16005KT P6SM OVC009
FM311200 18006KT 4SM BR OVC015
FM311700 20006KT 5SM HZ SCT015

KSEA 301747Z 3018/3124 17007KT P6SM -SHRA FEW009 SCT011 OVC030

TEMPO 3018/3022 SCT009 BKN011 OVC020
FM302200 22008KT P6SM -SHRA SCT020 OVC045
TEMPO 3022/3106 SCT010 OVC025
FM310600 19008KT P6SM BKN018 OVC030
TEMPO 3106/3118 -SHRA BKN011 OVC020

KTVL 301730Z 3018/3118 20010G20KT P6SM SKC

BECMG 3020/3022 19015G25KT
FM310200 19012KT P6SM SKC
BECMG 3104/3106 VRB03KT

Figure E-3 Sample TAF Printout

FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE E-3

APPENDIX E METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Figure E-4 Surface Analysis Chart

E-4 FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX E

Figure E-5 Major Station Model Symbols

FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE E-5

APPENDIX E METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Figure E-6 Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart

E-6 FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX E

Figure E-7 Surface Prognostic Legend

FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE E-7

APPENDIX E METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Figure E-8 Radar Summary Chart

E-8 FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE

METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX E

Figure E-9 Weather Depiction Chart

FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE E-9

APPENDIX E METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

Figure E-10 ADDS Temp/Winds Chart Supplement

E-10 FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE

 METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX E

25 14AY 2000 - 15:00:05 UTC

FDUM04 KWBC 251438

DATA BASED ON 251200Z
VALID 260000Z FOR USE 2100-0600Z. TEMPS NEG ABV 24000

FT 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000 24000 30000 34000 39000

BHM 2614 2617+16 2721+09 2824+05 2828-07 2930-18 304634 315344 315656
HSV 2909 2713+15 2721+09 2825+04 2933-07 2940-18 305835 306545 306856
MGM 2521 2719+16 2820+10 2724+06 2822-07 3022-19 323334 324044 324255
MOB 2320 2514+16 2513+11 2517+05 2818-06 3216-18 352333 353143 353754
FSM 1413 1915+16 2219+11 2418+07 2520-08 2529-19 264134 275544 277056
LIT 2005 2313+16 2420+10 2620+05 2818-07 2625-18 253533 274444 285556
LCH 1825 1921+17 1919+14 2019+07 2417-06 2906-16 341231 331942 332955
MSY 2021 2115+16 2113+12 2314+06 2717-06 3313-17 361832 352542 353254
SHV 1924 2024+17 2219+13 2319+07 2519-06 2620-17 273032 293843 304855
JAN 2120 2319+16 2519+11 2624+06 2922-06 2816-17 302233 313543 324855
GAG 1614+16 2119+12 2221+06 2335-07 2339-19 245134 246145 257557
OKC 1415 1821+17 2025+12 2224+08 2434-08 2534-18 254733 265744 277156
TUL 1317 1818+16 2018+12 2216+07 2421-08 2529-19 254434 266045 277756
BNA 3510 3010+13 2821+08 2929+03 2841-08 2953-19 307436 308346 308656
MEM 9900 2611+15 2719+09 2820+04 2923-07 2731-18 274234 285445 296656
TRI 3118+12 2927+07 2838+02 2846-10 2854-20 286137 286346 286656
TYS 3315 3015+13 2825+08 2834+03 2844-09 2854-19 296636 296946 296955
ABI 1823+22 2117+16 2419+09 2424-06 2530-16 244233 254843 265953
AMA 1512 2116+12 2425+07 2338-08 2344-19 236035 247045 257755
BRO 1629 1719+21 1712+16 1707+09 1806-05 9900-14 031131 361842 352554
CLL 1730 1825+18 1917+15 2018+08 2316-05 2511-15 251632 272342 293455
CRP 1628 1721+20 1812+16 2008+09 2310-05 2406-14 990031 310942 312254
DAL 1826 1928+19 2020+14 2114+08 2315-06 2620-16 263533 264443 275355
DRT 1415 1611+24 2405+16 2610+08 2417-06 2323-15 243132 253241 263751
ELP 2519 2520+14 2319+06 2238-10 2257-20 237933 238443 238352
HOU 1729 1825+18 1920+14 1920+08 2218-05 2208-15 300531 321542 322855
INK 2010+26 2213+17 2319+09 2242-09 2249-18 236334 247144 247652
LBB 1714+23 2116+15 2426+08 2339-08 2345-18 236134 247044 257854
LRD 1419 1710+21 9900+17 9900+09 2710-05 2508-15 231431 261341 312053
MRF 2513+18 2318+09 2238-08 2245-17 235634 246443 246651
PSX 1729 1824+19 1817+15 1915+08 2215-05 2307-15 990031 311242 312554
SAT 1523 1717+19 1909+16 2108+08 2610-04 2610-15 231531 251642 292254
SPS 1716 1923+19 2124+14 2225+09 2429-07 2532-17 254733 265444 276655

Figure E-11 Winds-Aloft Forecasts

FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE E-11

APPENDIX E METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

WWUS 9 KMKC 181845

MKC WW 181845

BULLETIN - IMMEDIATE BROADCAST REQUESTED

SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH NUMBER 29
NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE KANSAS CITY MO
1245 PM CST THUR FEB 18 20XX

A…THE STORM PREDICTION CENTER HAS ISSUED A SEVERE THUNDERSTORM

WATCH FOR

SOUTH CENTRAL KANSAS

CENTRAL OKLAHOMA
NORTH CENTRAL
TEXAS EAST TEXAS

EFFECTIVE FROM 1 PM CST UNTIL 6 PM CST THIS THURSDAY AFTERNOON

LARGE HAIL...DANGEROUS LIGHTNING…AND DAMAGING THUNDERSTORM

WINDS ARE POSSIBLE IN THESE AREAS.

THE SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH AREA IS ALONG AND 70 STATUTE MILES

EITHER SIDE OF A LINE FROM 70 MILES WEST OF AUSTIN TEXAS TO 35 MILES WEST
OF WICHITA KANSAS.

REMEMBER…A SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH MEANS CONDITIONS ARE

FAVORABLE FOR SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS IN AND CLOSE TO THE WATCH
AREA. PERSONS IN THESE AREAS SHOULD BE ON THE LOOKOUT FOR
THREATENING WEATHER CONDITIONS AND LISTEN FOR LATER STATEMENTS
AND POSSIBLE WARNINGS.

B…OTHER WATCH INFORMATION…THIS SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH

REPLACES SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH NUMBER 28. WATCH NUMBER 28 WILL
NOT BE IN EFFECT AFTER 1 PM CST.

C…A FEW SVR TSTMS WITH HAIL SFC AND ALF TO 2 IN. EXTRM TURBC AND SFC
WND GUSTS, TO 70 KT. SCTD CBS WITH MAX TOPS TO 500 PSBL. MEAN WIND
VECTOR 22040KT.

D…WITH CLD FNT MOVG SEWD FM WRN KS N CNTRL TX AND DVLPG LOW OK
PANHANDLE MOVG EWD STG, CNVRGNC SHLD DVLP ALG CLD FNT AND NR
INTERSECTION WITH WRM FNT CONTL STG INFLOW OF UNSTABLE AMS.

Figure E-12 WW

E-12 FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE

 METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING APPENDIX E

NCEP/AWC - CENTRAL U.S. CONVECTIVE SIGMET

30 MAY 2000 - 22:03:02 UTC

WSUS41 KMKC 302157

MKCC WST 302155

CONVECTIVE SIGMET 70C

VALID UNTIL 2355Z
WI
FROM 20N BAE-DLL
LINE TS 20 NM WIDE MOV FROM 28030KT. TOPS TO FL400.

CONVECTIVE SIGMET 71C

VALID UNTIL 2355Z
TX
FROM 70WSW INK-80ESE MRF-50SSW MRF-70WSW INK
AREA TS MOV FROM 17010KT. TOPS TO FL430.

OUTLOOK VALID 302355-310355

AREA 1...FROM 50NNE MSP-ASP-ROD-30NE IRK-50ENE HLC-FSD-50NNE
MSP
SCT TS ARE EXPD ALG/NORTH OF QUASI-STNRY FNT FM CNTRL NEB THRU
IA TO CNTRL WI. OUTFLOW BOUNDARIES FM EARLIER CNVCTN WILL ALSO
FOCUS INSTABILITY AND AID TS DVLPMT. SOME TS MAY BE STG-
SEV...ESPECIALLY OVR ERN NEB/IA WHERE INSTABILITY WILL BE GREATEST.
WST ISSUANCES ARE LIKELY THRU MOST OF THE PERIOD.

AREA 2...FROM BOY-DDY-50WNW BFF-50NE PUB-50WNW PUB-DBL-30N

CHE-BOY
FNTL BNDRY ACRS CNTRL CO WILL REMAIN NEARLY STNRY THRU THE PERIOD.
INCRG LOW LVL UPSLOPE FLOW WILL TRANSPORT RATHER MOIST AIR WWD INTO
ERN CO/ERN WY. MARGINAL INSTABILITY IS EXPD TO PRODUCE WDLY SCT TS.
OCNL WST ISSUANCES MAY BE REQUIRED.
MAHONY/CARLE

Figure E-13 WST

FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE E-13

APPENDIX E METEOROLOGY FLIGHT PLANNING

30 MAY 2000 - 22:20:04 UTC

SLCS WA 301945
AIRMET SIERRA UPDT 4 FOR IFR AND MTN OBSCN VALID UNTIL 310200

AIRMET IFR...WY
FROM 80NW RAP TO 40E CYS TO CYS TO SHR TO 80NW RAP
OCNL CIG BLW 010/VIS BLW 3SM PCPN/BR/FG. CONDS ENDG 21-23Z BUT
DVLPG AGAIN 04-06Z CONTG THRU 08Z.

AIRMET MTN OBSCN...MT WY ID

FROM YQL TO SHR TO CYS TO 70N MTU TO JAC TO 30E BKE TO 60WSW
YXC TO YQL
MTNS OCNLY OBSCD OLDS/PCPN BR/FG. CONDS CONTG BYD 02Z THRU 08Z.

SLCT WA 301945
AIRMET TANGO UPDT 4 FOR TURB VALID UNTIL 310200

AIRMET TURB...ID MT WY NV UT CO AZ NM
FROM 80NW RAP TO BFF TO GLD TO TXO TO BZA TO EED TO 40SW FMG TO
40SE LKV TO 40SE REO TO DN3 TO 80NW RAP
OCNL MOD TURB BLW FL180 DUE TO GUSTY LOW LVL WNDS AND WLY WNDS
ALF. STG UDDFS OMTNS. CONDS CONTG BYD 02Z ENDG 06-08Z.

AIRMET TURB...ID MT
FROM 60WSW YXC TO 40N GGW TO MLS TO 40W BOI TO 60WSW YXC
LGT OCNL MOD TURB BTN FL240 AND FL370 DUE TO WNDSHR ASSOCD WITH
JTST. CONDS ENDG 02Z.
   
SLCZ WA 301945
AIRMET ZULU UPDT 3 FOR ICE AND FRZLVL VALID UNTIL 310200

NO SGFNT ICE EXP OUTSIDE CNVTV ACT.

FRZLVL...075-110 N OF 40N FMG-TWF-DLN-90SW DIK LN SLPG 140-160

OAL-SLC-RAP LN.
Figure E-14 WA

E-14 FIGURES FOR EXAMPLE