Fiber-optic communication

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In fiber-optic communications, information is transmitted by sending light

through optical fibers.
Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information
from one place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical
fiber. The light forms an electromagneticcarrier wave that is modulated to
carry information. First developed in the 1970s, fiber-optic communication
systems have revolutionized the telecommunications industry and have
played a major role in the advent of the Information Age. Because of its
advantages over electrical transmission, optical fibers have largely
replaced copper wire communications in core networks in the developed
world.
The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following
basic steps: Creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter,
relaying the signal along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not
become too distorted or weak, receiving the optical signal, and converting
it into an electrical signal.

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[edit] Applications
Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit
telephone signals, Internet communication, and cable television signals.
Due to much lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has large
advantages over existing copper wire in long-distance and high-demand
applications. However, infrastructure development within cities was
relatively difficult and time-consuming, and fiber-optic systems were
complex and expensive to install and operate. Due to these difficulties,
fiber-optic communication systems have primarily been installed in long-
distance applications, where they can be used to their full transmission
capacity, offsetting the increased cost. Since 2000, the prices for fiber-
optic communications have dropped considerably. The price for rolling out
fiber to the home has currently become more cost-effective than that of
rolling out a copper based network. Prices have dropped to $850 per
subscriber in the US and lower in countries like The Netherlands, where
digging costs are low.
Since 1990, when optical-amplification systems became commercially
available, the telecommunications industry has laid a vast network of
intercity and transoceanic fiber communication lines. By 2002, an
intercontinental network of 250,000 km of submarine communications
cable with a capacity of 2.56 Tb/s was completed, and although specific
network capacities are privileged information, telecommunications
investment reports indicate that network capacity has increased
dramatically since 2004.

[edit] History
In 1966 Charles K. Kao and George Hockham proposed optical fibers at
STC Laboratories (STL) at Harlow, England, when they showed that the
losses of 1000 dB/km in existing glass (compared to 5-10 db/km in coaxial
cable) was due to contaminants, which could potentially be removed.
Optical fiber was successfully developed in 1970 by Corning Glass Works,
with attenuation low enough for communication purposes (about
20dB/km), and at the same time GaAssemiconductor lasers were
developed that were compact and therefore suitable for transmitting light
through fiber optic cables for long distances.
After a period of research starting from 1975, the first commercial fiber-
optic communications system was developed, which operated at a
wavelength around 0.8 µm and used GaAs semiconductor lasers. This
first-generation system operated at a bit rate of 45 Mbps with repeater
spacing of up to 10 km. Soon on 22 April 1977, General Telephone and
Electronics sent the first live telephone traffic through fiber optics at a 6
Mbit/s throughput in Long Beach, California.
The second generation of fiber-optic communication was developed for
commercial use in the early 1980s, operated at 1.3 µm, and used InGaAsP
semiconductor lasers. These early systems were initially limited by multi
modefiber dispersion, and in 1981 the single-mode fiber was revealed to
greatly improve system performance, however practical connectors
capable of working with single mode fiber proved difficult to develop. By
1987, these systems were operating at bit rates of up to 1.7 Gb/s with
repeater spacing up to 50 km.
The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fiber was TAT-8,
based on Desurvire optimized laser amplification technology. It went into
operation in 1988.
Third-generation fiber-optic systems operated at 1.55 µm and had losses
of about 0.2 dB/km. They achieved this despite earlier difficulties with
pulse-spreading at that wavelength using conventional InGaAsP
semiconductor lasers. Scientists overcame this difficulty by using
dispersion-shifted fibers designed to have minimal dispersion at 1.55 µm
or by limiting the laser spectrum to a single longitudinal mode. These
developments eventually allowed third-generation systems to operate
commercially at 2.5 Gbit/s with repeater spacing in excess of 100 km.
The fourth generation of fiber-optic communication systems used optical
amplification to reduce the need for repeaters and wavelength-division
multiplexing to increase data capacity. These two improvements caused a
revolution that resulted in the doubling of system capacity every 6
months starting in 1992 until a bit rate of 10 Tb/s was reached by 2001.
Recently, bit-rates of up to 14 Tbit/s have been reached over a single
160 km line using optical amplifiers.
The focus of development for the fifth generation of fiber-optic
communications is on extending the wavelength range over which a WDM
system can operate. The conventional wavelength window, known as the
C band, covers the wavelength range 1.53-1.57 µm, and the new dry fiber
has a low-loss window promising an extension of that range to 1.30-
1.65 µm. Other developments include the concept of "optical solitons, "
pulses that preserve their shape by counteracting the effects of dispersion
with the nonlinear effects of the fiber by using pulses of a specific shape.
In the late 1990s through 2000, industry promoters, and research
companies such as KMI and RHK predicted vast increases in demand for
communications bandwidth due to increased use of the Internet, and
commercialization of various bandwidth-intensive consumer services,
such as video on demand. Internet protocol data traffic was increasing
exponentially, at a faster rate than integrated circuit complexity had
increased under Moore's Law. From the bust of the dot-com bubble
through 2006, however, the main trend in the industry has been
consolidation of firms and offshoring of manufacturing to reduce costs.
Recently, companies such as Verizon and AT&T have taken advantage of
fiber-optic communications to deliver a variety of high-throughput data
and broadband services to consumers' homes.

[edit] Technology
Modern fiber-optic communication systems generally include an optical
transmitter to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal to send
into the optical fiber, a cable containing bundles of multiple optical fibers
that is routed through underground conduits and buildings, multiple kinds
of amplifiers, and an optical receiver to recover the signal as an electrical
signal. The information transmitted is typically digital information
generated by computers, telephone systems, and cable television
companies.
[edit] Transmitters

A GBICmodule, is essentially an optical and electrical transceiver.

The most commonly-used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices
such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes. The difference
between LEDs and laser diodes is that LEDs produce incoherent light,
while laser diodes produce coherent light. For use in optical
communications, semiconductor optical transmitters must be designed to
be compact, efficient, and reliable, while operating in an optimal
wavelength range, and directly modulated at high frequencies.
In its simplest form, an LED is a forward-biased p-n junction, emitting light
through spontaneous emission, a phenomenon referred to as
electroluminescence. The emitted light is incoherent with a relatively wide
spectral width of 30-60 nm. LED light transmission is also inefficient, with
only about 1 % of input power, or about 100 microwatts, eventually
converted into launched power which has been coupled into the optical
fiber. However, due to their relatively simple design, LEDs are very useful
for low-cost applications.
Communications LEDs are most commonly made from gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAsP) or gallium arsenide (GaAs). Because GaAsP LEDs
operate at a longer wavelength than GaAs LEDs (1.3 micrometers vs.
0.81-0.87 micrometers), their output spectrum is wider by a factor of
about 1.7. The large spectrum width of LEDs causes higher fiber
dispersion, considerably limiting their bit rate-distance product (a
common measure of usefulness). LEDs are suitable primarily for local-
area-network applications with bit rates of 10-100 Mbit/s and transmission
distances of a few kilometers. LEDs have also been developed that use
several quantum wells to emit light at different wavelengths over a broad
spectrum, and are currently in use for local-area WDM networks.
Today, LEDs have been largely superseded by VCSEL (Vertical Cavity
Surface Emitting Laser) devices, which offer improved speed, power and
spectral properties, at a similar cost. Common VCSEL devices couple well
to multi modefiber.
A semiconductor laser emits light through stimulated emission rather than
spontaneous emission, which results in high output power (~100 mW) as
well as other benefits related to the nature of coherent light. The output of
a laser is relatively directional, allowing high coupling efficiency (~50 %)
into single-mode fiber. The narrow spectral width also allows for high bit
rates since it reduces the effect of chromatic dispersion. Furthermore,
semiconductor lasers can be modulated directly at high frequencies
because of short recombination time.
Commonly used classes of semiconductor laser transmitters used in fiber
optics include VCSEL (Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser), Fabry Perot
and DFB (Distributed Feed Back).
Laser diodes are often directly modulated, that is the light output is
controlled by a current applied directly to the device. For very high data
rates or very long distance links, a laser source may be operated
continuous wave, and the light modulated by an external device such as
an electro-absorption modulator or Mach-Zehnder interferometer. External
modulation increases the achievable link distance by eliminating laser
chirp, which broadens the linewidth of directly-modulated lasers,
increasing the chromatic dispersion in the fiber.
[edit] Receivers
The main component of an optical receiver is a photodetector, which
converts light into electricity using the photoelectric effect. The
photodetector is typically a semiconductor-based photodiode. Several
types of photodiodes include p-n photodiodes, a p-i-n photodiodes, and
avalanche photodiodes. Metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetectors
are also used due to their suitability for circuit integration in regenerators
and wavelength-division multiplexers.
Optical-electrical converters are typically coupled with a transimpedance
amplifier and a limiting amplifier to produce a digital signal in the
electrical domain from the incoming optical signal, which may be
attenuated and distorted while passing through the channel. Further
signal processing such as clock recovery from data (CDR) performed by a
phase-locked loop may also be applied before the data is passed on.
[edit] Fiber

A cable reel trailer with conduit that can carry optical fiber.

Single-mode optical fiber in an underground service pit

Main articles: Optical fiber and Optical fiber cable
An optical fiber consists of a core, cladding, and a buffer (a protective
outer coating), in which the cladding guides the light along the core by
using the method of total internal reflection. The core and the cladding
(which has a lower-refractive-index) are usually made of high-quality silica
glass, although they can both be made of plastic as well. Connecting two
optical fibers is done by fusion splicing or mechanical splicing and requires
special skills and interconnection technology due to the microscopic
precision required to align the fiber cores.[1]
Two main types of optical fiber used in optic communications include
multi-mode optical fibers and single-mode optical fibers. A multi-mode
optical fiber has a larger core (≥ 50 micrometres), allowing less precise,
cheaper transmitters and receivers to connect to it as well as cheaper
connectors. However, a multi-mode fiber introduces multimode distortion,
which often limits the bandwidth and length of the link. Furthermore,
because of its higher dopant content, multi-mode fibers are usually
expensive and exhibit higher attenuation. The core of a single-mode fiber
is smaller (<10 micrometres) and requires more expensive components
and interconnection methods, but allows much longer, higher-
performance links.
In order to package fiber into a commercially-viable product, it is typically
protectively-coated by using ultraviolet (UV), light-cured acrylate
polymers, then terminated with optical fiber connectors, and finally
assembled into a cable. After that, it can be laid in the ground and then
run through the walls of a building and deployed aerially in a manner
similar to copper cables. These fibers require less maintenance than
common twisted pair wires, once they are deployed.[2]
[edit] Amplifiers
Main article: Optical amplifier
The transmission distance of a fiber-optic communication system has
traditionally been limited by fiber attenuation and by fiber distortion. By
using opto-electronic repeaters, these problems have been eliminated.
These repeaters convert the signal into an electrical signal, and then use a
transmitter to send the signal again at a higher intensity than it was
before. Because of the high complexity with modern wavelength-division
multiplexed signals (including the fact that they had to be installed about
once every 20 km), the cost of these repeaters is very high.
An alternative approach is to use an optical amplifier, which amplifies the
optical signal directly without having to convert the signal into the
electrical domain. It is made by doping a length of fiber with the rare-
earth mineral erbium, and pumping it with light from a laser with a shorter
wavelength than the communications signal (typically 980 nm). Amplifiers
have largely replaced repeaters in new installations.
[edit] Wavelength-division multiplexing
Main article: Wavelength-division multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is the practice of multiplying the
available capacity of an optical fiber by adding new channels, each
channel on a new wavelength of light. This requires a wavelength division
multiplexer in the transmitting equipment and a demultiplexer (essentially
a spectrometer) in the receiving equipment. Arrayed waveguide gratings
are commonly used for multiplexing and demultiplexing in WDM. Using
WDM technology now commercially available, the bandwidth of a fiber can
be divided into as many as 160 channels[3] to support a combined bit rate
into the range of terabits per second.
[edit] Bandwidth-distance product
Because the effect of dispersion increases with the length of the fiber, a
fiber transmission system is often characterized by its bandwidth-distance
product, often expressed in units of MHz×km. This value is a product of
bandwidth and distance because there is a trade off between the
bandwidth of the signal and the distance it can be carried. For example, a
common multimode fiber with bandwidth-distance product of
500 MHz×km could carry a 500 MHz signal for 1 km or a 1000 MHz signal
for 0.5 km.
Through a combination of advances in dispersion management,
wavelength-division multiplexing, and optical amplifiers, modern-day
optical fibers can carry information at around 14 Terabits per second over
160 kilometers of fiber .[4] Engineers are always looking at current
limitations in order to improve fiber-optic communication, and several of
these restrictions are currently being researched. For instance, NTT was
able to achieve 69.1 Tbit/s transmission by applying wavelength division
multiplex (WDM) of 432 wavelengths with a capacity of 171 Gbit/s over a
single 240 km-long optical fiber on March 25, 2010. This has been the
highest optical transmission speed ever recorded. .[5]
The per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been
modulated at rates as high as 111 gigabits per second by NTT,[6][7]
although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typical in deployed systems.[8][9] Each fiber can
carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of
light (wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data
rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate
reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of channels
(usually up to eighty in commercial dense WDM systems as of 2008[update]).
The current laboratory fiber optic data rate record, held by Bell Labs in
Villarceaux, France, is multiplexing 155 channels, each carrying 100 Gbit/s
over a 7000 km fiber.[10]
[edit] Dispersion
For modern glass optical fiber, the maximum transmission distance is
limited not by direct material absorption but by several types of
dispersion, or spreading of optical pulses as they travel along the fiber.
Dispersion in optical fibers is caused by a variety of factors. Intermodal
dispersion, caused by the different axial speeds of different transverse
modes, limits the performance of multi-mode fiber. Because single-mode
fiber supports only one transverse mode, intermodal dispersion is
eliminated.
In single-mode fiber performance is primarily limited by chromatic
dispersion (also called group velocity dispersion), which occurs because
the index of the glass varies slightly depending on the wavelength of the
light, and light from real optical transmitters necessarily has nonzero
spectral width (due to modulation). Polarization mode dispersion, another
source of limitation, occurs because although the single-mode fiber can
sustain only one transverse mode, it can carry this mode with two
different polarizations, and slight imperfections or distortions in a fiber can
alter the propagation velocities for the two polarizations. This
phenomenon is called fiber birefringence and can be counteracted by
polarization-maintaining optical fiber. Dispersion limits the bandwidth of
the fiber because the spreading optical pulse limits the rate that pulses
can follow one another on the fiber and still be distinguishable at the
receiver.
Some dispersion, notably chromatic dispersion, can be removed by a
'dispersion compensator'. This works by using a specially prepared length
of fiber that has the opposite dispersion to that induced by the
transmission fiber, and this sharpens the pulse so that it can be correctly
decoded by the electronics.
[edit] Attenuation
Fiber attenuation, which necessitates the use of amplification systems, is
caused by a combination of material absorption, Rayleigh scattering, Mie
scattering, and connection losses. Although material absorption for pure
silica is only around 0.03 dB/km (modern fiber has attenuation around 0.3
dB/km), impurities in the original optical fibers caused attenuation of
about 1000 dB/km. Other forms of attenuation are caused by physical
stresses to the fiber, microscopic fluctuations in density, and imperfect
splicing techniques.
[edit] Transmission windows
Each effect that contributes to attenuation and dispersion depends on the
optical wavelength. The wavelength bands (or windows) that exist where
these effects are weakest are the most favorable for transmission. These
windows have been standardized, and the currently defined bands are the
following:[11]
Wavelength
Band Description
Range
O 1260 to
original
band 1360 nm
E 1360 to
extended
band 1460 nm
S 1460 to
short wavelengths
band 1530 nm
C conventional ("erbium 1530 to
band window") 1565 nm
L 1565 to
long wavelengths
band 1625 nm
U 1625 to
ultralong wavelengths
band 1675 nm
Note that this table shows that current technology has managed to bridge
the second and third windows that were originally disjoint.
Historically, there was a window used below the O band, called the first
window, at 800-900 nm; however, losses are high in this region so this
window is used primarily for short-distance communications. The current
lower windows (O and E) around 1300 nm have much lower losses. This
region has zero dispersion. The middle windows (S and C) around
1500 nm are the most widely used. This region has the lowest attenuation
losses and achieves the longest range. It does have some dispersion, so
dispersion compensator devices are used to remove this.
[edit] Regeneration
When a communications link must span a larger distance than existing
fiber-optic technology is capable of, the signal must be regenerated at
intermediate points in the link by repeaters. Repeaters add substantial
cost to a communication system, and so system designers attempt to
minimize their use.
Recent advances in fiber and optical communications technology have
reduced signal degradation so far that regeneration of the optical signal is
only needed over distances of hundreds of kilometers. This has greatly
reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over undersea spans
where the cost and reliability of repeaters is one of the key factors
determining the performance of the whole cable system. The main
advances contributing to these performance improvements are dispersion
management, which seeks to balance the effects of dispersion against
non-linearity; and solitons, which use nonlinear effects in the fiber to
enable dispersion-free propagation over long distances.
[edit] Last mile
Main article: Last mile
Although fiber-optic systems excel in high-bandwidth applications, optical
fiber has been slow to achieve its goal of fiber to the premises or to solve
the last mile problem. However, as bandwidth demand increases, more
and more progress towards this goal can be observed. In Japan, for
instance EPON has largely replaced DSL as a broadband Internet source.
South Korea’s KT also provides a service called FTTH (FiberTo The Home),
which provides 100 percentfiber-optic connections to the subscriber’s
home. The largest FTTH deployments are in Japan, Korea, and most
recently in China. Most recently, Singapore has also completed their
implementation of NGBN (Next Generation Broadband Network) and has
started rolling out fibre internet services in September 2010.
In the US, Verizon Communications provides a FTTH service called FiOS to
select high-ARPU (Average Revenue Per User) markets within its existing
territory. The other major surving ILEC (or Incumbent Local Exchange
Carrier), AT&T, uses a FTTN (FiberTo The Node) service called U-verse with
twisted-pair to the home. Their MSO competitors employ FTTN with coax
using HFC. All of the major access networks use fiber for the bulk of the
distance from the service provider's network to the customer.
The globally dominant access network technology is EPON (Ethernet
Passive Optical Network). In Europe, and among telcos in the United
States, BPON (ATM-based Broadband PON) and GPON (Gigabit PON) are
favored because of their roots in the FSAN (Full Service Access Network)
and ITU-T standards organizations under their control.

[edit] Comparison with electrical

transmission
A mobile fiberoptic splice lab used to access and splice underground
cables.

An underground fiber optic splice enclosure opened up.

The choice between optical fiber and electrical (or copper) transmission
for a particular system is made based on a number of trade-offs. Optical
fiber is generally chosen for systems requiring higher bandwidth or
spanning longer distances than electrical cabling can accommodate.
The main benefits of fiber are its exceptionally low loss (allowing long
distances between amplifiers/repeaters), its absence of ground currents
and other parasite signal and power issues common to long parallel
electric conductor runs (due to its reliance on light rather than electricity
for transmission, and the dielectric nature of fiber optic), and its inherently
high data-carrying capacity. Thousands of electrical links would be
required to replace a single high bandwidth fiber cable. Another benefit of
fibers is that even when run alongside each other for long distances, fiber
cables experience effectively no crosstalk, in contrast to some types of
electrical transmission lines. Fiber can be installed in areas with high
electromagnetic interference (EMI), such as alongside utility lines, power
lines, and railroad tracks. Nonmetallic all-dielectric cables are also ideal
for areas of high lightning-strike incidence.
For comparison, while single-line, voice-grade copper systems longer than
a couple of kilometers require in-line signal repeaters for satisfactory
performance; it is not unusual for optical systems to go over 100
kilometers (60 miles), with no active or passive processing. Single-mode
fiber cables are commonly available in 12 km lengths, minimizing the
number of splices required over a long cable run. Multi-mode fiber is
available in lengths up to 4 km, although industrial standards only
mandate 2 km unbroken runs.
In short distance and relatively low bandwidth applications, electrical
transmission is often preferred because of its
• Lower material cost, where large quantities are not required
• Lower cost of transmitters and receivers
• Capability to carry electrical power as well as signals (in specially-
designed cables)
• Ease of operating transducers in linear mode.
Optical fibers are more difficult and expensive to splice than electrical
conductors. And at higher powers, optical fibers are susceptible to fiber
fuse, resulting in catastrophic destruction of the fiber core and damage to
transmission components.[12]
Because of these benefits of electrical transmission, optical
communication is not common in short box-to-box, backplane, or chip-to-
chip applications; however, optical systems on those scales have been
demonstrated in the laboratory.
In certain situations fiber may be used even for short distance or low
bandwidth applications, due to other important features:
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference, including nuclear
electromagnetic pulses (although fiber can be damaged by alpha
and beta radiation).
• High electrical resistance, making it safe to use near high-voltage
equipment or between areas with different earth potentials.
• Lighter weight—important, for example, in aircraft.
• No sparks—important in flammable or explosive gas environments.
• Not electromagnetically radiating, and difficult to tap without
disrupting the signal—important in high-security environments.
• Much smaller cable size—important where pathway is limited, such
as networking an existing building, where smaller channels can be
drilled and space can be saved in existing cable ducts and trays.
Optical fiber cables can be installed in buildings with the same equipment
that is used to install copper and coaxial cables, with some modifications
due to the small size and limited pull tension and bend radius of optical
cables. Optical cables can typically be installed in duct systems in spans
of 6000 meters or more depending on the duct's condition, layout of the
duct system, and installation technique. Longer cables can be coiled at an
intermediate point and pulled farther into the duct system as necessary.

[edit] Governing standards

In order for various manufacturers to be able to develop components that
function compatibly in fiber optic communication systems, a number of
standards have been developed. The International Telecommunications
Union publishes several standards related to the characteristics and
performance of fibers themselves, including
• ITU-T G.651, "Characteristics of a 50/125 µm multimode graded
index optical fibre cable"
• ITU-T G.652, "Characteristics of a single-mode optical fibre cable"
Other standards specify performance criteria for fiber, transmitters, and
receivers to be used together in conforming systems. Some of these
standards are the following:
• 10 Gigabit Ethernet
• Fibre Channel
• Gigabit Ethernet
• HIPPI
• Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
• Synchronous Optical Networking
• Optical Transport Network (OTN)
TOSLINK is the most common format for digital audio cable using plastic
optical fiber to connect digital sources to digital receivers.

[edit] See also

• Fibre to the x
• Free-space optical communication
• Information theory
• Passive Optical Network
• Dark fiber

[edit] References
• Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology
• Fiber-Optic Technologies by VivekAlwayn
• Agrawal, Govind P. (2002). Fiber-optic communication systems. New
York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-21571-6.

[edit] Notes
1. ^ An optical fiber will break if it is bent too sharply. Alwayn, Vivek
(2004-04-23). "Splicing". Fiber-Optic Technologies. Cisco Systems.
[Link]
p=170740&seqNum=9&rl=1. Retrieved 2006-12-31.
2. ^[1]
3. ^Infinera Introduces New Line SystemInfinera Corp press release,
Retrieved 2009-08-26
4. ^ NTT (2006-09-29). "14 Tbit/s over a single optical fiber: successful
demonstration of world's largest capacity". Press release.
 [Link] Retrieved
2006-12-31.
5. ^ NTT (2010-03-25). "World Record 69-Terabit Capacity for Optical
Transmission over a Single Optical Fiber". Press release.
[Link] Retrieved
2010-04-03.
6. ^ 14 Tbps over a Single Optical Fiber: Successful Demonstration of
World's Largest Capacity - 140 digital high-definition movies
transmitted in one second. NTT Press Release. September 29, 2006.
[2]
7. ^ M. S. Alfiad, et al. (2008). "111 Gb/s POLMUX-RZ-DQPSK
Transmission over 1140 km of SSMF with 10.7 Gb/s NRZ-OOK
Neighbours". Proceedings ECOC 2008: pp. Mo.4.E.2.
8. ^ S. Yao, ”Polarization in Fiber Systems: Squeezing Out More
Bandwidth”, The Photonics Handbook, Laurin Publishing, 2003, p.1.
9. ^Ciena, JANET Delivers Europe’s First 40 Gbps Wavelength Service
07/09/2007 Retrieved 29 Oct 2009.
10. ^Alcatel Boosts Fiber Speed to 100 Petabits in Lab, Stacey
Higginbotham, Sep. 28, 2009
11. ^Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology
12. ^ Lee, M. M.; J. M. Roth, T. G. Ulmer, and C. V. Cryan (2006). "The
Fiber Fuse Phenomenon in Polarization-Maintaining Fibers at 1.55
μm" (PDF). Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics/Quantum
Electronics and Laser Science Conference and Photonic Applications
Systems Technologies. paper JWB66 (Optical Society of America).
[Link] Retrieved
March 14, 2010

[edit] External links

• How Fiber-optics work ([Link])
• The Laser and Fiber-optic Revolution
• Fiber Optics, from Hyperphysics at Georgia State University
• "Understanding Optical Communications" An IBM redbook
• FTTx Primer July 2008
[hide]v·d·eOptical communication

Fiber-optic communication ·Free-space optical communication ·Optical

wireless ·Optical fiber (cable ·connector) ·Optical Carrier ·Intensity
modulation ·Modulating retro-reflector ·Optical Transport Network
Retrieved from "[Link]
Categories: Fiber-optic communications | Photonics
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