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Available online at [Link]

[Link]

Original Article

Date palm reinforced epoxy composites: tensile,

impact and morphological properties

N. Saba a , Othman Y. Alothman b , Zeyad Almutairi c , M. Jawaid a,b,∗ ,

Waheedullah Ghori d
a Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400
Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
b Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11421 Saudi Arabia
c Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11421 Saudi Arabia
d College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study date palm stem fibers (DPF)/epoxy composites at different loading (40, 50 and
Received 7 February 2019 60 wt.%) were fabricated and their tensile, impact and morphological properties are charac-
Accepted 3 July 2019 terized. The interfacial bonding in tensile fractured samples of composites was examined by
Available online xxx scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Tensile and impact results revealed that increase in DPF
loading until 50% improved the mechanical strength, modulus, impact strength and elon-
Keywords: gation at break with respect to pure epoxy resin. Tensile strength, modulus, impact strength
Date palm stem fiber and elongation at break of pure epoxy resin increases from 20.5 to 25.7657 MPa, 0.5123
Epoxy resin to 1.546 GPa, 45.81 to 98.71 J/m and 0.91 to 1.412% respectively while, energy absorption
Polymer composites decreases drastically from 50 to 32% with the incorporation of DPF filler. SEM microstructure
Tensile properties displayed good interfacial bonding in 50% DPF epoxy however the addition of more DPF load-
Impact strength ing reduces the interfacial strength due to poor wettability. Overall test results declared that
Morphological properties 50% DPF loading is ideal to enhance tensile, impact strengths and morphological properties
of epoxy.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]

and natural fibers [1]. However, the growing consciousness of

1. Introduction sustainable environment, govern the profound interest among
researchers to explicitly utilize natural fibers such as kenaf,
Polymer composites are regarded as advanced engineered
hemp, flax, jute, banana, bamboo, coir, pineapple leaf, oil
materials having chemically different constituents, as contin-
palm, sisal, among many others, as green reinforcements in
uous matrix and reinforced material like nano fillers, synthetic
polymer composites in order to minimize the usage of syn-
thetic fibers like carbon, glass and Kevlar [2–4]. Until now many
research studies reviewed that cellulosic fibers are biodegrad-
∗
Corresponding author. able, renewable, nonabrasive and exhibits perfect mechanical
E-mail: jawaid md@[Link] (M. Jawaid).
[Link]
2238-7854/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
[Link]/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

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properties [5–7]. Moreover, the mechanical properties of nat-

Table 1 – Properties of raw DPF.
ural fibers reinforced polymer composites greatly depend
Properties of raw date palm stem fiber
on individual properties of their components and interfacial
interaction (adhesion) between hydrophobic polymeric matrix
Lignin content Approx. 20%
and hydrophilic reinforcements [8,9]. Reduction in the com-
Density Approx. 0.917 g/cm [3]
posites strength and modulus are usually governed by fiber
Thermal stability 200–250 ◦ C
pullout, fibers wettability (insufficient wetting), fiber breakage, Tensile strength 60–275 MPa
fiber debonding and the poor tendency of stress transfer from Young’s modulus 2–12 GPa
polymer matrix to stiff fibers through shear stresses at the
interface [10–12], results poor surface adhesion.
Epoxies are the versatile and established thermoset resin
environments, offering a noticeable environmental and eco-
having epoxide groups as the representative unit in their poly-
nomic potential [22]. Despite the immense socio-cultural
meric backbone structure [13,14], which comprised of two
and economic values of date palm round the globe from
carbon atoms bonded to an oxygen atom [15]. The diverse
past decades (fruit production, medical uses, religious, feed,
characteristic of epoxies enables them for versatile engi-
brooms and wood), its production generates huge amounts
neered and industrial applications including encapsulations
of agro-industrial by products and residues including leaves
of electronic component, lightweight construction materials,
and DPF [20]. A huge quantities of DPF wastes are thrown
laminated circuit board, surface coatings, potting, automobile,
away after each annual trimming procedure presenting trou-
adhesives and maritime structure as well as other advanced
blesome environmental and waste disposal problems, except
composites on a worldwide scale. However, the wide and high
usage as artisan products in small scale [22]. Noticeably, wood,
performance field pervasive applications of the epoxies such
leaves and stem fibers of date palm, which now were con-
as aerospace structural components, get limited owing to
sidered as an agro wastes or used in low value products,
their delamination, fracture toughness, inherent brittleness
are widely been used as potential reinforcement material
(due to the presence of polymerization-induced microc-
in several thermosets and recycle thermoplastic composite
racks/microvoids [16]) and low impact resistance behavior
industries [26], leading to open a broader platform [21]. Sev-
[17]. These drawbacks can be overcome by the addition of
eral studies have been reported in the literature where DPF
additives, fibers and nano fillers (<10 wt.%) that can certainly
materials are incorporated in thermosets, thermoplastics and
amend the epoxies, with improved thermal and dynamic
biodegradable polymer matrix. Table 2 clarifies the reported
along with mechanical, morphological and electrical prop-
work on the date palm fiber materials reinforced polymer
erties [14,18,19]. Presently, the cellulosic fibers and biomass
matrix for certain applications.
based wastes material are the most suitable, promising,
From the Table 2 it is clear that until now no study has been
effective and inexpensive reinforcing agent to enhance the
carried on the DPF reinforced epoxy composites in order to
properties of epoxies [8]. Among many bio-based materials
modify its mechanical and morphological properties at differ-
and natural fibers like coconut shells, saw dust, rice husk,
ent filler loadings. Present work is an extension of our previous
oil palm, kenaf, jute, banana and sisal fibers, the date palm
published work in which we deals about flexural, thermal and
fibers from date palm tree are receiving great attention from
dynamic mechanical properties of DPF/epoxy composites [52].
researchers as green, renewable and biodegradable reinforc-
This study deals the fabrication of DPF/epoxy composites at
ing agent. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) tree is the
different loading (40, 50 and 60 wt.%). Effect of DPF loading
widely cultivated flowering plant species of the palm fam-
as filler on mechanical and morphological properties were
ily [20] for its edible sweet fruit, around the world including
examined and compared with respect to pure epoxy resin
arid and semi-arid regions. Interestingly there are beyond 100
to determine the perfect loading. Success of this study will
million date palm trees widely spread in the Middle East,
deliver one step progress towards the proper utilization of DPF
Arabian Peninsula, Northern Africa, the United States (Cali-
wastes deposition in the Saudi Arabian region. Also, it is an
fornia), Canary Islands, India and Pakistan [20,21]. Date palm
attempt to support the environmental efforts such as replace-
trees possess better resistance for both cold and dry hot cli-
ment of synthetic fiber by DPF to find its applications in various
mates. In the harsh climatic conditions of Tunisia, oases cover
industrial sectors.
almost 40,000 ha representing limited human development
[22]. However, like other natural fibers, date palm stem fibers
(DPF) also possess certain disadvantages like low compres- 2. Materials and method
sion strength, poor thermal resistance, moisture absorption
and high anisotropic properties [23]. Mechanical and thermal The epoxy resin D.E.R 331 used in this research study is a
stability of raw DPF used in this study are listed in Table 1 general purpose clear liquid resin based on diglycidyl ether
[24]. Remarkably, the extracted stem fibers obtained from of bisphenol A (DGEBA), procured from Dow Chemical Pacific
decomposed palm trees possess low tensile strength, elas- Singapore, Singapore. The epoxy hardener (curing agent) Joint-
ticity modulus and are brittle with high water absorption mine 905-3S is a clear, less toxic and transparent colour liquid.
tendency [25]. It is a modified cycloaliphatic amine, supplied by Tazdiq Engi-
DPF extensively being used for tertiary domestic wastew- neering Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia. Silicone spray and Teflon sheets
ater treatment, besides these the leaves, wasted dates and used in this research work were also procured from Tazdiq
floral stems supporting date regimes are explicitly used in Engineering Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia and NR Medicare Sdn. Bhd.,
animal feeding or as a bio-monitor of high metals in arid Selangor, Malaysia, respectively. The purchased chemicals

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Table 2 – Exclusively reported research studies on date palm fiber reinforced polymer composites.
Reinforcements Polymer matrix References

DPF Polyester [27]

DPF Epoxy [28]
Date palm wood fronds Polyester [29]
DPF PP [30]
DPF HDPE [31]
Short DPF Poly-epoxy thermoset [32]
DPF Polyester [33]
Date palm seed particles Polyester [34]
Date seeds powder Polyester [35]
DPF PP [36]
Rice husk and DPF Unsaturated polyester [37]
Date palm leaves and wood flour Polyester [38]
Glass fibers/DPF Epoxy [39]
Date palm frond fibers PP and LDPE [40]
Aligned date palm frond fibers LDPE [41]
Untreated and silane treated oil and date palm frond fibers Polyester [42]
DPF and jute fibers PP/EPDM thermoplastic elastomers [43]
DPF Glycerol plasticized potato starch [44]
DPF and/or chopped strand mat glass fibers Recycled HDPE [45]
DPF PP [46]
Coir and wild DPF Epoxy [47]
DPF and flax fibers Starch [24]
Alkali treatment of date palm fibers Epoxy [21]
Date palm leaf fibers PVA [48]
Alkali treated date palm leaf fibers PETr [49]
DPF and graphite filler Epoxy [50]
DPF Thermoplastic corn starch [51]

DPF, date palm stem fibers; PP, polypropylene; HDPE, high density polyethylene; LDPE, low density polyethylene; EPDM,
ethylene–propylene–diene–monomer; PVA, polyvinylalcohol; PETr, recycled poly (ethylene terephthalate).

were used without any further purification. DPF was imported

Table 3 – Formulation of DPF/epoxy composites.
from the streets of Riyadh city (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia).
Composites Epoxy resin in wt.% DPF in wt.%

2.1. Fabrication of composites Pure epoxy resin 100 0

40% DPF 60 40
50% DPF 50 50
In this study DPF (Phoenix Dactylifera L.) is used as filler for
60% DPF 40 60
the fabrication of DPF/epoxy composites at different loading
(40, 50 and 60 wt.%). Prior to this received DPF were manually
separated into single fibers and washed in distilled water to Shakopee, USA). The composite samples were cut to rectan-
remove sand, dust and other impurities attached to its surface. gular shape of dimension 120 × 20 × 3 mm with a band saw
DPF was then ground into 0.8–1 mm by using grinding machine machine prior to commence tensile testing. The mechani-
having an average of 6–8% moisture content and dried in oven cal characterization were performed in accordance with the
at 60 ◦ C. Dried DPF was added into the epoxy resin using a ASTM D 3039 (2014) standard having the crosshead speed
high speed mechanical stirrer. The stoichiometric ratio (2:1) 5 mm/min and gauge length of 50 mm. The tensile tests were
of the epoxy and hardener was maintained. The mixture was performed using maximum load cell of 5 kN, the tempera-
mechanically stirred for at least 20 min at room temperature. ture was set at 22 ◦ C and the humidity at 50%. All data (load,
The mixture was then poured into a stainless steel mould displacement and strains) were acquired. Stress-strain curves
and cured for 24 h at room temperature. Silicone spray release were obtained from these tests; tensile strength and modulus
agent was used in the mould to facilitate the removal of the were evaluated and discussed for seven replicate specimens
composite samples. Fabricated composites were cut and char- of each DPF/epoxy composites.
acterized as per ASTM standard. The weight fractions of DPF
and epoxy in DPF/epoxy composites are listed in Table 3. 2.2.2. Impact test
The impact strength of DPF/epoxy composites at different
2.2. Characterization loading was measured with a CEAST 9050 impact testing
machine (Instron, Norwood, USA). The composite samples
2.2.1. Tensile tests were cut to rectangular shape of dimension 70 × 15 × 3 mm
Mechanical strength, modulus properties and elongation at with a band saw machine. Before impact testing, V-notches
break of DPF/epoxy composites at different loading were were made on all seven replicates of each DPF/epoxy compos-
measured through Universal Testing Machine (Instron 5567, ites (7 × 4 = 28) by using NOTCHVIS. The V-notched specimens

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Fig. 1 – Tensile strength and modulus of epoxy and DPF/epoxy composites.

were then tested according to the ASTM D256 (2010) specifica- However, with a further increase of the DPF filler load-
tions. Appropriate 10 kJ pendulum hammers were mounted. ing from 50 to 60% a slight decrease in tensile strength is
The machine was calibrated for energy and accurate determi- noticed. Mechanism of failure in 60% DPF/epoxy composites
nation of the exact amount of impact energy (J/m) involved in might be attributed due to the fiber fracture failure, which gets
the tests. The energy needed to break the composite specimen, more predominant compared to fiber-matrix interfacial fail-
its toughness and average impact energy was then analysed. ure. Analogous statement are observed by other researchers
[24]. This behavior might be explained on accounts of poor
wetting, improper mixing, agglomeration and cloudiness of
2.2.3. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
the stiffed DPF filler, resulting a notable decrease in the fiber
Morphology of the tensile fractured sample of each DPF/epoxy
and matrix adhesion. The formation of DPF agglomerated
composites were carried out by Hitachi S-3400 N SEM. Prior
structures ultimately improves the density and later results
to SEM examinations, the samples were coated with gold on
in the formation of microvoids, thus minimize the reinforcing
fractured end and mounted onto SEM holder.
effectiveness of DPF in the epoxy matrix. All these results in
an early failure followed by the relatively poor tensile strength
3. Results and discussion of the developed epoxy composites. A relatively comparable
results are reported were total 50 wt.% of natural fibers (25%
3.1. Tensile strength and modulus flax and 25% DPF) loading in biodegradable starch, displayed
higher tensile strength and have lower void fractions [24].
Tensile strength (mechanical resistant) determined the abil- Similar argument of low mechanical properties at higher
ity of composite materials to refute failure under longitudinal fiber loading were reported by the researchers where date
tensile stress [8]. Fig. 1 displays the change in the tensile palm leaflets at different loading (70, 75 and 80 wt.%) are
strength and modulus respectively with the addition of DPF reinforced in polystyrene wastes [55]. They claimed that the
variable (40, 50 and 60 wt.%) loading reinforced in epoxy resin. poor coating or wetting by the matrix and the adhesion state
From Fig. 1 it is clear that the incorporation of hard and possess many defects and voids, favouring the creation of
stiff DPF filler explicitly improved the tensile strength of the early fiber fractures. Fig. 1 also reflects the variations in the
pure epoxy resin. Thus the fabricated DPF/epoxy composites tensile modulus of pure epoxy resin by incorporating DPF
became stiffer and tougher with respect to pure epoxy resin. filler. Fig. 1 clearly revealed that a similar trend is followed
Although, a minimal increase in the tensile strength by the by tensile modulus to tensile strength of pure epoxy resin,
addition of DPF filler up to 40% (21.432 MPa), are observed. as it also increases with the DPF filler loading. It has been
The minimal increment might be explained on account of the observed that commencing from 40 to 60% loading, tensile
presence of small content of reinforced DPF (fibers dispersion) modulus achieved maximum at 50% loading. Obtained higher
to allow effective applied loads transfer and poor mechani- tensile modulus value, determined the perfect distribution
cal interlocking within the composites that results interfacial along with better interfacial adhesion among the incorporated
adhesion of the reinforced fibers to the epoxy, to withstand DPF filler and the epoxy. However beyond 50% the formation
the stress build-up during investigation [53,54]. of microvoids due to the fiber pull out, acts as the favoured
Interestingly, the further addition of DPF up to 50% loading sites for the crack initiation and results pre-rupture thus low-
shows better and smooth transfer of the applied longitudinal ered the tensile modulus for 60% DPF/epoxy (1.324 GPa) as
stress between filler and the epoxy matrix having good enough compared to the 50% DPF/epoxy composites. Overall 50% DPF
mechanical interlocking, thereby allowing an enhancement in loading in epoxy displays higher tensile modulus (1.546 GPa),
the tensile strength (25.7657 MPa) of the pure epoxy resin. as the epoxy matrix is sufficient to cover the surfaces of the

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Fig. 2 – Elongation at break of epoxy and DPF/epoxy composites.

incorporated DPF among the rest and hence it can endure uniform fiber distribution, mixing and its remarkable reinforc-
more loads efficiently [24]. ing effect with relative to higher fibers loading. This shows
Furthermore, the decrease in tensile strength and modu- that the elongation at break of 50% DPF/epoxy sample can
lus of epoxy composites having 60% DPF loading is greatly withstands more strain before failure, and it is relatively more
attributed to the increased porosity, poor incorporated DPF ductile compared to rest composites. Similar arguments are
wetting and their non-uniform distribution within epoxy presented by other researchers, where abaca/jute/glass fibers
matrix. In more simplified words, the amount of epoxy is prob- are reinforced in epoxy [59]. Thus it can be concluded that
ably insufficient to wet out the fiber and fully transfer the when the loads transferred in a better way between the DPF
stress effectively at such high fiber loadings. Furthermore, it filler and the epoxy matrix, it delivers a positive effect on both
might be due to high fiber–fiber interaction and agglomeration mechanical resistant (tensile strength) and ductile (elongation
of fibers within the epoxy matrix. Similar justifications were at break) properties as both them are highly sensitive to cohe-
presented by other researchers where 40 wt.% of kenaf fiber sion [60]. Comparable improvements in the tensile strength
and up to 10% (w/w) of thymol are incorporated in poly (lactic and elongation at break were also reported for DPF reinforced
acid) through melt blending and compression moulding tech- recycled PP/LDPE/HDPE ternary blends [23]. Lowering in the
niques [56]. Comparable justifications were also reported by elongation at break (%) also observed where date palm leaf
the other researchers where the tensile modulus get improved fibers was incorporated in recycled ternary polyolefin blend
by the reinforcement of date palm leaf fibers (10–30 phr) in composites [57].
recycled polyolefin ternary blend consisting of low density
polyethylene, high density polyethylene and polypropylene, 3.3. Impact properties
due to the improvement in the stiffness of the composites [57].
Analogous justifications also found in literature where tensile Impact strength is the defined as the tendency of compos-
modulus increases progressively with the increase of the fiber ites to endure high energy impact without fracturing [61]
loading, affecting the stiffness of the composites and improves and is greatly depend on the individual fiber properties and
the stress-strain properties of DPF reinforced in gypsum, thus interfacial adhesion between the fibers and the matrix [4].
minimize the brittle fracture of gypsum matrix [58]. In other Comparative impact strength of the epoxy and DPF/epoxy
study, the reinforcement of treated 50 wt.% DPF in biodegrad- composites at different loading are illustrated in Fig. 3.
able corn starch improved the tensile strength, modulus and It is crystal clear from Fig. 3 that the lowest impact proper-
impact strength of starch composites by 7, 12.5 and 4.3 times ties of pure epoxy resin shows noticeable improvement with
respectively [51] while considerable reduction in mechanical the addition of DPF filler due to improved stiffness of the
properties are noted at higher DPF loading. pure epoxy resin. Considerable improvement in the impact
strength of 50% DPF/epoxy composites with respect to 40 and
3.2. Elongation at break 60% loadings are realized, that can be primarily account due
to the better adhesion of the DPF with the epoxy matrix to
Fig. 2 illustrates the elongation at break values of all com- overcome the applied high impact stress/load. Moreover, the
posites. It is observed from the Fig. 2 that the trends for the increase in impact strength can be related to an improved
elongation at break are quite similar to that obtained for both stress capability that will minimize the contribution of fiber-
tensile strength and modulus (Fig. 1). Results analysis shows related mechanism such as fiber pull out.
that the elongation at break values increases from 40 to 50% Fig. 3 also illustrates the energy absorption (%) along with
by the addition of DPF filler, while further addition to 60% impact strength of composites. Energy absorption regarded
decreased the elongation at break values. as different means to evaluate toughness as it is the area
Improved tensile strength and elongation at break is chiefly under a stress–strain curve and thus highly depends on the
attributed by the fiber stiffness which prohibits the segmental tensile strength of a material [62]. Interestingly, energy absorp-
polymer chain mobility within the matrix. Thus at 50% DPF tion mainly occurs during deformation and fracture processes
loading, the stress transfer becomes more effective due to the [60]. Besides increase in impact strength by addition of DPF

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Fig. 3 – Impact strength and energy absorption of epoxy and DPF/epoxy composites.

Fig. 4 – SEM images of tensile fractured images of pure epoxy resin.

filler to the epoxy, a remarkable decrease in energy absorp- pure epoxy resin, presenting brittle plastic nature with a
tion (Fig. 3) during izod impact test was also observed for all glassy and smooth exterior having several stream-like cracks
DPF/epoxy composites. However it is more pronounced for [6].
50% DPF/epoxy with respect to other composites. Thus lower Remarkably wavy cracks (marked by red colour) depict its
energy absorption and higher damage resistance tendency are high tendency at markedly less energy consumptions towards
realized for 50% DPF/epoxy with relative to the rest compos- tensile fracturing, rupturing and its propagation [64]. Analo-
ites, are more likely associated with the amount of internal gous SEM images were noticed for pure epoxy resin by other
damage during impact load. This statement and justifications researchers [1,8].
are in complete agreement with reported literature where In first sight SEM morphology (Figs. 5–7) of all DPF/epoxy
impact strength and toughness increases with the increase composites observed alike, but relatively different from pure
in fiber loading for DPF/recycled poly (ethylene terephthalate) epoxy resin. As is evident from Figs. (5–7), epoxy surface
composites from 11.3 to 12.5 and 13.8 kJ/m [2] for 5, 10 and becomes more jagged and irregular by adding DPF indicat-
15 wt.% fiber loadings respectively due to strong interfacial ing marked reduction in brittleness and ductile nature. Fig. 5
adhesions [63]. shows that the addition of 40% DPF filler makes surface slightly
coarser and rougher, with relative to pure epoxy resin (Fig. 4).
As the incorporated DPF filler hindered the crack deflection
3.4. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and crack initiations mechanism thus delays the early rupture
of the composites under examination.
The surface characteristics and the distribution of the filler
Addition of 50% DPF filler to the epoxy (Fig. 6) makes the
within the matrix were investigated through SEM. SEM micro-
surface more rougher and coarser with respect to 40% load-
graphs of 40, 50 and 60 wt.% DPF/epoxy composites are
ing (Fig. 5) but reasonably lesser in comparison with 60%
illustrated in Figs. 4–7. Fig. 4 shows the micrograph of

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Fig. 5 – SEM images of tensile fractured sample of 40% DPF/epoxy composites.

DPF/epoxy composites (Fig. 7). Moreover, the SEM micrograph minimal adhesion, resulting reduction in the value of mechan-
of 50% DPF/epoxy composites also displayed relatively lesser ical properties especially the tensile strength and modulus for
clumping, aggregations, fiber pull outs and voids formation 60% DPF/epoxy, as illustrated in the Fig. 1. The statements are
compared to rest composites (Fig. 6). Hence relatively huge also in line where alkali treated date palm fibers are rein-
amounts of energy were required to break the 50% DPF/epoxy forced in polyurethane matrix [10]. Analogous results were
composites as these filler hindered the crack propagation path also reported where the existence of voids and aggregates in
and divert it from straight way to the highly complicated and the matrix directs the early rupture of the pure epoxy resin at
twisted path. All these improved the resistance tendency to high filler loadings of glass fibers/nanoclay/epoxy composites
pre-rupture and eventually enhanced the tensile and impact [65]. Interestingly reasonable arguments for date palm fibers
properties. extracted from the mesh part in the palm at different loading
The situation is however quite different for 60% DPF/epoxy (20, 50 and 70 wt.%) reinforced in biodegradable thermoplastic
composites due to the accumulation of DPF filler and starch (TPS) are also presented [66]. Researchers observed that
microvoids within matrix due to the lack of sufficient epoxy 50% fibers loading shows similar SEM micrograph indicating
matrix to provide effective wettability of DPF. All this favour better adhesion between the matrix and the fibers due to good
the formation of weak interface or stress concentration sites wettability and have more fractured fibers than pull outs. How-
to initiate and propagate crack for easy failure of composites ever increasing fiber content beyond 50% increases the value
under applied tensile stress (Fig. 7). These factors are govern of the applied load that causes fatigue damage initiation to
by the poor dispersion of incompatible DPF filler and their the composites under stress.

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Fig. 6 – SEM images of tensile fractured sample of 50% DPF/epoxy composites.

panel lining, roof), shipping pallets, sustainable construction

4. Potential applications of DPF/epoxy material (including roofing tiles, partitioning boards, ropes),
composites furniture and household products (window, toys, flower pots
picture frames and storage containers). Overall we can con-
Comparable and satisfactory mechanical properties and clude that the fabricated composites can be considered as
moderate value of elongation at break of 50% DPF/epoxy com- suitable for a wide range of industrial applications from
posites with respect to kenaf/epoxy, pineapple/phenolics, oil mechanical performance standpoint.
palm/epoxy and hemp/epoxy composites governs its prob-
able applications with the prime benefits of renewability,
sustainability and economical issues besides as lightweight 5. Conclusion
structural material. Remarkably the 50% DPF/epoxy formu-
lation can be used in secondary structural applications in In this study an effort has been made to reinforce stiffer
housing, aircraft components like blades, other machinery DPF (40, 50 and 60 wt.%) as filler in order to modify the
parts and in certain non-structural applications like consumer mechanical (tensile and impact strength) and microstructure
products, sports items, backrests, roof tiles, cabin linings and properties of pure epoxy resin. Result analysis revealed that
exterior designing with minimal repairing costs. Obtained DPF incorporation improves the tensile properties, impact
acceptable mechanical and morphological results also suggest strength and presents marked effect on energy absorption
that, it can be used as substitute for glass reinforced poly- tendency. However noticeable enhancements were realized
mer composites in automobile interior linings (rear wall, side for 50% DPF/epoxy composites due to fine distribution and

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Fig. 7 – SEM images of tensile fractured sample of 60% DPF/epoxy composites.

perfect mixing and dispersion of DPF filler without any promi- optimized used of DPF in the development of advance and cost
nent sign of aggregations and microvoids formation. Addition effective materials for engineering mechanical based applica-
of 50% DPF improves the tensile strength, tensile modulus, tions. It will also help to avoid or minimize the use of synthetic
elongation at break (%), impact strength and energy absorp- fibers like carbon, glass and Kevlar or exclusive fillers like
tion (%) of pure epoxy resin from 20.5 to 25.7657 MPa, 0.5123 graphene, carbon nano fibers, metal oxides, carbon nanotubes
to 1.546 GPa, 0.91 to 1.412%, 45.81 to 98.71 J/m and 50–34%. and modified nanoclay.
Although at higher fiber content (beyond 50%) the epoxy was
insufficient to cover the DPF, causing the mechanical proper-
Conflicts of interest
ties to deteriorate and to initiate the failure mechanism within
composites. SEM micrographs also explain the stiffer nature
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
and toughening mechanisms for 50% DPF/epoxy composites
among the 40 and 60% DPF/epoxy composites.
It is anticipated from the previous and current work that Acknowledgements
50% DPF reinforcement have the highest mechanical and ther-
mal stability and these studies will motivate the introduction The authors extend their appreciation to the International Sci-
of sustainable and huge deposits of DPF wastes as filler in entific Partnership Program ISPP at King Saud University for
thermosets. Furthermore this study might contribute to the funding this research work through ISPP-0011.

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