IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSR-JRME)
e-ISSN: 2320–7388,p-ISSN: 2320–737X Volume 2, Issue 3 (Jul. –Aug. 2013), PP 13-17
www.iosrjournals.org
Note taking: A lesson for Novice Qualitative Researchers.
Margaret Tinny Muswazi 1, Edmore Nhamo2
1
(Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe Open University, Bag MP
1119 Mt Pleasant Harare, Zimbabwe)
2
(Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, P.O Box 3550 Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
Open University, Zimbabwe)
Abstract: Although the information can be used in other circumstances, the intention of this manuscript is to
assist students and other people who are beginning to get involved in qualitative research on how to take notes.
It clearly shows that note taking in not composition writing or a word to word transcription of what is said by
someone as may be common with students in many lectures. It shows that note taking is the strategic selection
of information that can be used to remember the scenario existing at the time in question. Information was
collected through document analysis of well known authors on research such as Denzin and Lincoln; Best and
Kahn; Gall, Borg, and Gall and others, as well as from observation and experience of the authors. The paper
discusses taking down written notes, tape recording and videotaping as forms of note taking. The advantages
and constraints posed by each form and against the other are highlighted. The conclusion made is that
resources and expertise permitting, videotaping becomes the best mode of note taking.
Keywords, Note taking, novice qualitative researchers, tape recording, videotaping, written notes.
I. Introduction
This write-up will begin by stating what a couple of authorities believe is note- taking and then go on to
address other issues relating to the same. Best and Kahn (1998) say note-taking is putting materials in a form
that can be recalled and used in the future. They say that notes will result from speeches, lectures, class
discussions, conversations, from solitary meditation and from reading references. They also say that when
writing term papers and research reports notes resulting from reading are most significant. In addition, they
advise that note taking should be systematic in order that what is read is not forgotten quickly.
Gall, Borg and Gall (1996), say that one can use a laptop to keyboard notes directly into the interview
guide. To emphasize the importance of note taking to researchers, Ostrower (1998), suggest that inexperienced
researchers should be given notes taking training before they go into the field so that they can start research as
early as possible. Saunders (2003), who also calls it a notebook of ideas points out that it is one of the usual
methods for preserving information collected in interviews and which can be hand-written directly onto the copy
of the interview guide. Lastly, Wolfinger (2002) makes it more applicable and says that note –taking is a very
important process in ethnographic research.
Good field notes should be descriptive to include verbal portraits of the participants, a reconstruction of
the dialogue, and a description of the physical setting as well as accounts of particular descriptions of the
observer’s behaviour. Notes should also be reflective enough to include reflections of methods of data
collection, analysis, reflection of ethical dilemmas and conflict as well as reflection of the observer’s frame of
mind and emerging interpretations. Notes should be detailed and concrete i.e. not vague and over-generalized.
It is important that they include visual details when appropriate. Gall et al (1996) advise that there is no need to
limit notes to words only and that they can also include sketches and diagrams.
Uses of Notes
Notes can have many uses in research. Raimond (1993), in Saunders (2003), points out that notes are
useful when you compare projects as you use them to get an idea of what project to do or not do. Notes are
unique to yourself and they can help you understand as mentioned above, projects, as you compare them. Your
notes will help you identify what you would like to follow or not follow. They can also help you set parameters
against which to evaluate possible research ideas. This means therefore that even when two people are
reviewing the same projects, their notes may not be the same because they may be looking for different things in
the projects. Sometimes even when they are looking for the same things, they may differ in what they consider
important and essential; thus their notes may be different hence the uniqueness being referred to in Saunders
(2003).
www.iosrjournals.org 13 | Page
Note taking: A lesson for Novice Qualitative Researchers.
II. How to write notes
Several suggestions of what to include and what method to use for note taking are offered by various
authorities. Below is a selection of suggestions considered useful for this paper:
Include the topic, complete bibliographic information and summary (Charles, 1988). You cannot always be
assured to find the sources of the information you obtained some time ago e.g. from the internet as it may
be removed by the time you go back to it so, the advice to include bibliographic information for instance,
should be taken seriously
Even if you are not able to make complete field notes right away, you should at least try to write a summary
of the sequence of events and noteworthy statements
You can use this summary to stimulate your writing of a more extensive set of notes
Skim the reference source before taking any notes so that you can decide what materials to take down (Best
and Kahn, 1996)
Use 4 inch by 6 inch (10cm by 15cm) index cards which can easily be sorted by subject headings. Cards
are a better option to sheets of paper and they should be of the same size and they can be easily reorganized
into various categories (Best and Kahn, 1986; Charles, 1988).
Larger cards may have the advantage of carrying more notes, but may be less convenient to carry around.
File each note card under a definite heading and place the subject heading at the top of the card.
Include only one topic on a card for the flexibility of organization and filing
Be sure that notes are complete and clearly understandable for they are not likely to be used for some time
after they have been taken.
Do not plan to recopy or type your notes as it wastes time and increase the possibility of error and
confusion.
Keep a supply of note cards with you at all times so that you can jot down ideas that come to you while
waiting, riding the bus or listening to a lecture or discussion (Saunders says researchers can also get ideas
while they sleep) like musicians claim they dream about lyrics (mine).
It is also advisable to make photo static copies so that they can be examined more efficiently at home.
Denzin and Lincoln (2002) give examples of how to use cards. They say for instance that, you can
organize your cards by author name or alphabetically or by topic. They give the following bibliographic
information for journal articles:
1. Author’s name - last, first, middle initial
2. Date - year and month
3. Title of journal article
4. Publication - underline title of the journal or agency that published the document
5. Volume of the journal, underlined
6. Page numbers of the article
Denzin and Lincoln (2002) suggest listing the following bibliographic information for a book:
1. Author’s name – last, first, middle initial
2. Date of publication – year (in brackets)
3. Title of the book (underlined)
4. City – where published, plus state if not a major city
5. Publisher – name of company that published
Authorities talk about several types of notes e.g. note book, footnotes, field-notes etc. For example Best
and Kahn (1989) classify reading notes as quotation, paraphrase, summary and evaluation. Note book and field-
notes have already been addressed earlier. Footnotes have been treated by different authorities in varying ways.
Oliver (2003) refers to them as additional material, which may be inappropriate to place in the main text. Oliver
says footnotes can be supplementary to principal arguments of the text, may consist of additional specialist
references, may be put at the bottom of the relevant page, may be put at the end of the thesis or, may be put in
notes at the end of each chapter.
Addressing the issue of selection of where to place footnotes, Oliver (2003) suggests that it may
depend on the individual or university preference. One can use superscript numbers in the text alongside the
issue to which the number refers and numbering should proceed sequentially throughout the chapter and
recommences for the next chapter. Lastly, Oliver (2003) adds that additional materials may be placed at the
bottom of the page, footnotes may be collated in numerical order at the end of the chapter and may also collect
www.iosrjournals.org 14 | Page
Note taking: A lesson for Novice Qualitative Researchers.
all notes at the end of the thesis while arranging them in order of chapters. Therborn (1982) further suggestions
are that you can type these notes immediately prior to the final list of references for the thesis. However, some
readers find superscript numbers disturbing as they try to read especially when they are attached above words.
Advantages and disadvantages of note writing
Note writing like other methods of note taking has some advantages, chief among which is that it
facilitates analysis. Information is already classified into appropriate response categories by the interviewer,
(Gall et al 1996), and it is readily accessible. However, there are also some disadvantages. Note writing may
prevent the respondents from giving information for sensitive and confidential issues because they do not want
it recorded. In an attempt to maintain the respondents’ comfort, sometimes the interviewer may have to delay
note taking until the end of the interview or after the respondents have left. There is a risk though that the
interviewer may forget important details especially those that differ with those of the interviewee’s.
In some settings an observer taking notes on tablet or notebook might distract participants or cause the
observer to miss important aspects of events. Note taking might disrupt the effectiveness of communication
between the interviewer and the respondent. Gall et al (1996), say that when questions deal with simple factual
information, respondents expect their answers to be written down and may appear upset if they are not. For
example, if a researcher is studying a particular culture, and a respondent makes a claim he/she feels he/she has
authority over, such as claiming that in their culture, they do not view the dead, but the interviewer does not
write the information down, the respondent is likely to be upset or offended. Also if issues being dealt with are
of a rather sensitive or confidential nature, respondents may be perturbed by note taking.
III. Video Taping
Microfilming and microfiching is also a good idea (Best and Kahn, 1989). Many good libraries offer
this facility. Today, many people carry mobile phones with them and most of these have a camera feature built
in them or even small digital cameras. These can help in capturing large chunks of information in a short space
of time and you can deal with this material at a more relaxed time.
When we consider the disadvantages of note writing, particularly where it comes to the laborious work
that has to be done, the disruptions it can cause during say an interview, the inconveniences to communication
between interviewer and respondents, the omissions of detail that can happen etc., we will understand Charles’
(1988) concern that there are challenges in recording focus group data as people may overlap when speaking,
making it difficult to say who said what. In such cases, videotaping is a more efficient option.
Videotaping may be referred to as consolidation (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005). The mobile phones and
small digital cameras referred to above can come in hand. It is useful for recording field notes, interviews,
codes, memos, annotations, reflective remarks, diagrams, audio and video-recordings, demographic variables
and structural maps of the data and the theory all in one place. It can be a tremendously powerful support to the
analysis process. Denzin et al (2005) says videotaping allows the researcher to move from one intellectual
activity to another with minimum effort. Denzin et al (2005) emphasizes that while he/she does that, the
researcher is able to both free up large amounts of energy for the critical tasks and help him/her to see and keep
track of connections that might otherwise easily fall through the cracks.
Advantages of Video Taping
You can have two or three researchers plus a moderator attend and take focus group notes at the same
time (Wilkinson, 1999). In addition, the researchers may focus their notes on different aspects e.g. non–verbal
behaviour, group dynamics and emergent themes. Videotaping is important to capture non-verbal data. It
accurately identifies speakers and all they say, thus it addresses the challenges raised by Charles (1988) above.
Recording provides access to nuances of the discussions which may ordinarily be omitted in note taking. It has
the ability to replay the session during analysis as well as allowing you to transcribe focus group discussions
accurately long after they have happened.
Benefits of Video Taping
Videotaping has many benefits in itself as well as when it is compared to note taking. The benefits are as
follows:
It has the ability to produce large amounts of data on the topic in a space of short time.
It can allow access to topics that might be unobservable.
It can ensure that data directly targets researcher’s topic (there is no chance of confusing who said
what).
It provides access to comparisons that focus group participants make between their experiences.
www.iosrjournals.org 15 | Page
Note taking: A lesson for Novice Qualitative Researchers.
IV. Tape Recording
Gall et al (1996) describe tape recording as one of the two most usual methods for preserving
information collected in interviews. They also confirm that it has more advantages over note taking. You can
tape record speeches, lectures and conversations of participants in a study among other occasions. Gall et. al.
(1996) advise that telephone interviews can be recorded by means of connecting a duplex to the phone and the
tape recorder. The device will facilitate recording as soon as the phone is picked up and that you may need to
transcribe such conversations by using a typewriter or word processor. More common today is the use of the
computer and other gadgets similar to it for that transcription as the typewriter has become a thing of the past.
Gall et. al. however give a warning that recording phone conversations is illegal if one of the parties involved is
not aware that it is happening, (research ethics). So, it means before tape recording takes place, all the parties
involved need to be made aware and possibly give their consent for it.
Advantages of Tape Recording
The following are some of the advantages of tape recording in qualitative
Research:
Most importantly it reduces the tendency by the interviewers to unconsciously Select data favouring their
biases.
Provides a complete verbal record.
Can be studied much more thoroughly than notes.
Speeds up the interview process as there is no need for extensive note taking.
Two or more trained data analysts can listen to the tape or read the transcript and
code it independently (Gall et. al., 1996).
Disadvantages of Tape Recording
While tape recording has been seen to have many advantages, it seems that it also has some
disadvantages, some of which are listed below:
The presence of a tape changes the interview situation to some degree.
With personal issues, respondents may be reluctant to express their feelings freely if they know that
they are being recorded (Gall et. al., 1996).
The interviewer should explain carefully the purpose of recording and gain confidence of the
respondents so as to minimize any undesirable effects of having the interview recorded.
V. Conclusion
It has been noted that note taking in qualitative research can be done in a variety of ways and can also
be used in a variety of ways e.g. for beginning researchers. Note taking can be done during interviews, during
and after focus group discussions and during observations. Three categories of note taking were identified viz
note writing, tape recording and videotaping It has also been pointed out that all three forms of note taking has
both advantages and disadvantages, and note writing seems to have more negative effects on the data collection
method than the other methods discussed here which are tape recording and videotaping. For instance, its
inability to capture all detail especially in focus group activity as well as its disruptive tendencies in interviews,
have been cited as major disadvantages to the researcher and may be even to the participants as well.
It has been made clear in this paper that videotaping is a method which can take in much more detail
than note taking and tape recording separately, but which also may require some expertise. It has been shown as
well that while tape recording is a method which is able to record more than one person speaking at a time, it
has been pointed out that it may also have some legal implications so precautions should be taken.
VI. Recommendations
The paper makes the following recommendations for consideration by novice qualitative researchers:
Resources permitting video taping should be the preferred method of note taking as it offers more
advantages than all other methods.
Sponsorship for the purchase of video and tape recorders should be sought in order to enable beginners in
qualitative research to capture all the necessary details as they collect data (assuming that some researchers
may find the cost unaffordable).
Researchers should affiliate to relevant research groups both within and outside their institutions where they
can access some of the equipment when they need it as well as the training for it.
www.iosrjournals.org 16 | Page
Note taking: A lesson for Novice Qualitative Researchers.
References
[1] Best, J. W. and Kahn, J. V, Research in Education (6th Edition) (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1989)
[2] Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R. and Gall, J. P, Educational Research: An Introduction (6th Edition) (White Plains,NY:Longman,1996)
[3] Ostrower, F. Nonparticipant Observation: An Introduction To Quantitative Research. Teaching Sociology. Vol. 26, (1998) 57-61.
[4] Saunders, M., Lewis, P., Thornhill, A, Research Methods for BusinessStudies 3rd Edition (England. Prentice Hall, 2003)
[5] Wolfinger, N. H. On Writing field-notes: Collection Strategies And Background Expectancies. Qualitative Research. Vol. 2.
(2002) 85-95.
[6] Raimond, P, Management Projects (London: Chapman and Hall, 1993)
[7] Charles, C. M. (1988) Introduction to Educational Research (New York and London: Longman, 1988)
[8] Best, J. W and Kahn, J. V, Research in Education (7th Edition) (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1993)
[9] Best, J. W and Kahn, J. V, Research in Education (Englewood Cliffs, NY: Prentice Hall, 1986)
[10] Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S, Qualitative Research 3rd Edition (London: Sage, 2005)
[11] Oliver, P. Writing Your Thesis (London: Sage, 2004)
[12] Therborn, G, The Ideology Of Power And The Power Of Ideology (London: Villiers Publications, 1980)
[13] Wilkinson, S. “Focus groups a feminist method.” Psychology of Women Quarterly. 23, (1999) 221-224
www.iosrjournals.org 17 | Page
