CHAPTER 4

EXTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION

Introduction
So far, we have considered conduction, which is the mechanism of heat transfer through
a solid or a quiescent fluid. We now consider convection, which is the mechanism of heat
transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk fluid motion.
Convection is classified as natural (or free) and forced convection, depending on how the
fluid motion is initiated. In forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or
in a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan. In natural convection, any fluid
motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as
the rise of warmer fluid and the fall of the cooler fluid. Convection is also classified as
external and internal depending on whether the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or
in a pipe.
PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION
Heat transfer through a fluid is by convection in the presence of bulk fluid motion and by
conduction in the absence of it. Therefore, conduction in a fluid can be viewed as the
limiting case of convection, corresponding to the case of quiescent fluid

Convection heat transfer strongly depends on the fluid properties dynamic viscosity µ, thermal
conductivity k, density ρ, and specific heat cp, as well as the fluid velocity V. It also depends on the
geometry and the roughness of the solid surface, in addition to the type of fluid flow (such as
being laminar or turbulent). Thus, we expect the convection heat transfer relations to be rather
complex because of the dependence of convection on so many variables. This is not surprising,
since convection is the most complex mechanism of heat transfer. Newton’s law of cooling as
 qconv = h (Ts - T∞) (W/m2)
Or
Qconv = hAs (Ts - T∞) (W)
Where
h = convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2. °C
As = heat transfer surface area, m2
Ts = temperature of the surface, °C
T∞= temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface, °C
Judging from its units, the convection heat transfer coefficient h can be defined as the rate of heat
transfer between a solid surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit temperature difference.
Nusselt Number
In convection studies, it is common practice to non dimensionalize the governing
equations and combines the variables, which group together into dimensionless
numbers in order to reduce the number of total variables. It is also common practice to
non dimensionalize the heat transfer coefficient h with the Nusselt number, defined as
Where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid and Lc is the characteristic length. Nusselt
number. Therefore, the Nusselt number represents the ratio of heat transfer through a fluid
layer as a result of convection relative to conduction across the same fluid layer. The larger
the Nusselt number, the more effective the convection. A Nusselt number of Nu = 1 for a
fluid layer represents heat transfer across the layer by pure conduction.

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather chaotic. The highly ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called laminar. The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is typically laminar. The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at
high velocities and is characterized by velocity fluctuations is called turbulent. A flow that
alternates between being laminar and turbulent is called transitional.
Surface Shear Stress
Consider the flow of a fluid over the surface of a plate. The fluid layer in contact with the surface
tries to drag (pull) the plate along via friction, exerting a friction force on it. Friction force per unit
area is called shear stress, and is denoted by τ. Experimental studies indicate that the shear stress
for most fluids is proportional to the velocity gradient, and the shear stress at the wall surface is
expressed as

Where the constant of proportionality µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, whose unit is
kg/m. s (or equivalently, N. s/m2, or Pa. s, or poise = 0.1 Pa. s). The fluids that that obey the
linear relationship above are called Newtonian fluids
Most common fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils are Newtonian fluids. In fluid flow and
heat transfer studies, the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density appears frequently. For suitability,
this ratio is given the name kinematic viscosity v and is expressed as v = µ/ρ. Two common units
of kinematic viscosity are m2/s and stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s).
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation, and it is a strong function of
temperature. The viscosities of liquids decrease with temperature, whereas the viscosities of gases
increase with temperature Fig.
The determination of the surface shear stress τs from Eq. is not practical
since it requires knowledge of the flow velocity profile. A more
practical approach in external flow is to relate τs to the upstream
velocity V as;

Where Cf is the dimensionless friction coefficient, whose value in most

cases is determined experimentally, and ρ is the density of the fluid.
Note the friction force over the entire surface is determined from;
Prandtl Number
The Prandtl number (Pr) or Prandtl group is a dimensionless number, defined as the ratio of
momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity. That is, the Prandtl number is given as:

Reynolds Number
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the surface geometry, surface
roughness, flow velocity, surface temperature, and type of fluid, among other things. Reynolds
discovered that the flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of the inertia forces to viscous
forces in the fluid. This ratio is called the Reynolds number, which is a dimensionless quantity,
and is expressed for external flow as;
At large Reynolds numbers, the inertia forces, which are proportional to the density and the
velocity of the fluid, are large relative to the viscous forces, and thus the viscous forces cannot
prevent the random and rapid fluctuations of the fluid. At small or moderate Reynolds numbers,
however, the viscous forces are large enough to suppress these fluctuations and to keep the fluid “in
line.” Thus the flow is turbulent in the first case and laminar in the second.
The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the critical Reynolds number.
For flow over a flat plate, the generally accepted value of the critical Reynolds number is
Recr = Vxcr /v = 5 × 105.
Friction and Pressure Drag
The force of flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called drag. The drag force FD
depends on the density r of the fluid, the upstream velocity V, and the size, shape, and orientation
of the body, among other things. The drag characteristic of a body is represented by the
dimensionless drag coefficient CD defined as;

Some times written Cf

Where A is the frontal area (the area projected on a plane normal to the direction of flow). The
frontal area of a cylinder of diameter D and length L, for example, is A = LD. For parallel flow
over flat plates or thin airfoils, A is the surface area. The drag force is the net force exerted by a
fluid on a body in the direction of flow due to the combined effects of wall shear and pressure
forces;
CD = CD, friction + CD, pressure
Therefore, for parallel flow over a flat plate, the drag coefficient is equal to the friction drag
coefficient, or simply the friction coefficient. That is,
Flat plate: CD = CD, friction = Cf
Heat Transfer
The phenomena that affect drag force also affect heat transfer, and this effect appears in the Nusselt
number. The experimental data for heat transfer is often represented conveniently with reasonable
accuracy by a simple power-law relation of the form
m n
Nu  C ReL Pr
Where m and n are constant exponents and the value of the constant C depends on geometry and
flow. The fluid temperature in the thermal boundary layer varies from Ts at the surface to about T∞
at the outer edge of the boundary. In order to account for the variation of the properties with
temperature, the fluid properties are usually evaluated at the so-called film temperature, defined as;

PARALLEL FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES

Consider the parallel flow of a fluid over a flat plate of length L in the flow direction, as shown in
Fig
The x-coordinate is measured along the plate surface from the
leading edge in the direction of the flow. The fluid approaches
the plate in the x-direction with a uniform velocity V and
temperature T∞. The flow in the velocity boundary layers
starts out as laminar, but if the plate is sufficiently long, the
flow becomes turbulent at a distance xcr from the leading edge
where the Reynolds number reaches its critical value for
transition.
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the surface geometry, surface roughness,
upstream velocity, surface temperature, and the type of fluid, among other things, and is best
characterized by the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number at a distance x from the leading edge
of a flat plate is expressed as

Note that the value of the Reynolds number varies for a flat plate along the flow, reaching ReL =
VL /v at the end of the plate. For flow over a flat plate, transition from laminar to turbulent begins
at about Re ≈ 1 × 105, but does not become fully turbulent before the Reynolds number reaches
much higher values, typically around 3 × 106. In engineering analysis, a generally accepted value
for the critical Reynold number is

The actual value of the engineering critical Reynolds number for a flat plate may vary somewhat
from 105 to 3 × 106, depending on the surface roughness, the turbulence level, and the variation of
pressure along the surface.
Friction Coefficient and Boundary Layer Thickness
Based on analysis, the boundary layer thickness and the local friction coefficient at location x for
laminar flow over a flat plate were determined in to be
The boundary layer thickness, δ, is the distance
across a boundary layer from the wall to a point
where the flow velocity has essentially reached the
'free stream' velocity, . This distance is defined
normal to the wall.

The corresponding relations for turbulent flow are

The average friction coefficient over the entire plate is determined by;

Heat Transfer Coefficient

The local Nusselt number at a location x for flow over a flat plate

The average Nusselt number over the entire plate is determined by

For Laminar hL = 2hx
Again taking the critical Reynolds number to be Recr = 5 × 105, the average Nusselt number over
the entire plate is determined to be;

Example Flow of Hot Oil over a Flat Plate

Engine oil at 60°C flows over the upper surface of a 5m long flat plate whose temperature is 20°C
with a velocity of 2 m/s (Fig). Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat transfer per unit
width of the entire plate.
Assumptions 1 the flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The critical Reynolds number is Recr = 5
× 105.
Properties The properties of engine oil at the film temperature of Tf = (Ts + T∞)/ 2 = (20 + 60)/2
= 40°C are (Table A–3)
From Table (A–3);

Noting that L = 5 m, the Reynolds number at the end of the plate is;

This is less than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have laminar flow over the entire plate,
and the average friction coefficient is;

CD = CD, friction + CD, pressure

Noting that the pressure drag is zero and thus CD = Cf for parallel flow over a flat plate, the drag
force acting on the plate per unit width becomes
Similarly, the Nusselt number is determined using the laminar flow relations for a flat plate,
Example
Air at 30oC and at atmospheric pressure flows at a velocity of 2.2m/s over a plate
maintained at 90oC. The length and the width of the plate are 900mm and 450mm
respectively. Using exact solution, calculate the heat transfer rate from
1- first half of the plate
2- full plate
3- next half of the plate
Example Cooling of a Hot Block by Forced Air at High Elevation
The local atmospheric pressure in Denver, Colorado (elevation 1610 m), is 83.4 kPa. Air at this
pressure and 20 oC flows with a velocity of 8m/s over a 1.5m × 6m flat plate whose temperature is
14 oC (Fig). Determine the rate of heat transfer from the plate if the air flows parallel to the (a) 6m
long side and (b) the 1.5m side.

Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The critical

Reynolds number is Recr = 5 × 105. 3 Radiation effects are
negligible. 4 Air is an ideal gas.
Properties The properties k, µ, cp, and Pr of ideal gases are
independent of pressure, while the properties ν and α are
inversely proportional to density and thus pressure. The
properties of air at the film temperature of Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2 =
(140 + 20)/2 = 80 oC and 1 atm pressure are (Table A - 4)
The atmospheric pressure in Denver is P = (83.4 kPa)/ (101.325 kPa/atm) = 0.823 atm. Then the
kinematic viscosity of air in Denver becomes

(a) When air flow is parallel to the long side, we have L = 6 m, and the Reynolds number at the
end of the plate becomes

This is greater than the critical Reynolds number. Thus, we have combined laminar and
turbulent flow, and the average Nusselt number for the entire plate is determined to be
Note that if we disregarded the laminar region and assumed turbulent flow over the entire plate,
we would get Nu = 3466 from Eq;

This is 29 percent higher than the value calculated above.

b-When air flow is along the short side, we have L = 1.5 m, and the Reynolds number at the end
of the plate becomes;

This is less than the critical Reynolds number. Thus we have laminar flow over the entire plate,
and the average Nusselt number is