Guides for

Electric Cooperative Development

and Rural Electrification
Glossary of Abbreviations
A Ampere
AH Amp-hour
AC Alternating current
ACSR Aluminum conductor, steel reinforced
A&G Administrative and general
AWG American wire gauge
CARES Central American Rural Electrification Support Program
CCT Correlated color temperature
CDA Cooperative Development Authority (Philippines)
CEF Fronteriza Electric Cooperative (Dominican Republic)*
CFC National Rural Utilities Cooperative Finance Corporation, also known as
NRUCFC (U.S.)
CFL Compact fluorescent light bulb
CLARITY Cooperative Law and Regulation Initiative
CONELECTRICAS National Consortium of Electrification Companies of Costa Rica (Costa
Rica)*
DC Direct current
DISCEL Electric Distributor of the Hydroelectric Executive Commission of Rio
Lempa (El Salvador)*
EBIT Earnings before interest and taxes
EBITDA Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization.
EEGSA Electric Company of Guatemala, PLC (Guatemala)*
ESMAP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (World Bank)
FUNDAP Foundation for Economic Development
G&T Generation and transmission cooperative
GIS Geographic information system
GPS Global positioning system
HVD High voltage disconnection
I Electrical current, measured in amperes
ICE Costa Rican Institute of Electricity (Costa Rica)*
IEC International Electro-technical Commission
INDE National Institute of Electrification (Guatemala)*
INE National Institute of Statistics (Bolivia)*
IRR Internal rate of return
ISPRA National Institute for Protection and Environmental Research (Italy)
K Kelvin
klmh Kilo-lumen hour
kV Kilovolt
kVA Kilovolt-ampere
kVAR Reactive kilovolt-ampere
kW Kilowatt

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification ix

 kWh Kilowatt hour
LED Light-emitting diode
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas
LVD Low voltage disconnection
LVR Low voltage reconnection
MRT Single wire earth return*
MW Megawatt
MWh Megawatt hour
NEA National Electrification Administration (Philippines)
NESC National Electrical Safety Code
NGO Non-governmental organization
NOAA United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NPV Net present value
NRECA National Rural Electric Cooperative Association International, Limited
OCDC Overseas Cooperative Development Council
O&M Operations and maintenance
PDB Power development board
PUC Public utility commission
PUE Productive use of electricity
PV Photovoltaic
PWM Pulse width modulation
R Electrical resistance
R&D Research and development
RE Rural electrification
REA Rural Electrification Administration, an agency of the Department of
Agriculture of the United States, now known as RUS
REB Rural Electrification Board (Bangladesh)
RFP Request for proposal
RFQ Request for quote
ROE Return on equity
RUS Rural Utilities Services, an agency of the Department of Agriculture of the
United States, previously known as REA
SWER Single wire earth return
TAG Technical assistance guide
UL Underwriters Laboratory
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USTDA United States Trade and Development Agency
V Volt
W Watt
WH Watt-hour
Wp Watts peak
WtP Willingness to pay
*English translation of Spanish abbreviation

xX NRECA International, Ltd.

Distribution Line Design and Cost
Estimation for Rural Electrification Projects

MODULE 7 OF NRECA’S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE GUIDES

 7
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This module sets forth the principles and establishes  The three-phase system is configured with
the recommendations for the electrical design of four wires, including three phases and a multi-
a rural electrification project or system. It also grounded physical neutral.
describes the procedure for the determination of An optimal
costs, which serve as the basis for the feasibility  Single-phase primary lines consisting of a design
analysis. phase and neutral are the main mechanism ensures
for rural distribution.
the supply
An electrical configuration design greatly
influences the cost of the project to be developed  Application of single-phase transformers sized of service
and the quality of the service for the final user. from 5-25kVA, with use of transformers over under
An optimal design ensures the supply of service 25kVA only for specific cases in three-phase adequate
under adequate technical conditions and at banks.
technical
minimum cost. Cost estimation on the basis of
conditions
an optimal system ensures that the feasibility  Limits on the length of low voltage networks
study uses the appropriate figures and that the to reduce technical losses, improve service and at
lines, if constructed, have the required technical quality, and reduce possibilities for illegal minimum
capacity to supply energy to final users. connections. cost.

This module broadens the information and  Universal metering.

procedure described in Module 5: Methodology
for Evaluating Feasibility of Rural Electrification This system of design represents an integrated
Projects, and provides further information philosophy for development of rural electrification
for Module 8: Financial Analysis of Rural projects. It presents a basis for design and provides
Electrification Projects. Likewise, the costs the professional user with the necessary tools for
presented in this module assume the use of its application.
economical line structures and an optimal
mechanical design, such as developed in the The proposed procedure for project design consists
Simplified Staking Manual for Overhead of the following series of steps.
Distribution Lines.1
1. Compilation and documentation of technical
The norms, parameters, and design criteria used information on the existing system serving
in this module derive from the rules established the project area.
by the RUS of the United States which have also
been adapted to rural electric systems in several 2. Surveys in the field on the quantity and
countries. Their fundamental characteristics are characteristics of consumers and preparation of
the following: georeferenced information on the geographic
layout and concentration of users’ housing
1
Southern Engineering Company, Simplified Staking Manual for
Overhead Distribution Lines (Washington, D.C.: The Association,
in relation to the existing system. To obtain
1992). geographic information, the design system

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 161

 recommends use of modern instruments basis of an optimal system thus ensures that the
based on satellite positioning or GPS, instead feasibility study uses the appropriate figures and
of older techniques based on approximate that the lines, if constructed, have the necessary
measurements by means of vehicle odometers capacity to supply the users with the service
or distance estimations. quality required, at the lowest economically
achievable level of technical losses, at least during
3. The operating electric company develops a the period of project analysis.
study of the economic selection of conductors,
to establish standard conductor sizes for use This module does not discuss the mechanical design
in multiple rural projects. of the lines to be constructed. Mechanical design
should be done only after determining and defining
An optimal
4. Design of the project at hand, using a power the feasibility of a project and after confirming its
design ensures flow model with suitable characteristics, so as execution with the interested parties, whether they
provision of to accurately simulate system performance. are the financial entities or the beneficiaries. An
service with appropriate mechanical design ensures that lines
standardized 5. Consideration of coordination of protection work reliably and safely and that they do not cost
against overcurrents and as an integral part more than necessary. For the mechanical design
levels of
of project design. of electric lines see Simplified Staking Manual
service quality for Overhead Distribution Lines,2 upon which
at minimum 6. Estimation of project costs. the designs used to develop the reference costs
cost. in this module are based.
7. Presentation of the project in a sufficiently
well-grounded and documented manner,
so as to ensure that the technical aspects
BACKGROUND AND
previously enumerated have received due
consideration. JUSTIFICATION
The design fundamentals presented in this module
This module presents and develops the necessary
derive from the rules established by the RUS.
methods, and adds application examples, to enable
These approaches have been adapted to rural
readers to put into practice the integrated system
electric systems in several countries, and their
design approach.
fundamental characteristics are:

 Configuration of the three-phase system

INTRODUCTION with three-phase wires and a multi-grounded
physical neutral. This configuration permits
This module presents the steps to follow for the
the application of overvoltage protection with
electrical design and cost estimation of a rural
protection levels lower than the phase-to-phase
electric distribution project, to be used as input
voltage of the system. This configuration in
to the feasibility study.
turn permits the use of basic insulation levels
for equipment that is lower than the levels
The definition of the electric configuration is of
applied in three-phase systems either without
vital importance for the future project because
neutral or with a neutral grounded only at the
it has a fundamental influence on its cost and
source. It also permits a significant reduction
on the quality of the service for the final user.
in the investment cost of transformers and
An optimal design ensures provision of service
other equipment.
with standardized levels of service quality at
minimum cost. The estimation of costs on the 2
Ibid.

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 Application of single-phase primary lines  Compilation of available information on the
consisting of phase and neutral as a principal area to be electrified. The electric company
means of rural distribution. The use of single- or jurisdictional institution in charge of
phase lines, while providing adequate service supplying the electric service in the adjoining
for most uses and for the existing demand area should provide the initial information,
for electricity in the rural area. Three-phase especially if the project is connected with
lines are required to maintain system balance this entity and this entity will operate the
between phases in the system as well as to serve service once the project is executed. This
specific concentrated three-phase loads. information is necessary, but not sufficient
to characterize the area, for reasons to be
 Application of single-phase transformers. explained shortly.
Application of
The application of single-phase 5-25 kVA
transformers is preferred, leaving the modules
single-phase
 Analysis of the area to be electrified. This
of over 25kVA only for specific requirements means determining the location of consumer primary lines
such as three-phase banks. The use of a concentrations, based on the actual conditions consisting of
larger number of relatively small transformer of the project area. During this process the phase and
modules, as compared with a smaller number information gathered from the electric service
neutral as
of larger transformers used in an urban system, operator in the adjoining area should be
improves the quality of service for scattered confirmed, to the extent possible. a principal
users, reduces the investment in low-voltage means of rural
systems and reduces system losses, even though  Analysis of the loads and configuration of distribution.
the transformers themselves may cost more. the proposed system. This step determines
the loads represented by the concentrations
 Limit the length of low-voltage networks. of potential users and designs the system
This limited length reduces technical losses, configuration to supply them, including route
improves service quality, and reduces the design, the features of primary lines, and the
possibility of illegal connections. location of transformer points.

 Application of universal metering. An  Analysis of the proposed system, to confirm

individual meter should be installed for that it fulfills requirements for service quality,
each customer, to ensure measuring of each particularly with respect to the delivered
customer’s own electric energy consumption. voltage levels. This step enables planners to
The universal metering rule applies to public determine whether it is necessary to improve
consumers, schools, and municipal buildings the existing system to permit the extension of
as well as to private consumers. the new system to be constructed.

This design methodology for a rural electrification What follows are the details of the process of
project represents an integrated philosophy, and it analysis development and the use of the necessary
should be applied as a whole. Its presents a basis tools, and an example how the process applies to
for design and provides the professional user with a real project. The project used as an example is
the necessary tools for its application. an electrification project in the Tomoyo region,
near the city of Sucre in Bolivia.

The Tomoyo project provides for the supply of

PROJECT DESIGN
electric service to approximately 1,000 new
The process of electrical design for rural consumers, scattered among 11 communities. The
electrification projects consists of four steps: project includes the construction of approximately

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 163

 30 km of 14.4kV single-phase lines, up to an end and cannot be applied directly.
point 77 km from the supply substation. This
project poses a challenge in maintaining adequate The electrical design may have been based on
service voltage and in achieving the coordination social pressure (such as the decision to install
of system protection. three-phase lines, though the demand does not
justify this configuration), or the mechanical
Compilation of Information from the design failed to consider the criteria of the
Electric Operator mechanical design guide. Even so, these plans
may contain useful information for elaborating
It is very important to start the electric design a fi nal design according to the procedures of
The project of a project with information from the company this module. Such useful information generally
that will undertake the role of operator upon includes the identification of communities in
engineer completion of the work, to obtain all existing the project area and the number of potential
should start data available on the project area and to take users. It is always necessary, however, to validate
the electric into account the rules of the company that is to the data received, as these often prove to be
design from maintain and operate the lines. biased, to confirm the distance between towns
and communities, and to verify the technical
the standards
When the project designer visits the office of the information on the existing system to which the
established operating company, he or she should gather the project is to be connected.
by the electric following information:
company, as Options or Alternatives for Extension of the
long as they Standards and Materials Used Electric System to the Project Area

comply with
Every distribution company has preferences as The electric company may have or know about an
the technical to the use of materials and line hardware. Some expansion plan for the present system, which would
criteria companies use wooden poles while others use affect the project being considered. Examples of
included in this concrete or metal or a mix of all. Normally, possible expansion plans are the construction
module. electric companies have standardized structures, of new sub-transmission lines, substations and/
often based on RUS standards. It is also usual to or generating plants. Such information would
have standardized conductor sizes for a company’s have great value for planning the new project.
distribution systems. Therefore, the project Take expansion plans into account with caution,
engineer should start the electric design from however, because most distribution companies’
the standards established by the electric company, expansion plans for rural areas are either overly
as long as they comply with the technical criteria general, without financing, or based on out-of-
included in this module. date information about major configurations
for transmission systems. Although taking into
Plans for Network Extensions in the Project account the plans of other companies may prevent
Area unnecessary expenditures in the development
of a project, it is important not to condition the
The electric company may have plans to extend design on the existence of other projects that may
its lines to the area contemplated in the project, not be executed in time.
and they might even have a final design for the
extension project. Many times these plans are When associated projects have received the
compiled by local governments, such as the necessary approval from financing sources and other
prefecture or the municipality,and can be highly approvals such as those related to environmental
politically motivated. The designs prepared under impact, it is valid to consider those projects in
these conditions usually have many serious flaws the planning of a rural electrification project.

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Point of Origin or Supply for the Project and respect various design criteria. If no physical
neutral exists at the initial point, it is necessary
During the visit of the project designer to the to determine where the neutral of the existing
office of the electric company, obtain all available system ends, so as to take into account the costs
information on the source or supply point for of adding the neutral.
the new project. Whether or not the electric
company has all the necessary information, it Distance from Substation
is also necessary to pay a visit to the project site
to verify the data. The data to be obtained from If the electric company has updated and sufficiently
the electric company are the following. detailed maps, one can determine with their help
the distance from the substation to the initial point
Voltage Level of the Existing Distribution of the project. This information is necessary to
Lines model the voltage drop in the existing line, as
well as to simulate the power flow and the voltage
Existing voltage levels may be of the 15kV, 25kV, drop in the proposed project.
or 35kV class, each of which comprises a number
of options. For example, the 15kVvoltage class Existing Conductor Size from Substation to
includes 11kV, 12.47kV, 13.2kV, and 13.8kV. The the Project
25kV level includes 20kV, 22kV, and 24.9kV, etc.
The 35kV level includes voltages like 33kV and To carry out a power flow analysis, one needs to
34.5kV. An electric company must have more than know the cross-section of the existing conductor
one voltage level in its system, e.g., 12.5kV and in the line from the substation up to the initial
34.5kV. Then, even if a line is currently energized point of the project to be studied. The cross-
at a lower voltage, for example at 12.5kV, the section of the neutral conductor (if it exists) must
company may be willing to consider a conversion be determined, as well as the cross-section of
to 34.5kV, if this is technically justifiable. In phase conductors. If there are conductors of more
Bolivia, the system voltage used by distribution than one cross-section in the line between the
companies is in the process of being standardized substation and the initial point, record each cross-
at 35kV, 25kV, and 15kV. Few companies there are section of the conductor in the corresponding
still maintaining systems in other voltages. stretch, as well as its respective length.
Number of Phases Available
Load in the Existing Line
It is important to know how many phases are
available in the project sector: one, two or three The load in the existing line is another critical
phases. If three phases are not available at the component in defining the conductor cross-section
initial point (usually at the end of the existing line), and/or number of phases of the system that will
one must find out how far the three-phase line be analyzed in the power flow study in order to
goes, so as to take it into account if conversion determine the voltage drop in the existing line.
to a three-phase line is necessary. If there are important loads, record their location
so as to be able to model their effect in the power
Physical Neutral flow study. If the existing line has to be divided
into segments, for the reasons indicated in the
Some rural area distributors have adopted previous section, be sure to divide the existing
systems without a physical neutral. The system load among the same segments.
used for single-phase configurations without a
physical neutral, is referred to as Single Wire
Earth Return (SWER), must still comply with

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 165

 Average Energy Consumption in the Last impedances of positive and zero sequence, but
Electrified Community very often it is shown as magnitude of the fault
current for a three-phase fault and a single-phase
In rural electrification projects it is possible to fault. In that case, calculate the impedances
estimate energy consumption in the communities according to Equations 1 and 2.
to be electrified examining the energy consumption
Vf
in the nearby communities that already have Equation 1: Z1 =
I3f
electric service. Quite probably the electric
company will have information on the energy
3xVf
consumption of existing users in these nearby Equation 2: Z0 = – (2xZ1)
I1f
communities. If the electric company furnishes
financial data only, such as the monthly amount
Where:
collected, the kWh consumption can be calculated
using the company’s current tariff structure.
Z1 = positive sequence impedance [ohms]

Existing Penetration Rate in the Electrified Z0 = zero sequence impedance [ohms]

Area
Vf = nominal phase to ground [volts]
To size the new project, it is necessary to know
how many users out of a total of potential users I3f = magnitude of three-phase fault current
will be connected to the project in the first year, [amperes]
and the period over which the rest are likely
to begin service. The penetration rate is the I1f = magnitude of single-phase to ground fault
proportion of potential consumers who receive current [amperes]
service in any particular year, expressed as a
percentage of total potential users. One can project The reference voltage should be of the same
a penetration rate for the area of the proposed voltage level as the fault current. That is, if fault
project by knowing the penetration rate in nearby currents are obtained at the 69kV busbar of a
areas that have already been electrified. substation, the Vf value that should be used to
derive the fault impedances in ohms is 39.837
Substation Characteristics volts. If the engineer does not have the data on
the phase angles of the faults, average values are
Another piece of important information for the –72º for Z1 and –75º for Z0.
electrical model of the system concerns the
characteristics of the substation. The following Capacity of the Substation
characteristics must be obtained from the electric
company: Information must be compiled on the kVA capacity
of power transformers at the substation. If there
Source Impedance is more than one transformer, compile data on all
of them and record whether they are connected
Conducting a fault current or short-circuit study in a bank, in parallel, in series, or independently
so as to specify the overcurrent protection scheme (serving separate low voltage buses).
requires obtaining the impedance on the high-
voltage side of the substation. Many times, the Available Capacity at the Substation
electric distribution company will have to request
this information from the company in charge of After recording the capacity of each transformer
transmission. The data may come directly as at the substation, one must record the maximum

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demand of each transformer to be able to calculate of transformers and the way in which the neutral,
the capacity available for the proposed project. if any is grounded. This information is usually
If there is a lack of capacity in the substation presented on transformer name plates as %Z at
transformers, either an increase of capacity would the self cooled or OA rating. In the case of an
have to be budgeted at the existing substation or autotransformer or a three-winding transformer,
a new substation installed closer to the project record three impedances: primary secondary,
area. primary tertiary, and secondary tertiary. In
some substations, where it is necessary to limit
Voltages on Both Sides of the Transformer the magnitude of the fault current to ground,
an impedance may be installed in the ground
In every transformer at the substation, record the connection. If such an impedance exists, record its
Always record
rated (nameplate) voltage for both the high voltage value, so as to include it in the power flow model.
winding and the low volage winding. In many If the relation X/R of the transformer impedance
the presence
instances the nominal voltages of transformers is not specified, adopt the relation 10:1. of voltage
are not the same as the nominal voltages of the adjusting
system and the difference may influence the Transformer Connections taps on both
results of power flows.
sides of the
All three-phase transformers, or single-phase
Available Taps in the Transformer transformers connected in three-phase banks, can transformer,
be defined by the connection configuration of delta as they
Always record the presence of voltage adjusting or star windings, both on the high voltage side and influence the
taps on both sides of the transformer, as they on the low voltage side. Record the configuration transformation
influence the transformation relationship and of the connection on both sides of the transformer.
relationship
therefore the output voltage of the transformer. This configuration does not influence the power
There are usually five taps of +/- 5% on the high flow model, but it does influence the fault current and therefore
voltage side, i.e. +5%, +2.5%, 0% (nominal), model, which is normally calculated using the the output
-2.5% and –5%, but this varies according to the same model of the electric system. The calculation voltage of the
manufacturer and the purchase specification of of these fault currents influences the determination
transformer.
the transformer. Also determine the position of of the protection system that the project will need
the tap switch and therefore the tap position on so as to be reliable.
which the transformer is operating.
Characteristics of Overcurrent
Existence of Automatic Voltage Regulation Protection Devices

Another important factor to model in the power At every substation there should be overcurrent
flow is the presence or absence of devices for protective devices (such as fuses, reclosers,
voltage regulation. If the substation has voltage breakers, etc.) both on the high voltage side and
regulation equipment, verify whether it is low voltage side. For each device, record these
incorporated into the transformer or separated, characteristics:
along with whether it is automatic or manually
operated.  the type of device,

 the brand,
Impedance of the Transformer and
Ground Connection  the pickup current,

 relay settings (if any)

One of the most important pieces of information
in the substation electrical model is the impedance  the current transformer taps (if any)

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 167

 This information must be recorded for two points, most GPS units allow for the recording of
reasons. First, it ensures that all devices are a “track,” which serves as a basis to construct a
properly coordinated . Second, it ensures that with power flow model. Given the availability of these
the loads of the new project, the load currents in instruments at low cost and their advantages in
the feeder do not exceed the pickup current of laying out a plan for rural systems, there is no
the protective device. reason to resort to old techniques. This module
therefore assumes the use of a GPS device during
Characteristics of Other Substation the field visit. The field visit thus includes the
Equipment following steps:

There may be other equipment in the substation Georeference of All Sites with GPS
There may
that could have a great influence on the power flow
be other model, such as capacitors and reactors, so be sure During the visit to the site, the engineer should
equipment in to record their capacity and form of connection use the GPS to obtain georeferenced data for
the substation to the system. For capacitors, record the control the routes followed (and/or the probable route
that could mode, whether it is automatic or manual. For for electrical lines to be installed) and of all the
automatic capacitors, also record the operation points of interest, such as the substation, the end
have a great
criteria (voltage, phase current, power factor, or of the three-phase line, the initial point of the
influence on time of day). project and the center of each community to be
the power flow considered in the project.
model, such as Field Inspection
capacitors and Tracks or Routes
After compiling the available information at the
reactors, so be
office of the electric operator, it is necessary to All along the route, the GPS can mark out and
sure to record confi rm and complement that information by record the route followed. The engineer must
their capacity visiting the project area to establish the geographic make certain that the GPS is in the right mode to
and form of relationship between the loads to be electrified. mark and record the route, because upon returning
During this visit, the basic configuration of the to the office, this information will be very useful
connection to
system to be installed will take shape, subject to in determining the length of both the existing
the system. modification during the process of analysis. For lines and those to be installed.
this reason, during this visit, one needs some way
to establish distances and locations of towns and Waypoints
probable loads. The traditional way to perform
this task is to get the best map available of the The GPS capacity can also mark the location
area and measure the distance between key points of points of interest for the project, such as
using the odometer in the vehicle. Although the location of the substation, the end point of
this procedure meets the needs of the project, the three-phase line, the initial point and the
modern technology affords a more accurate and center of each community to be considered in
advantageous option through use of GPS satellites the project. Each such point should be recorded
for establishing geographic references. A GPS with an indicative name, which could be the
unit is portable and low cost, with geographic complete name of the community (according to
accuracy of +/- 7 meters in autonomous operation. the GPS capacity) or a simpler indicative name.
Additional technologies offer the capacity for In any case, keep a written file of all waypoints
greater accuracy, but for this kind of project with the indicative name, the real name of the
design they are not necessary. community, and the additional characteristics
of each point.
Apart from their ability to accurately locate key

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Files vs. Active Memory Verify Key Data

During the registration of points and routes, the If visiting the substation, the engineer must verify
active memory of the instrument fills up. The all data compiled in the office and obtain all the
engineer must ensure that the memory does not missing data. The following table list shows the
become full, because the GPS then erases the minimum data to be obtained:
older data or simply stops recording new data.
In either case, data are lost. Depending on the  Capacity of the transformer
model, the active memory may fill in half a day
or one whole day. When the memory is full, the  Maximum load in the transformer
engineer must download the data to the computer,
so as to make room in the memory. If the GPS  Nominal high voltage rating
model permits it, the instrument operator should
transfer the data of the active memory to a GPS  Nominal low voltage rating
internal file, so as to empty the active memory
later, without losing data. Most GPS models have  Existence of tap changer in the transformer
room in their memory for at least eight files of
route data, besides their active memory.  Present position of the tap, if any

Record Distances and Consumers  Winding configuration of the transformer

(delta-wye, autotransformer, etc.)
While using the GPS to record the route followed
and the points of interest, keep a record of distances  Type of voltage regulation
between all points, as well as the accumulated
distance so far, to facilitate the calculation of  Impedance of the transformer
distances later. This record gives the engineer the
distances between communities or other points of  Overcurrent protection and settings
interest without having to measure them again.
Record the number of users in each community  Other equipment?
in the same record.
Draw a Single Line Diagram of the
Table 1 provides an example of a record of points Substation
of interest, associated with distances.
To more easily remember the configuration of
Figure 1 shows the file on routes and points that was the substation, the engineer must draw a single
recorded in the GPS for the Tomoyo project. lilne diagram of the substation, showing the
connections of all the equipment in the substation.
Substation Figure 2 is a practical example.

Although all the necessary data can be obtained Between Substation and Initial Point
in the office of the electric company, it is often
necessary to visit the substation and verify After obtaining the data on the substation and
personally all the data on the equipment name its georeferenced location, survey the existing
plates. If the engineer can obtain permission for line between the substation and the initial point
such a visit, it enables the collection of data that of the project. Along the way he must record the
are often not archived in the office, such as the route track with the GPS and mark the points of
voltage taps in the transformers. interest, such as the center of the communities

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 169

 already electrified, the significant existing loads, Consumption of Energy in the Last
the end of the three-phase line, and the initial point Electrified Community
of the project (if it is not the same). All along the
way, keep a record as previously described. Quite probably, the communities that will
benef it from the project have the same
Initial Point of the Project patterns of electric energy consumption as
the neighboring communities that already
At the initial point, verify the data on the existing have an electric energy supply. Therefore it is
line, such as the available voltage level (15kV, worth conducting a quick investigation on this
25kV, or 35kv), number of phases available (1, aspect in the electrified community nearest
2, or 3), existence of a physical neutral, and the to the initial point. The engineer must ask
cross-section of the existing conductor. Also verify several community members about their present
the characteristics of the existing users in the last electricity consumption, especially at schools
electrified community, such as the following:

Table 1. Record of km and users per community (Tomoyo)

Point of interest/community km Number of users Notes

Substation Aranjuez 0 –
Industrial Park 6 (3500kW) (existing load)
Airport 8 (100kW) (existing load)
Santa Catalina 13.3 (50kW) End of three-phase line
Gra Loma 18.5 8
Tawricasa 22.6 15
Punilla 24.3 41
Silvico 27.8 5
Chataquila 30.6 1 Convent
Chaunaca 36.6 10
Caraviri 41.4 30
Colpacucho 48.9 30
Potolo 54.3 300 End of line
Molle Molle 59.7 38 Chuquisaca
Molle Molle 2 60 102 Potosí
Sorojchi 62.6 73
Isluco 64.6 22
Yoroca 65.1 69
Tomoyo 68.5 84
Joroba 69.3 41
Llatapata 70.6 35
Kasapata 72.5 35
Sorocoto 76.2 108
Soroscopa 77.2 41

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Figure 1. Sample graphic of GPS points and routes data (Tomoyo)

Figure 2. Sample single line diagram

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 171

 (if any), shops (if any) and in some houses. The that are installed and working and the energy
average consumption obtained may be applied consumption according to the liters of fuel the
to potential users in the communities of the motor needs (daily, weekly or monthly). Typical
proposed project. consumers and categories found in rural areas
include the following:
Present Penetration Rate in the
Electrified Area  Residential

In the electrified community that is nearest to  Shop

the initial point, perform a quick evaluation of
the penetration rate. Check how many houses  Workshop
The project
there are in the town, and how many have been
designer must connected to the electric system, and in what  Church
survey the time spanthey have been connected. With this
whole project, sample it is possible to define the penetration rate  School
visit all the to be applied to the communities contemplated
in the new project.  Sanitary post
communities and
georeference the Survey the Proposed Project and  Water system
roads as well as Georeference with GPS
the central point  Lumberyard
of communities. The project designer must survey the whole
project, visit all the communities and georeference  Hotel
the roads as well as the central point of the
communities (the square, the church, the school,  Industries
etc.). Along the way, the engineer must spot and
note down the features of the land that the electric  Three-phase loads
lines will have to cross (many curves, gorges or
streams, rocky ground, etc.). This provides an Table 2 shows an example of categorized users
idea of the construction difficulties and helps and loads for the Tomoyo project.
with estimating the costs adequately. During the
survey, the project designer must keep a record Evaluation of Loads
of the distances between communities and of the
number of potential users in each community, as After the visit to the project area, the engineer
shown in Table 1. should process all the data compiled. The fi rst
step of data processing is the calculation of the
Survey of Potential Users in each demand in each community. The best way to
Community by Category calculate the demand is to import all data in an
Excel worksheet. Include the data illustrated in
During the visit to each community, estimate the Table 2, which identifies the number of users per
potential users in each category of consumption. community, consumer category, and monthly
Visit some of the most important loads to get consumption per category. From those data
an idea of the probable demand on the electric one can calculate the energy consumption for
system. the entire community. The demand of each
community can then be estimated, using
One may base the estimation of the electricity the methodology explained in the following
demand on small generators or diesel engines section.

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Table 2. Count of users by class for the Tomoyo project

Community Residence Shop School Mill Medical Center Phone kiosk Total
kWh/month 25 75 100 250 150 120
Molle Molle
54 1 1 1 – – 57
(Chuquisaca)
Molle Molle
146 2 1 1 1 1 152
(Potosi)
Sorojchi 105 2 1 – 1 1 110
Yoroca 98 3 1 1 – – 103
Tomoyo 114 4 1 3 1 1 124
Llajtapata 50 1 – – 1 – 52
Isluco 30 1 1 – – – 32
Jirota 60 1 1 – – – 62
Kasapata 50 1 – – 1 – 52
Sorocoto 160 2 1 – 1 – 164
Soroscopa 60 1 1 – – – 62
TOTAL 927 19 9 6 6 3 970

Calculation of Total Energy Consumption kWh factor (Factor B), where Factor A reflects the
per Community fact that diversity increases with increases in the
number of consumers, and Factor B reflects the
The next step is to calculate the total energy improvement in the load factor with the increase
consumption per community, by multiplying the in specific consumption.
number of potential users in each category by the
specific consumption of that category, as included
Table 3. Demand and Consumption of
in the demographic study described in Module 5:
Energy per community (Tomoyo)
Methodology for Evaluating Feasibility of Rural
Electrification Projects. Table 3, column 3 shows Community Users kWh kW
the results of this step, taking as an example the data
Molle Molle (Chuquisaca) 57 1,775 8
of the Tomoyo project, as recorded in Table 2.
Molle Molle (Potosí) 152 4,420 19

Estimation of the Demand According to the Sorojchi 110 3,145 14

REA Formula Yoroca 103 3,025 13
Tomoyo 124 4,270 18
The recommended methodology to calculate
Llajtapata 52 1,475 7
the demand of communities of predominantly
residential consumer groups, described in Isluco 32 925 5

Equation 3, is based on extensive studies of Jirota 62 1,675 8

the characteristics of electric consumption in Kasapata 52 1,475 7
relation to the demand. It takes into account the Sorocoto 164 4,400 19
number of consumers and the average monthly
Soroscopa 62 1,675 8
consumption, in kWh/consumer. The method
TOTAL 970 28,260 124
defines the consumer factor (Factor A) and the

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 173

 Equation 3: Demand (D) = fuel consumption (diesel or others), in liters
(Factor “A”) *(Factor “B”) or gallons per day or month. In many cases,
particularly in countries where the government
Where:
subsidizes the price of fuel, there are thefts and
Factor A = C*(1-0.4*C+0.4*(C^2+40)^0.5) clandestine sales of the subsidized fuel, so that
the engineer must try to determine how much
Factor B = 0.005925*(kWh/month/ fuel is actually used for electricity generation.
consumer)^0.885 With this information, the project designer can
C = number of consumers estimate the electrical energy generation, using
the following conversion factor: 10 kWh/gallon
This method is empirical in the sense that its or 2.64 kWh/liter diesel
Sometimes
derivation was based on statistical correlation of
there is measurements of loads in kW for consumer groups Generator Size
isolated power with different levels of specific consumption.
generation in The method has been verified for its use in Another point to consider is the capacity or size
countries with limited residential penetration of the generator in HP, kW, or kVA. This does
some of the
of air conditioning. not directly indicate the real demand of a town,
communities
because generators are usually oversized, but it
to be included In Bolivia, for example, a program of measuring does indicate the maximum possible demand of a
in the project. and correlation indicated that the equation projects community supplied by this generator. One way to
the demand of a mixed residential/commercial evaluate whether or not the generator is oversized
group, with an error margin not over 5%. This is to calculate the energy generated as described
is a very good correlation indicating that the in the section titled “Calculation of Total Energy
method is reliable. Table 3 shows an application Consumption per Community” and then calculate
of this method to calculate the demand of the the demand using the methodology indicated in
communities in the Tomoyo project. “Estimation of the Demand According to the
REA Formula.” Then compare the results.
Estimation of the Demand Using Data from
Existing Generation
Line Length
Sometimes there is isolated power generation
in some of the communities to be included in After projecting the energy consumption and
the project. In such cases, gathering generation calculating the demand per community, create a
data to estimate current demand may help to table recording the length of primary line required
make more realistic projections. In that case, between each community and the next. This
visit the power plant or system administrator information may be compiled from the data record
to obtain the actual data available. Sometimes obtained during the visit to the site, as explained
no direct data on loading are available due to a previosly. Also, the information will be necessary
lack of instrucmentation or failure to record the to estimate the costs of the project. Table 4 shows
information. However, fuel consumption data a sample filled-in calculation sheet.
are almost always available. Use the next two
points to understand how to calculate demand Analysis of Electric System Behavior
and energy using these data.
With all the information available about
kWh per Liter of Fuel communities, including distances between them
and energy demand, the engineer should base
The key information for calculating the energy the electric design of the system on an analysis
consumed by the community is the record of of power flows or voltage drops, to ensure that

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the project can supply the anticipated maximum i.e. at the client’s energy meter. Usually, the
demand under acceptable service conditions. regulations set a range of acceptable voltage, both
above and below a nominal value. Sometimes two
In addition to determing the voltage behavior ranges are included, one for normal conditions
of the project, the power flow study permits an and another for contingencies.
evaluation of losses and allows the engineer to
examine the required number of phases, the In Bolivia, for example, the acceptable range is
eventual need to reinforce the existing supply +4%/-7.5% for normal conditions and +7%/-10%
systems, or the requirement to establish a for emergencies. Where there are regulations on
distribution system with a different voltage level the voltage level, apply the regulated acceptable
from the existing one in the area. values for normal conditions for planning purposes, The engineer
leaving the additional margin for emergency
Criteria for Analysis conditions during the operation of the system.
should base
If there are no rules in a given country, use the the electric
To determine whether the study has met its values +5%/-10% for planning purposes. design of the
objective, it is necessary to establish criteria for system on an
the evaluation and acceptance of results. The It is important to point out that the limit values
analysis of
criteria normally used in planning studies relate for voltage level have been set at low voltage
to the level of voltage, the capacity of equipment at the point of delivery to the client, i.e. at the power flows or
and lines, the reliability of the service, and the meter. For planning studies it is not customary voltage drops.
level of losses. to perform the analyses down to this level, but
rather at a system level. Planning studies that
Voltage Level use the methods presented in this module are
based on the voltage at primary level, i.e., before
Minimum voltage levels are normalized in most the voltage drop represented by the distribution
countries, with the measuring point for purposes transformer, the low voltage (secondary) lines,
of application of regulations at the interconnection and the service drop. As reference criteria, use
node between the supply system and the client, the following values:

Table 4. Demand calculated per community (Tomoyo)

Community Users kWh kW Km

Molle Molle (Chuquisaca) 57 1,775 8 6.4
Molle Molle (Potosi) 152 4,420 19 –
Sorojchi 110 3,145 14 2.7
Yoroca 103 3,025 13 2.5
Tomoyo 124 4,270 18 4.2
Llajtapata 52 1,475 7 2
Isluco 32 925 5 2
Jirota 62 1,675 8 1
Kasapata 52 1,475 7 3
Sorocoto 164 4,400 19 3.5
Soroscopa 62 1,675 8 1
TOTAL 970 28,260 124 28.3

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 175

  Voltage drop in transformer 2% clear the fault. The system should be sectionalized
in a planned manner, not only to help identify the
 Voltage drop in secondary network 2% location of the fault, but also to limit the number
of affected consumers.
 Voltage drop in service drop 1%
Since the most common type of fault in electric
 Total drop in LT 5% systems is the phase to ground fault, with
an incidence of nearly 85% of all faults, it is
Taking into account an acceptable range of important that reliable mechanisms be defi ned
+5%/-10% for the service voltage, these values to detect and clear this type of fault. Ground
imply that the range to be applied to the study faults often involve contact between one phase
Minimum
of the voltage drop in the primary system will and some not very conductive element, like
voltage levels be +/-5%. These values correspond to the RUS a tree or dry soil, so this is not an easy task.
are normalized in system design, which comprises single-phase The criteria used by the RUS design system
most countries, transformers, whose impedance is limited by to identify and clear ground faults allows for
with the standards to 2.5%, along with very short lengths a nominal resistance of 40 ohms in a series
of low voltage lines. with the fault, which represents the resistance
measuring point
of the tree or soil contacted. This resistance is
for purposes of Capacity of Equipment normally in series with the line impedances
application of between the source and the fault, tending
regulations at the For an acceptable power flow study of loading in to reduce the minimum fault current. The
interconnection the first year of the project, maximum demand coordination of elements that clear the fault
must be limited to no more than 50% of the is then designed to respond to this reduced
node between
nominal capacity of the equipment and conductors. fault current. The system used to clear faults
the supply system This criterion leaves a margin for growth without may consist simply of fuses or a combination
and the client, establishing an excessive level of overcapacity. of reclosers and fuses, as long ast the rule of
i.e. at the client’s Where the project involves an additional load on fault resistance is respected.
a line or existing substation, the criteria may be
energy meter.
modified so as to maintain a margin of global The minimum level of fault current for coordination
capacity in the line or existing substation of 50% purposes is a function of the nominal voltage of
of the project load in the first year. In the last the system. Taking into account the specified
year of the analysis, the loads projected on any resistance of 40 ohms and the impedance of
line or equipment should be within their normal only 5 km of line, the minimum fault current
capacity, i.e. allowing 100% demand in relation would be:
to the capacity.
 For systems of 12.5kV phase to phase – 165
Service Reliability amp.

Service reliability, i.e. the frequency and duration  For systems of 24.9kV phase to phase – 330
of interruptions, depends more on maintenance of amp.
the system during operations than on the decisions
made during the design, with one exception.  For systems of 34.5kV phase to phase – 460
This exception is the provision for a coordinated amp.
protection system against faults. A coordinated
system ensures that for phase-to-phase faults, By applying the normal rules of uses the recloser/
as well as for phase-to-ground faults, there are fuse coordination system, one can derive the
protection elements sensitive enough to detect and maximum load allowable for the circuit and

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branches to ensure a coordinated system. By However, the selection of the conductor cross-
applying a similar reasoning to various voltage section is within reach of the system designer.
levels and considering the features of commercially This selection process optimizes investment
available fuses and reclosers, the following results expenses and guarantees more efficiency in the
may be obtained: distribution of energy, considering both the cost
of construction and the cost of technical losses
 For systems of 12.5kV between phases: resulting from the energy flow through the line.
The process consists of applying Equation 4 for
– Maximum load, main circuit – 70 amp several levels of loads and of line construction
costs with several alternative cross-sections of
– Maximum load, branches with fuses – 25 conductors.
amp
Equation 4: CA = K A*(Const) + K L*(Loss)
 For systems of 24.9kV between phases:
Where:
– Maximum load, main circuit – 140 amp
CA = Total annual cost of one kilometer line
– Maximum load, branches with fuses – 65
amp K A = Fixed charge rate for investment costs,
typically = 0.15
 For systems of 34.5kV between phases:
Const = Construction cost of one kilometer
– Maximum load, main circuit – 200 amp line with a specific conductor cross-
section
– Maximum load, branches with fuses – 80
amp K L = Acquisition cost of one kWh energy at the
beginning of the project
These limitations are substantial when dealing
with circuit loads, especially for systems of 12.5kV. Loss = Annual loss in kWh of one kilometer
While some devices for the electronic control line with the specific conductor cross-
of reclosers allow this range to be extended, section for a specific peak demand and
protection coordination should be an element in load factor.
the integral design of the system.
= (LLF)(n)(I2R)*8.76
Control of Technical Losses
Where:
The control of technical losses has many aspects
to be weighed, and not all of which are part LLF = Load factor of losses = (Load factor)2
of the system design process. An example of *0.84+ (Load factor) *0.16
an extraneous factor is limitation of losses in
the distribution transformers. When purchasing n = 3.0 if the line is three-phase, 2.0 if the line
distribution transformers and evaluating their is single-phase
cost, one must use a formula that determines a
financial value for losses, both for no load losses I = Phase current in amps for the specific load
and load losses. This procedure applieds during
the process of purchasing the equipment, not at R = resistance in ohms of one kilometer of the
the system design level. specific conductor

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 177

 The repetitive application of this equation for After selecting the group of optimal conductors,
different conductors and levels of demand results repeat the analysis only when there is a substantial
in a matrix of annual costs that determines the change in one of the factors, such as a significant
range of loads for which each conductor is optimal, increment in the cost of energy or a change in line
thus identifying the conductor with the minimum design that seriously affects construction costs.
annual cost.
As an example of this procedure, Table 5 shows
This effort seems cumbersome, but its best the result of a comparative analysis of annual
application is to conduct a generalized study over cost for three-phase lines of 24.9kV under the
the entire electric company system. The aim would following conditions:
be to select a group of no more than four cross-
The aim would
sections for conductors, which could reasonably  Cost of energy: US$ 0.08/kWH
be to select a cover among them the range of anticipated loads.
group of no This limits the inventory of connectors and other  Load factor: 40%
more than four accessories without losing the capacity to meet
cross-sections the requirements of the system.  Power factor: 90%
for conductors,
which could Table 5: Comparison of annual costs for three-phase lines of 24.9kV
reasonably
Conductor #4 ACSR #2 ACSR #1/0 ACSR #2/0 ACSR #4/0 ACSR 397.5 MCM
cover among
Cost of Construction
them the US$/km
$8,961 $9,140 $10,766 $12,941 $15,073 $24,314
range of Load kW Total Annual Cost US$/km
anticipated 400 $1,406 $1,410 $1,639 $1,961 $2,273 $3,654
loads. 600 $1,483 $1,458 $1,670 $1,985 $2,288 $3,662
800 $1,591 $1,526 $1,713 $2,019 $2,310 $3,673
1000 $1,730 $1,614 $1,767 $2,062 $2,337 $3,688
1200 $1,900 $1,720 $1,835 $2,115 $2,371 $3,706
1400 $2,101 $1,846 $1,914 $2,178 $2,411 $3,727
1600 $2,332 $1,992 $2,005 $2,251 $2,456 $3,752
1800 $2,594 $2,157 $2,109 $2,333 $2,508 $3,780
2000 $2,888 $2,341 $2,225 $2,425 $2,566 $3,811
2500 $3,756 $2,887 $2,568 $2,698 $2,738 $3,903
3000 $4,817 $3,553 $2,988 $3,031 $2,948 $4,015
3500 $6,071 $4,341 $3,484 $3,424 $3,196 $4,148
4000 $7,519 $5,251 $4,056 $3,878 $3,483 $4,301
4500 $9,159 $6,281 $4,704 $4,393 $3,807 $4,475
5000 $10,992 $7,433 $5,428 $4,968 $4,170 $4,669
5500 $13,018 $8,706 $6,229 $5,603 $4,571 $4,883
6000 $15,237 $10,100 $7,106 $6,300 $5,010 $5,118
6500 $17,648 $11,616 $8,060 $7,056 $5,487 $5,374
7000 $20,253 $13,252 $9,089 $7,873 $6,002 $5,649

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 Annual fixed charge rate: 0.15 Code (NESC). 3 This rule, which requires
more horizontal separation for conductors
 Cost of line construction based on 2005 prices smaller than #2 AWG ACSR, has the effect
of materials of making the spans shorter in primary lines
with conductors smaller than #2 AWG ACSR.
The gray values represent the minimum costs As a result, its cost per kilometer is higher
for the load indicated. A #4 ACSR conductor than the lines using #2 AWG ACSR or those
has an application range of only up to 400kW, of greater sections.
so it should not be considered as a conductor
for standard use. Instead, #2 ACSR has an After determining the cross-section of the phase
application range from 600kW to 1,600kW, conductor, the engineer must determine the cross-
which enables it to serve as a standardized section of the conductor in the neutral. If the line
conductor. A #1/0 ACSR conductor has an is single-phase, the neutral should be of the same
application range of 1,800kW to 2,500kW, cross-section as the phase conductor, because both
although its range of advantage over #2 is not conductors share the same current. For a three-
too marked below 2,000kW. A #2/0 ACSR phase line, consider the use of a conductor with
conductor has no preferred application range, a smaller cross-section for the neutral, because in
while the #4/0 conductor is preferred from a three-phase line with balanced loads, a reduced
3,000kW to 6,000kW. For loads over 6,500kW, current flows through the neutral.
the optimal conductor is 397.5 MCM. In this
example, the company would then remain with The RUS Bulletin #61-4 recommends that the
four normalized conductors, each one with a neutral conductor should have at least 20% of the
substantial application range, as follows: capacity of the phase conductor in three-phase lines
with balanced loads, and that they have similar
 For loads up to 1,600kW: #2 AWG ACSR characteristics in their sagging. Considering all the
above, Table 6 shows a table of conductors with a
 For loads of 1,601kW up to 3000kW: 1/0 AWG reduced cross-section for the neutral.
ACSR
Considerations in Power Flow Studies
 For loads of 3001kW up to 6500kW: 4/0 AWG
ACSR A power flow study can be conducted with the
help of specialized software, with general-use
 For loads of 6501kW and over: 397.5 MCM
ACSR 3
American National Standards Institute, National Electric Safety Code
(New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 2002).

Other criteria may affect the selection of a

normalized conductor. For example, the RUS
recommends 1/0 AWG ACSR as the minimum Table 6. Reduced cross-section of
standardized conductor for lines of the 35kV neutral conductors in three-phase lines
class, such as 33kV or 34.5kV LL. (RUS 1724E-
Phase Conductor Neutral Conductor
200, page 9-5). Another factor to be considered
for the choice of conductor is the influence of #2 AWG ACSR #2 AWG ACSR-minimum size
safety standards in mechanical design. For 1/0 AWG ACSR #2 AWG ACSR
instance, in conductors for primary lines, all 2/0 AWG ACSR #2 AWG ACSR
conductors smaller than #2 AWG ACSR may
3/0 AWG ACSR 1/0 AWG ACSR
be eliminated from the analysis, according to
4/0 AWG ACSR 1/0 AWG ACSR
rule 235.B.1.b of the National Electric Safety

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 179

 spreadsheet software, by hand calculations, or in a rather small system, making for a significant
with tables. However, to obtain reliable data, power difference in the evaluation of the system. The rate
flows should be carried out with a specialized of error substantially increases when increasing
engineering software package. Among the features the size and load of the system. Therfore, the
found in such a package are some important program for power flow calculation should take
aspects of the model method. into account a model based on constant loads
and not on constant currents.
Model by Constant Load Instead
of Constant Current Capacity to Calculate the Capacitive
Charging Current of Overhead Lines
Power f low studies that use computerized
If the line is spreadsheets and simplified equation systems Another simplification used by tables of voltage
single-phase, for manual application assume a constant load drops and spreadsheets is ignoring the capacitive
the neutral current in a given node, determined by dividing charging current of overhead lines. This is
should be the load on the node by the nominal voltage. This another source of error, especially for long lines
is an approximation. At the end of the line, the with light loads, the most common in rural
of the same
voltage often differs from the nominal; it is the electrification projects. For example, taking the
cross-section voltage at the source, less the voltage drop. If the small system in Tomoyo, with the technical and
as the phase current is then multiplied by the voltage at the load characteristics described before there are
conductor, end of the line, the model of constant current has 73 kVAR of capacitive effect. If this is not taken
because both effectively reduced the load in kVA of the node, into account in the calculation of voltages, there
yielding significant error in the voltage drop. would be an error of nearly 1% in the voltage
conductors
drop and more than 5% in the calculation of
share the The method that comes closer to reality calculates
losses. The error increases for systems with less
same current. a solution to the power flow, assuming a current
load. Thus, the program for power flow should
that varies inversely with respect to the voltage
take into account the capacitive charging current
of the node, to keep the load in kVA at that
effect of overhead lines.
node constant. This model requires an iterative
solution, i.e. repetition of the calculation until the
Capacity to Model Unbalanced Loads
differences between one solution and the previous
are minimal. An iterative solution is difficult to
The reality of rural electrification lines, especially
implement in power flows based on spreadsheets
those with long, single-phase branches, is that it
or manual equations, but it is very common in
is difficult to achieve a balance of currents. The
specialized analysis packages.
negative effect of the imbalance makes voltage
The error caused by the difference in the load model regulation more difficult. Thus, it is important
is not very significant for voltage solutions close to that the analysis system take this effect into
the nominal. However, it becomes important with account. Most programs for simplified power
substantial voltage drops, where the difference in flow calculation use methods and equations based
the current applied to the system is greater. on positive sequence only, i.e., they cannot take
into account the imbalance between phases.
In the Tomoyo example of power flow, with a Many programs developed for the analysis
line of 77 km, conductor of #2 AWG ACSR and of transmission systems also use the positive
4 MW load and using the constant load model, sequence approximation, because transmission
one could find a voltage drop of 10.3% and 38 kW lines are always three-phase and therefore always
of losses. But, using the constant current model, balanced. But this is not the case in distribution
there would be a voltage drop of 9.87% and 37 kW systems, so that the capacity to model unbalanced
of losses. These data represent an error over 4% loads is essential.

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Coming back to the Tomoyo project, the feeder This graphic shows the points of interest, such as
for this project has 83% single-phase lines from communities included in the project and the routes
the substation. Therefore, trying to study this between them, along the line. In the lower corner
system with a power flow based on values of of the screen, the scale of the drawing appears
positive sequence would not give a reliable result. along with geographic coordinates of a selected
Thus the power flow program for a distribution point. Figure 4 shows the communities of the
system should always have the capacity to make Tomoyo project superimposed on GPS data.
calculations with unbalanced loads, either with
symmetrical components (an approximation) or Selection of Primary Voltage Level
with matrices (preferably).
After creating the geographic model, it is
necessary to determine the voltage to be used The reality
Capacity to Calculate Unbalanced
for the new extension. The choice of a voltage of rural
Impedances
level for a given project depends to a large extent
electrification
on the levels already used in the area. Selecting
Apart from their inability to model unbalanced lines,
a primary voltage that differs from the standard
loads, analysis programs using positive sequence especially
used in the project area requires the installation of
approximations have no capacity to model
substation, and possibly transmission, equipment. those with
unbalanced impedances. It is possible, though
This decision should be carefully examined prior long, single-
not very common, for a three-phase line to have
to final design. With that said, a voltage level
different conductors in the different phases. For phase
of the 25kV or 35kV class may be reasonably
instance, it might have been constructed originally branches,
introduced in the following circumstances:
as a single-phase line with a given conductor is that it is
cross-section and then converted into a three-  If the existing voltage (whether 5kV or 15kV) difficult to
phase line with another conductor cross-section cannot be extended to serve the new project,
for the two new phases. A still more common case without investing in substations and sub-
achieve a
of unbalanced impedances is a bank of single- transmission lines balance of
phase transformers in which impedances are very currents.
similar but seldom exactly alike. Thus the power  If the system has to serve large specific loads,
flow program for a distribution system should which are scattered over a wide area, such as
always have the capacity to calculate unbalanced an irrigation project, in which case a different
impedances, preferably by using matrices. voltage level from the existing one that serves
residential loads in the same area may be
Considerations for the Power Flow Model acceptable
for the Tomoyo Project
 If the client or group of clients to be served
represents a pilot project for a more extensive
The power flow analyses for the Tomoyo project,
development of similar projects in the area
used as an example for this module, were
performed with the Windmil analysis package  If a sub-transmission voltage within the same
(Milsoft Utility Solutions, Texas, USA). This company exists that may be used for distribution
package has all the required technical features (In those cases in which the electric company
for a power flow program and has an additional has historically utilized a 34.5kV or 22kV as
function called “LandBase,” which very usefully a sub-transmission voltage, these lines may
creates the model of the system by directly be converted to fit distribution applications at
importing the tracks and waypoints from GPS an attractive cost.)
units. Figure 3 shows the Windmil screen with
the GPS data of the Tomoyo project imported In the Tomoyo project, none of these considerations
by LandBase. applied, so the project was developed at 14.4 kV

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 181

 Figure 3. Windmil screen with GPS data (Tomoyo)

Figure 4. Windmil screen with GPS data and communities (Tomoyo)

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(class 25kV) as an extension of the existing The need for alternative solutions to the extension
system. of single-phase lines must always be justified on the
basis of economic and/or regulatory considerations.
Determination of the Number of Phases Where the requirement for a three-phase service
is only potential and not immediate, the design
After determining the length of the proposed of the single-phase lines as standardized by
system and calculating the demand of potential RUS facilitates the conversion to a three-phase
loads in existing lines and those proposed for configuration, with the addition of a crossarm
the project, the engineer must determine the and two phase conductors. With the services of
number of phases required in the proposed lines a properly trained contractor and with adequate
of the project. As indicated at the start, the RUS equipment, it is possible to realize this conversion In situations
integrated design system assumes that rural lines without de-energizing the single-phase line. For
where loads
should be single-phase, for economic reasons, certain cases, it is possible to plan, initially, single-
i.e. phase and neutral. However, some situations phase construction, to be converted to three-phase are scattered,
require consideration of the extension of two- in the future, without losing the economic benefits and with little
phase lines (two phases and neutral) or three- of the initial single-phase solution. growth potential,
phase lines, for the following reasons:
some companies
The Tomoyo project did not require modification
and electric
 The current in one of the single-phase branches of the initial design, and the system was designed
exceeds the limit established for a system of with single-phase lines. authorities have
coordinated protection. applied the SWER
Determine the Application of a system.
 The result of the power flow studies indicates Physical Neutral
that using a single-phase system for the
projected loads will not maintain maintain In situations where loads are scattered, and
voltage levels within regulatory limits. with little growth potential, some companies
and electric authorities have applied the SWER
 There are three-phase loads in the project area system, which consists of a single phase conductor
that are large enough to make a conversion into without physical neutral. This system also can
single-phase impossible. Generally, motors of be found in areas where there are problems with
over 10HP are three-phase, though the technology the theft of the neutral conductor. The SWER
exists to overcome this limitation. system has been successfully applied in many
countries, including Australia and Tunisia, among
 The nature of the loads to be covered by others.
the project rules out the use of single-
phase systems. For example, a project to The main considerations in its application are
develop an extensive irrigation system with as follows:
electric pumps of over 10HP each should be
designed from the beginning with three-  For situations with no anticipated hope of
phase lines. load growth beyond a very low initial level
(8 amperes per circuit), it is possible to use
 There is a need to distribute the loads among steel conductors, long spans of around 250
phases to ensure a better balance of phase meters, and a narrow right of way. This
currents at the source. This is a necessary application achieves a 50% reduction in the
consideration in cases where the permissible construction cost of a conventional single-
percentage of current imbalance is regulated phase line with aluminum conductors steel
by law, as in Bolivia. reinforced (ACSR).

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 183

  When using conventional ACSR conductors that of the low voltage system and service
to maintain capacity and facilitate service to drop. The regulations used by the Australian
higher loads or to permit the future conversion Electrification Authority, which serve as the
to three-phase systems, the economic benefits model for most SWER electrification efforts,
are lower. Savings would be around 12% due require a 3 meter separation between the
solely to eliminating the neutral conductor. grounding of the primary winding of the
transformer and the user’s ground system,
 MRT/SWER systems produce higher levels with that no interconnections between them.
of interference with telephone circuits than a To obtain this separation, insulate the ground
conventional single-phase line. This is not as wire of the secondary neutral from the ground
much of a disadvantage as previously thought, conductor of the primary neutral and install
given the trend toward the elimination of wired separate fields of ground rods.
telephone systems.
Ta k i ng i nt o a c c ou nt t he a dva nt age s ,
 To control neutral-to-ground voltages in the disadvantages, and limitations of the MRT/
service drops, implement a system of double SWER system, the decision for the Tomoyo
grounding at the transformation points. A project was to use a conventional single-phase
double grounding system uses a separate ground system. i.e. with phase and physical neutral, so
for the primary neutral of the transformer and that the demand of the project would have 15
another, at a certain distance, for the neutral of amperes for the year 20.
the low voltage system and the service drop.
This arrangement slightly increases the cost Determination of the
for transformation points. Conductor Cross-section

 To limit the voltage gradient to adequately The conductor cross-section should be determined
ensure the safety of persons and pets, limit according to the criteria set forth in the section
the maximum value of the resulting voltage in on Criteria for Analysis, based on an economic
the grounding of the primary winding of the choice and limited by considerations of protection
transformer, to 20 volts. To obtain this value for coordination and voltage drops. For the conditions
transformers of different capacities, one must of energy costs, load factor, and power factor
ensure that ground resistances do not exceed described in the same section, the economic
the values indicated in Table 7. Particularly for matrix of conductors for 14.4kV single-phase
the 7.2kV MRT/SWER system, achieving these lines appears in Table 8.
values may increase the cost of grounding,
especially in difficult types of soil. Again, the gray results represent the most
economical conductors for the load indicated.
 Another consideration is the separation The #4 conductor has an application range up
between the primary system grounding and to 200 kW, whereas the #2 conductor has an

Table 7. Maximum resistances for SWER ground systems

Voltage of the System 7.2kV 14.4kV 19.9kV

Module Maximum Ground Resistance – Ohms
10 kVA 15 30 30 (regulations)
15 kVA 10 20 27
25 kVA 5 10 16

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application range of 250 kW to 550 kW, and the Minimum Voltage Calculation
#1/0, from 600 kW to 900 kW. As previously,
the #2/0 conductor has practically no application After selecting the number of phases and cross-
range and the #4/0 conductor is applicable only section of the conductor, run the power flow
above 1000 kW. Taking into account that the model to determine whether the selections made
limitation owing to the coordination of 14.4kV are adequate, or whether they have to be adjusted
single-phase branches is 65 amp, or nearly 1000 by increasing the number of phases and/or the
kW, a #4/0 conductor cannot be considered for conductor cross-section. Decisions should be
this application. Preferred conductors for 14.4kV based on the following criteria.
single-phase lines are clearly the #2 ACSR for
loads up to 550 kW and the #1/0 ACSR for loads Voltage in the First Year
If values under
from 600kW to the coordination limit of 1000kW.
Since the load projected for the Tomoyo project Upon running the program with the projected load 95% of the
is 124 kW for the first year, with a projection to for the first year, the result should show voltage nominal voltage
be increased up to 250 kW until the year 15, the levels of +5%/-5% with respect to the nominal are found at
standardized, utilized conductor for this project voltage. The loads applied come from the analysis any point in the
is the #2 ACSR. of the demand, which takes into account a certain
model, increase
either the number
Table 8: Comparison of total annual cost for 14.4 kV single-phase lines of phases or the
Conductor #4 ACSR #2 ACSR #1/0 ACSR #2/0 ACSR #4/0 ACSR
conductor cross-
Cost of Construction US$/km $5,668 $6,015 $7,138 $8,163 $9,839
section, according
Load kW Total Annual US$/km
to the parameters
100 $873 $917 $1,080 $1,232 $1,480
specified in
150 $902 $935 $1,091 $1,241 $1,486
previous sections.
200 $943 $960 $1,107 $1,253 $1,494
250 $995 $993 $1,128 $1,270 $1,504
300 $1,059 $1,033 $1,153 $1,290 $1,517
350 $1,134 $1,080 $1,183 $1,313 $1,532
400 $1,221 $1,135 $1,217 $1,341 $1,549
450 $1,319 $1,197 $1,256 $1,371 $1,569
500 $1,429 $1,266 $1,300 $1,406 $1,590
550 $1,551 $1,342 $1,348 $1,444 $1,614
600 $1,684 $1,426 $1,400 $1,486 $1,641
650 $1,828 $1,517 $1,457 $1,531 $1,669
700 $1,985 $1,615 $1,519 $1,580 $1,700
750 $2,152 $1,720 $1,586 $1,633 $1,734
800 $2,332 $1,833 $1,656 $1,689 $1,769
850 $2,523 $1,953 $1,732 $1,749 $1,807
900 $2,725 $2,081 $1,812 $1,813 $1,847
950 $2,940 $2,215 $1,897 $1,880 $1,889
1000 $3,165 $2,357 $1,986 $1,951 $1,934

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 185

 penetration rate for potential users. If values under overcurrents. Figure 7 shows the values of fault
95% of the nominal voltage are found at any currents calculated for the Tomoyo project.
point in the model, increase either the number of
phases or the conductor cross-section, according After calculating the fault currents, coordinate
to the parameters specified in previous sections. the protection devices. For this purpose, start the
Do not apply any voltage regulators in the first coordination process with the fuse devices of the
years. Figure 5 shows the result for the first year distribution transformers. These fuses must be
of the Tomoyo project analysis. coordinated with the fuses of the laterals, then
with the main line and finally with the recloser
Voltage in the Final Year in the substation. A detailed explanation of the
coordination procedure for the various protection
Upon running the power flow program with devices is outside the scope of this module.
the projected demand for the last (usually the
20th) year considered in the analysis of the
project, the result should show that 90% of
ESTIMATION OF PROJECT COSTS
the nominal voltage is the worst situation. The
loads to be applied come from the analysis of After following the procedure detailed in the
demand, which takes into account a certain Project Design section, the project engineer has an
penetration rate for potential users and the electrical pre-design that includes the determination
vegetative growth rate. From the year 2 on, of line lengths, the number of potential users,
the use of regulators is acceptable to maintain primary voltage, number of phases, conductor
95% of nominal voltage for fi nal users, so as size, and whether or not a physical neutral will be
to comply with the profile of regulated voltage used. With these data, it is possible to prepare a
during the useful life of the line (usually 30 detailed estimate of project costs. The following
years). If a level below 90% of nominal voltage presentation lays out the procedure for estimating
is observed at any node of the model, increase the cost of rural electrification projects.
either the number of phases or the conductor
cross-section in the fi rst year, according to Materials Database
the parameters specified in previous sections.
Figure 6 shows the result for the year 20 of the The first step in estimating project costs consists
analysis, in the Tomoyo project. in maintaining a database of the cost of materials,
according to purchases or previous quotations. This
Coordination of Protection for database should include the unit price of each item
Overcurrents of material, including the cost of shipment, and the
total amounts for each purchase. Unit prices always
With the same database as for the power flow, the depend on the volume of purchased materials,
engineer will be able to calculate the magnitudes with greater volumes usually resulting in lower
of the fault currents, in order to conduct the unit prices. This database must also differentiate
coordination study on protection devices for between materials for projects of 15, 25 or 35kV,

Table 9. Format for a materials database

Description of Item Historical Unit Price Taxes Inflation Projected Unit Price

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Figure 5. Sample three-line diagram of the power flow at year 1 (Tomoyo)

Figure 6. Sample three-line diagram of the power flow at year 20 (Tomoyo)

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 187

 Figure 7. Sample three-line diagram of the values of fault currents (Tomoyo)

This database
should include
the unit price
of each item
of material,
including
the cost of
shipment,
and the total
amounts for
each purchase.

because some items differ according to their voltage previous projects. The costs on this database
level (insulators, transformers, etc.). must be disaggregated by construction unit and
not by kilometer, to be able to differentiate lines
One must also consider taxes, if applicable to the with different features. To apply historical costs
project in question. Most projects financed with to future projects, the engineer has to apply an
external aid are exempt from local taxes, but in inflation rate. Table 10 shows a typical format
other cases, one must determine the applicability for a labor database.
of taxes and their amount. Another very important
factor, in being able to apply historical costs Database by Construction Unit
to future projects, is the projection of the cost
itself. The historical cost of materials may be The next step in determining project costs consists
projected to the future by using an inflation rate or in calculating the investment costs by construction
a percentage of change in the cost of metals.4 unit. Calculate these costs by adding the cost of
materials for all the items included in the unit,
Labor Database plus the cost of labor for that unit. Table 11
shows a typical format for the database on cost
Apart from a database for the cost of materials, by construction unit.
the designer should maintain a database for the
cost of labor, using the construction costs of Database on Previous Designs
4
A good database for metals is the London Metal Exchange at: The engineer in charge needs to maintain another
http://www.lme.co.uk.
database on construction units by kilometer of line,

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Table 10. Format for a labor database

Description of the Unit Historical Unit Price Inflation Projected Unit Price

for the feeders between communities (called trunk electric lines differ greatly between these two
lines or main feeders), and on construction units for types of land. Then, when going to the field, the
distribution networks in the communities (i.e., taps engineer will evaluate the line to be built and will Apart from
off the primary line, transformation points, and low be able to determine its cost per unit. a database
voltage distribution networks). The database for
for the cost
feeders between communities must include poles, Table 12 shows a format for a database on
primary structures, conductors, anchors and all the construction units by kilometer/feeder. of materials,
primary line hardware. The database on distribution the designer
networks for the communities must include all Database on the Costs of Service Drops should
the units used in primary lines, underbuild, and
maintain a
secondary lines, and the transformation points in After developing the cost by kilometer of primary
the communities. lines for feeders between communities and the
database
cost by user for the distribution network in each for the cost
In the database on feeders between communities, community, develop cost estimations for the of labor,
distinguish between three-phase and single-phase service drops. As in the preceding steps, base using the
lines. Likewise, the database on feeders between these estimations on a database of historical
construction
communities must distinguish between lines in data, which includes the cost of materials and
flat, level areas and broken terrain or areas with labor. There are various types of service drops costs of
many line angles, because construction costs of to take into account, each with its particularities. previous
projects.
Table 11. Format for a database on cost by construction unit
Unit: ZA1
Description Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost
Square washer, 2-1/4”(5/8”) 3 $0.13 $0.39
Locknut, 5/8” 2 $0.11 $0.23
Spool insulator, 1-3/4” 1 $1.22 $1.22
Compression connector, ground to neutral 1 $0.33 $0.33
Preformed armor rods, single support, phase 1 $3.01 $3.01
Preformed armor rods, single support, neutral 1 $2.17 $2.17
Machine Bolt, 5/8” x 10” 2 $0.55 $1.10
Spool bolt , 5/8” x 10” 1 $2.43 $2.43
Pin-type insulator, ANSI 56-3 1 $30.22 $30.22
Pole top Pin , 20” 1 $3.68 $3.68
Aluminum tie wire, feet 15 $0.07 $1.04
Total Material Cost $45.81
Labor Cost $5.79
Total Unit Cost $51.60

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 189

 Table 12. Format for a database on construction units by kilometer
Unit Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost
ZC1 71 $165.28 $11,734.65
ZC1-1 1 $310.71 $310.71
ZC2 9 $311.45 $2,803.08
ZC3 5 $221.28 $1,106.41
ZC6-10 2 $490.96 $981.92
ZC7-1 6 $230.48 $1,382.86
ZC7H 1 $259.57 $259.57
ZC8H 3 $422.10 $1,266.30
E1-2 49 $22.95 $1,124.64
E6-2 6 $38.80 $232.79
F1-12 61 $20.46 $1,247.79
M2-11 48 $17.71 $849.93
ZM3-3 1 $455.90 $455.90
ZM5-7 3 $42.79 $128.36
ZM5-18 1 $42.24 $42.24
Poste 11-6 78 $107.22 $8,362.93
Poste 12-6 10 $130.67 $1,306.73
Poste 13.5-5 6 $144.30 $865.79
1/0 ACSR 35,679 $0.55 $19,671.74
#2 ACSR 11,893 $0.46 $5,527.81
RM6 10,225 $0.44 $4,547.43
TOTAL $64,209.60
Units 12Km
Unit Price $5,398.94 /km

Table 13 shows an example of a database on To have an idea of its cost, keep a database of
the distribution of different types of service the historical costs of staking in recent projects.
drops. This database must include the cost by kilometer
for feeders between communities and the cost
Database on the Cost of Staking by user for the staking of the distribution
network in each community. With this, the
The only cost component still to be determined engineer can make a projection of the annual
is that of staking (design) of the proposed project. cost, taking into account an inflation rate. Table

Table 13. Distribution of different types of service drops

Type of Service Drop K10M K10E K10L K10P K10P-X

Fixed on Embedded in Fixed on TOTAL
Description On 6 m. pole On 9 m. pole
wooden wall earth wall brick wall
Quantity 414 494 530 3,122 180 4,740
Percentage 9% 10% 11% 66% 4% 100%

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Table 14. Costs of electric line staking Tables of Indicative Line Costs

Project Cost/km Cost/User To aid in calculations of project costs, Table 16

Nº 1 $218.76 $7.56
shows costs of projects recently carried out by
NRECA in Latin America.
Nº 2 $248.25 $8.07
Nº 3 $246.90 $8.97
Nº 4 $222.22 $9.88 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
Nº 5 $195.00 $10.00 PRESENTATION OF THE PROJECT
Nº 6 $215.00 $13.00
After completing the electrical design of the
Average: $224.35 $9.58 There are
project, as explained in Project Design, the
Inflation rate: 5% engineer is in a position to estimate the total various types
Projected: $235.57 $10.06 cost of the project, according to the section on of service
Estimation of project costs of this module. drops to take
14 shows an example of a database on the costs into account,
The engineer must next prepare the presentation of
of staking. each with its
the project. This presentation contains a description
of the project and a power flow, as explained in particularities.
Total Investment Cost of the Project the previous sections. The description should
contain many engineering tables or catalogues
Upon arriving at this step, the engineer now has
of materials, which add volume but do not assist
all the cost components necessary to estimate the
in the description of the project.
total budget for the project.

Add these costs to the Excel worksheet described Description of the Project
previously.
Keep the description simple, so it is useful for
the evaluation of the project’s feasibility. Table
Table 15 shows an example of a worksheet that
17 shows a scheme for clarifying the description
arrives at the total cost of the project.

Table 15. Sample cost evaluation (Tomoyo)

Tomoyo km phases users KWh kW Staking Feeder Distribution Total Cost $/User
Molle Molle (ambos) 6.4 1 200 6,000 25 $4,723 $28,160 $94,000 $126,883 $634
Sorojchi 2.7 1 105 3,150 14 $2,240 $11,880 $49,350 $63,470 $604
Yoroca 2.5 1 98 2,940 13 $2,084 $11,000 $46,060 $59,144 $604
Tomoyo 4.2 1 114 3,420 15 $2,893 $18,480 $53,580 $74,953 $657
Llatapata 2 1 50 1,500 7 $1,326 $8,800 $23,500 $33,626 $673
Isluco 2 1 30 900 5 $1,086 $8,800 $14,100 $23,986 $800
Jiroja 1 1 60 1,800 8 $1,083 $4,400 $28,200 $33,683 $561
Kasapata 3 1 50 1,500 7 $1,689 $13,200 $23,500 $38,389 $768
Sorocoto 3.5 1 160 4,800 20 $3,191 $15,400 $75,200 $93,791 $586
Soroscopa 1 1 60 1,800 8 $1,083 $4,400 $28,200 $33,683 $561
28.3 10 927 27,810 121 $21,397 $124,520 $435,690 $581,607 $627

Guides for Electric Cooperative Development and Rural Electrification 191

 Table 16. Costs of NRECA projects

Bolivia Nicaragua Dominican Republic Guatemala

Voltage Class 35 kV 25 kV 15 kV 15 kV
Three-phase US$ per km $5,300 $9,534 $9,365
Single-phase US$ per km $3,100 $6,329 $5,472 $4,000

of the project. The numerical values correspond included when the study warrants the inclusion
to the Tomoyo project. of some voltage regulation equipment during the
life of the project, or during the time allowed for
Power Flow project analysis, so as to show where, when, and
with what capacity this equipment is required
The power flow proves that the design is adequate to be installed. In these cases, the power flow
for the project throughout the period evaluated. should include a table of results showing the
Consequently, there will be at least two power data for each point of the study and a three-line
flows: one for the fi rst year of the project and diagram that displays the results in a graphical
another for the last. A third power flow may be format.

Table 17. Sample project description (Tomoyo)

Name of the Project Tomoyo

Location of the Project Department of Potosí
Molle Molle (ambos), Sorojchi, Yoroca, Tomoyo, Llatapata, Isluco,
Names of the communities favoured
Joroja, Kasapata, Sorocoto, Soroscopa
Number of users favoured 927
Kilometers of primary lines 28.3
Primary voltage 14.4 kV
Number of phases One
Section of conductor #2 AWG ACSR phase and neutral
Estimated cost of parking $21,397
Estimated cost of feeders $124,520
Estimated cost of distribution networks $435,690
Total estimated cost of project $581,607
Estimated cost by user $627

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