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UNIT 1 Notes

SUMMARY OF UNIT 1
Types of Computer: Digital and analog & Hybrid computers

 Characteristics of computer—Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability, versatility

 History of computer—Calculating machines, Napier’s bones, slide rule, Pascal's adding

and subtraction machine, Leibniz's multiplication and dividing machine, punch card

system, Babbage's analytical engine, Hollerith's punched card tabulating machine

 Generations of computer

o First generation (1940 to 1956): Using vacuum tubes

o Second generation (1956 to 1963): Using transistors

o Third generation (1964 to 1971): Using integrated circuits

o Fourth generation (1971 to present): Using microprocessors

o Fifth generation (present and next): Using artificial intelligence

 Classification of computer—Microcomputers (desktop computer or Personal Computer

(PC), notebook computers or laptop, netbook, tablet computer, handheld computer or

Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), smart phones), minicomputers, mainframe computers,

supercomputers )

 The computer system—Hardware, software, Humanware, Firmware, Bridgeware

 Components of computer hardware—Input/output unit, central processing unit, storage

unit

 Application of computers—Education, entertainment, sports, advertising, medicine,

science and engineering, government, home

Memory hierarchy—Internal memory (registers, cache memory, primary memory),

secondary memory (magnetic disk, optical disk, magnetic tape)

 Primary memory—Random access memory, read only memory

 RAM—DRAM, SRAM,

 ROM—PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, flash memory

 Secondary memory

 Access types of storage devices—Sequential access devices, direct access devices

 Magnetic tape, Magnetic disk, Floppy disk, Hard disk, Zip disk
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 Optical disk—CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, recordable optical disk, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-R

Computer Generations

‘Generation’ in computer terminology is a ‘step’ ahead in technology. As you go through the

history of evolution of computers, you will find that the earliest computers were big in size,
consumed a lot of power and heated up quickly, due to which it had to be shut down, frequently
to be cooled. They were very expensive in terms of development and maintenance.

As technology improved, computers became compact, faster and more powerful. From a user’s
perspective, they become user friendly and more affordable. This has largely contributed towards
the popularity that computers have gained these days.

The term ‘generation’ was earlier used only to distinguish between varying hardware
technologies but was later extended to include both hardware and software. A comparison of
generations is made below.

First Generation Computers (1940 to 1956)

The first generation of computers was characterized by vacuum tubes in the circuitry and
magnetic drums for memory.

These computers were enormous in size, used great deal of electricity and were expensive to
operate. They also had limited storage capacity.

First generation computers relied on machine language (binary-coded program) to perform

operations and could solve only one problem at a time. Punched cards and paper tapes were used
to input data and instructions, and output was displayed on printouts.

Early computers like ENIAC, EDVAC and UNIVAC can all be classified as first generation
computers.

Advantages

1. These computer were based on vacuum tube technology (this make possible for advent of
electronic digital computers.

2. Fastest computing devices of their times (Computation time was in milliseconds).

Disadvantages

1. Too bulky in size

2. Generate large amount of heat because of use of thousand of vacuum tubes.Therfore air
conditioning was essential.

3. Non-portable and very slow equipments.

4. Lacked in versatility and speed.

5. Expensive to operate and used a large amount of electricity.

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6. Unreliable and prone to frequent hardware failure. So, constant maintenance was required.

7. Difficult to program and use since machine language was used.

8. Limited commercial use because each individual component had to be assembled manually.

Second Generation Computers (1956 to 1963)

In the early 1950s, the discoveries of Transistor and Magnetic core memory changed the image of
computers – from unreliable to highly reliable machines with increased capability, and higher
storage capacity.

The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller in size,
cheaper, reliable and more energy efficient. Though transistor still generated a great deal of heat,
it was a substantial improvement over the vacuum tube.

Second generation of computers was also characterized by allowing programmers to specify

instructions in symbolic (or assembly) language rather than cryptic binary machine language.
High level programming languages like COmmon Business Oriented Language (COBOL) and
FORmula TRANslation (FORTRAN) were also being developed at this time.

Due to the increase in the cost of expanding programming, these machines were expensive to
purchase and operate. Such computers were, therefore, mostly found in large computer centers or
government/private laboratories with many programmers and support professionals.

Example:-PDP-8,IBM 1401 and IBM 7090

Advantages

1. Smaller in size compared to first generation computer because of Transistor.

2. Reliable and less prone to hardware failure. So less maintenance is required.

3. Reduce computational time from milliseconds to microseconds.

4. Better portability.

5. Less heat generated.

6. Wide commercial use.

7. Programming became more time-efficient since Assembly or Symbolic language was used.

Disadvantages

1. Air conditioning required.

2. Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was required.

3. Commercial production was difficult and costly.

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Third Generation Computers (1964 to 1971)

The development of Integrated Circuit by Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, in
1958, was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Punched cards and printouts gave
way to devices like keyboards and monitors making it easier for the user to interact with the
computer. Computer manufacturers could provide a range of accessories like the cathode ray tube
display devices, page printers, consoles etc.
Existence of an operating system allowed the device to run various applications at one time with
the central program monitoring the memory.
For the first time, computers were being widely used in business for areas like :
 Accounting
 Payroll
 Billing
 Tracking Inventory, etc.
Third generation computers were substantially smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Example:- NCR 395,B6500

Advantages
1. Based on Integrated Circuit(IC).
2. Reduce computational time from microsecond to nanoseconds.
3. Better portable and reliable than 2nd generation computers.
4. Consume less power and generated less heat.In some cases,air conditioning was still required.
5. Maintenance cost was quite low since hardware rarely failed.

Disadvantages
1. Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of IC chips.

Fourth Generation Computers (1971 to 1995)

The trend in 1970s was to move from single-purpose but powerful computers towards cheaper
computer systems that could support a large range of applications.
A new revolution in computer hardware came about which could shrink the computer logic
circuitry and its components using the Large Scale Integration (LSI) technology. Hundreds of
components could now fit onto a single chip!
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Figure 1.4 : IC Chips Figure 1.5 : Intel Pentium Microprocessor Chip

In the 1980s, Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) squeezed hundreds of thousands of components
onto a single chip. This shrinking trend continued and led to the introduction of personal
computers (PCs) – programmable machines that are small enough and inexpensive so that these
can be purchased and used by individuals. Companies like Apple Computers and IBM introduced
very successful PCs.

The IC technology was not only used to construct the processor, but also for the construction of
memory. The first memory chip was constructed in 1970 and could hold 256 bits.

Advantages

1. Smallest in size because of high component density.

2. Very reliable.

3. Heat generated is negligible.

4. No air conditioning required in most cases.

5. Much faster in computation than previous generation.

6. Hardware failure is negligible and hence minimal maintenance is required.

7. Easily portable because of their small size.

8. Totally general purpose.

9. Minimal labour and cost involved at assembly stage.

10. Cheapest among all generations.

11. Microprocessor based system.

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Disadvantage

1. Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of LSI chips.

Fifth Generation Computers (1995- onwards)

The fifth generation of computers characterized by Artificial Intelligence, Parallel Processing and
Mega chips (SLSI) is in the process of development. The goal here is to develop devices that are
capable of learning and responding to natural language input. This generation of computers is
using new technologies in very large scale integration, along with new programming languages
and will be capable of amazing feats, in the area of artificial intelligence, such as voice recognition.
It was based on the concept of Artificial Intelligence(AI) i.e. try to simulate the human way of
thinking & reasoning.AI includes areas like Expert System(ES),Natural Language
Processing(NLP),Speech recognition etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

1. Automatic: A machine is said to be automatic if it works without human

intervention. Once they start on a job, they carry on until it is completed without any human
assistance.
2 Speed: It is a very fast device. The latest computer can perform a take in the billionth portion
of a second.
3. Accuracy: The degree of accuracy of a computer is very high. It can find out the
results of mathematical calculation accurate up to 20 places of decimal and very speedily.
4. Diligence: Unlike humans a computer is free from tiredness and lack of
concentration. It can continuously work for hours, without creating errors or grumbling.
5. Versatility: A computer is capable of performing almost any task, if the task can be reduced
to a series of logical steps. It can send and receive data in various forms. like text, sound,
video, graphics etc. Because of this it is used in all fields of life.
6. Storage: It can store very large amount of data and also it can
retrieve the information required, in fractions of a second. After several
years the information can be recalled and it would be as accurate as on the
day when it was inputted to the computer.
7. Resource Sharing: With the tremendous growth in computer technology, computers today
have the capability to connect with each other. This has made the sharing of costly resources
like printers possible. Apart from device sharing, data and information can also be shared
among group of computers.
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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

The digital computers that are available nowadays vary in their sizes and types. The computers
are broadly classified into four categories based on their size and type—
(1)Microcomputers, (2) Minicomputers, (3) Mainframe computers, and (4) Supercomputer.
Classification of computers based on size and type
1 Microcomputers
Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computer. They consist of CPU,
input unit, output unit, storage unit and the software. Although microcomputers are stand-alone
machines, they can be connected together to create a network of computers that can serve more
than one user. IBM PC based on Pentium microprocessor and Apple Macintosh are some
examples of microcomputers. Microcomputers include desktop computers, notebook computers
or laptop, tablet computer, handheld computer, smart phones and netbook, as shown in
Figure 1.9 Microcomputers
 Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC) is the most common type of
microcomputer. It is a stand-alone machine that can be placed on the desk. Externally, it
consists of three units—keyboard, monitor, and a system unit containing the CPU,
memory, hard disk drive, etc. It is not very expensive and is suited to the needs of a
single user at home, small business units, and organizations. Apple, Microsoft, HP, Dell
and Lenovo are some of the PC manufacturers.
 Notebook Computers or Laptop resemble a notebook. They are portable and have all the
features of a desktop computer. The advantage of the laptop is that it is small in size (can
be put inside a briefcase), can be carried anywhere, has a battery backup and has all the
functionality of the desktop. Laptops can be placed on the lap while working (hence the
name). Laptops are costlier than the desktop machines.
 Netbook These are smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost, and are
designed for accessing web-based applications. Starting with the earliest netbook in late
2007, they have gained significant popularity now. Netbooks deliver the performance
needed to enjoy popular activities like streaming videos or music, emailing, Web surfing
or instant messaging. The word netbook was created as a blend of Internet and notebook.
 Tablet Computer has features of the notebook computer but it can accept input from a
stylus or a pen instead of the keyboard or mouse. It is a portable computer. Tablet
computer are the new kind of PCs.
 Handheld Computer or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a small computer that can
be held on the top of the palm. It is small in size. Instead of the keyboard, PDA uses a
pen or a stylus for input. PDAs do not have a disk drive. They have a limited memory and
are less powerful. PDAs can be connected to the Internet via a wireless connection. Casio
and Apple are some of the manufacturers of PDA. Over the last few years, PDAs have
merged into mobile phones to create smart phones.
 Smart Phones are cellular phones that function both as a phone and as a small PC. They
may use a stylus or a pen, or may have a small keyboard. They can be connected to the
Internet wirelessly. They are used to access the electronic-mail, download music, play
games, etc. Blackberry, Apple, HTC, Nokia and LG are some of the manufacturers of
smart phones.
1.6.2 Minicomputers
Minicomputers are digital computers, generally used in multi-user systems. They
have high processing speed and high storage capacity than the microcomputers. Minicomputers
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can support 4–200 users simultaneously. The users can access the minicomputer through their
PCs or terminal. They are used for real-time applications in industries, research centers, etc. PDP
11, IBM (8000 series) are some of the widely used minicomputers.

1.6.3 Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance
computers. They operate at a very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle
the workload of many users. Mainframe computers are large and powerful systems generally
used in centralized databases. The user accesses the mainframe computer via a terminal that may
be a dumb terminal, an intelligent terminal or a PC. A dumb terminal cannot store data or do
processing of its own. It has the input and output device only. An intelligent terminal has the
input and output device, can do processing, but, cannot store data of its own. The dumb and the
intelligent terminal use the processing power and the storage facility of the mainframe computer.
Mainframe computers are used in organizations like banks or companies, where many people
require frequent access to the same data. Some examples of mainframes are CDC 6600 and IBM
ES000 series.

1.6.4 Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive machines. They have high
processing speed compared to other computers. The speed of a supercomputer is generally
measured in FLOPS (FLoating point Operations Per Second). Some of the faster supercomputers
can perform trillions of calculations per second. Supercomputers are built by interconnecting
thousands of processors that can work in parallel.
Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks, such as, weather forecasting,
climate research (global warming), molecular research, biological research, nuclear research and
aircraft design. They are also used in major universities, military agencies and scientific research
laboratories. Some examples of supercomputers are IBM Roadrunner, IBM Blue gene and Intel
ASCI red. PARAM is a series of supercomputer assembled in India by C-DAC (Center for
Development of Advanced Computing), in Pune. PARAM Padma is the latest machine in this
series. The peak computing power of PARAM Padma is 1 Tera FLOP (TFLOP).

Computer System Components

1. HARDWARE
2. SOFTWARE
3. HUMANWARE
4. FIRMWARE
5. BRIDGEWARE

Hardware:-

Physical components of computer which we can touch and feel are called hardware. A Computer
is comprise of several hardware devices such as Mouse, Keyboard, Monitor, hard disk, CD-ROM,
etc

Example:-Input Devices, Output Devices, Memory Devices, etc

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Software:-

Collection of programs and other associated documents that help to control, manage and integrate
the component of a computer system to accomplish a specific task.

Example:-Operating System, Compiler, Assembler etc.

Humanware:-

The personnel which are related to installation, maintenance, operation and testing of computer
are called humanware. The interface between man and machine is human ware.

Example:-Programmer, Hardware/Network Engineers, System Analysts.

The process of building humanware generally consists of these steps:

1. Define users (age, mindset, environmental context, previous product experience and
expectations, and so forth) and what they really want to do
2. Identify tasks they will need to do or capabilities they will want

3. Specify usability objectives (if possible, these should be measurable, such as how long to
do something or how many mouse clicks to get to a specified task point) for each task or
capability

4. Build a prototype of the user interface (it can be a paper or simulated prototype if time is
short)

5. Test and verify or correct the prototype

6. Provide the prototype and usability objectives to the program designers and coders

7. Test the code against the prototype and objectives and, if necessary, redesign or recode the
software

8. Test the product with users or valid test subjects and revise as necessary

9. Get feedback from users and continually improve the product

FIRMWARE

The computer programs permanently stored in ROM or PROM are called firmware. These
programs are provided by the manufacturer along with the computers. Firmwares are booting
programs that help in the starting of a computer. Firmware programs cannot be erased or
overwritten.

BRIDGEWARE
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Any software or hardware that eases the transition from use of one computer system to use of
another not entirely compatible one. Bridgeware is normally supplied by a computer
manufacturer when a new range of machines does not offer complete upward compatibility from
some previous range.

Computer System Hardware

A computer consists of three main components—

(1) Input/Output (I/O) Unit,
(2) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
(3) Memory Unit.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the processor is also often called the brain of computer. CPU
consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). In addition, CPU
also has a set of registers which are temporary storage areas for holding data, and instructions.
ALU performs the arithmetic and logic operations on the data that is made available to it. CU is
responsible for organizing the processing of data and instructions. CU controls and coordinates
the activity of the other units of computer. CPU uses the registers to store the data, instructions
during processing.

Arithmetic Logic Unit

ALU consists of two units—arithmetic unit and logic unit.
The arithmetic unit performs arithmetic operations on the data that is made available to it.
Some of the arithmetic operations supported by the arithmetic unit are—addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
The logic unit of ALU is responsible for performing logic operations. Logic unit
performs comparisons of numbers, letters and special characters. Logic operations
include testing for greater than, less than or equal to condition.

Registers
 Registers are high-speed storage areas within the CPU, but have the least storage
capacity. Registers are not referenced by their address, but are directly accessed and
manipulated by the CPU during instruction execution.
 Registers store data, instructions, addresses and intermediate results of processing.
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Registers are often referred to as the CPU’s working memory.

 The data and instructions that require processing must be brought in the registers of CPU
before they can be processed. For example, if two numbers are to be added, both numbers
are brought in the registers, added and the result is also placed in a register.
 Registers are used for different purposes, with each register serving a specific purpose.
Some of the important registers in CPU are as follows—
o Accumulator (ACC) stores the result of arithmetic and logic operations.
o Instruction Register (IR) contains the current instruction most recently fetched.
o Program Counter (PC) contains the address of next instruction to be processed.
o Memory Address Register (MAR) contains the address of next location in the
memory to be accessed.
o Memory Buffer Register (MBR) temporarily stores data from memory or the data
to be sent to memory.
o Data Register (DR) stores the operands and any other data.
Control Unit
 The control unit of a computer does not do any actual processing of data. It organizes the
processing of data and instructions. It acts as a supervisor and, controls and coordinates
the activity of the other units of computer.
 CU coordinates the input and output devices of a computer. It directs the computer to
carry out stored program instructions by communicating with the ALU and the registers.
CU uses the instructions in the Instruction Register (IR) to decide which circuit needs to
be activated. It also instructs the ALU to perform the arithmetic or logic operations.
When a program is run, the Program Counter (PC) register keeps track of the program
instruction to be executed next.
 CU tells when to fetch the data and instructions, what to do, where to store the results, the
sequencing of events during processing etc.
 CU also holds the CPU’s Instruction Set, which is a list of all operations that the CPU can
perform.

MEMORY UNIT
The memory unit consists of cache memory and primary memory. Primary memory or main
memory of the computer is used to store the data and instructions during execution of the
instructions. Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) are the primary
memory. In addition to the main memory, there is another kind of storage device known as the
secondary memory. Secondary memory is non-volatile and is used for permanent storage of data
and programs. A program or data that has to be executed is brought into the RAM from the
secondary memory
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APPLICATION OF COMPUTER

Education Computers are extensively used, as a tool and as an aid, for imparting
education. Educators use computers to prepare notes and presentations of their lectures.
Computers are used to develop computer-based training packages, to provide distance
education using the e-learning software, and to conduct online examinations. Researchers
use computers to get easy access to conference and journal details and to get global
access to the research material.
 Entertainment Computers have had a major impact on the entertainment industry. The
user can download and view movies, play games, chat, book tickets for cinema halls, use
multimedia for making movies, incorporate visual and sound effects using computers,
etc. The users can also listen to music, download and share music, create music using
computers, etc.
 Sports A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game, play
games (like chess, etc.) and create games. They are also used for the purposes of training
players.
 Advertising Computer is a powerful advertising media. Advertisement can be displayed
on different websites, electronic-mails can be sent and reviews of a product by different
customers can be posted. Computers are also used to create an advertisement using the
visual and the sound effects. For the advertisers, computer is a medium via which the
advertisements can be viewed globally. Web advertising has become a significant factor
in the marketing plans of almost all companies. In fact, the business model of Google is
mainly dependent on web advertising for generating revenues.

Medicine Medical researchers and practitioners use computers to access information

about the advances in medical research or to take opinion of doctors globally. The
medical history of patients is stored in the computers. Computers are also an integral part
of various kinds of sophisticated medical equipments like ultrasound machine, CAT scan
machine, MRI scan machine, etc. Computers also provide assistance to the medical
surgeons during critical surgery operations like laparoscopic operations, etc.
 Science and Engineering Scientists and engineers use computers for performing
complex scientific calculations, for designing and making drawings (CAD/CAM
applications) and also for simulating and testing the designs. Computers are used for
storing the complex data, performing complex calculations and for visualizing 3–
dimensional objects. Complex scientific applications like the launch of the rockets, space
exploration, etc., are not possible without the computers.
 Government The government uses computers to manage its own operations and also for
e-governance. The websites of the different government departments provide information
to the users. Computers are used for the filing of income tax return, paying taxes, online
submission of water and electricity bills, for the access of land record details, etc. The
police department uses computers to search for criminals using fingerprint matching, etc.
 Home Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home,
people use computers to play games, to maintain the home accounts, for communicating
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with friends and relatives via Internet, for paying bills, for education and learning, etc.
Microprocessors are embedded in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs, food
processors, home theatres, security devices, etc.

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

The computer will be of no use unless it is able to communicate with the outside world.
Input/output devices are required for users to communicate with the computer. In simple terms,
input devices bring information INTO the computer and output devices bring information OUT
of a computer system. These input/output devices are also known as peripherals since they
surround the CPU and memory of a computer system.

DEVICES

OUTPUT DEVICES
INPUT DEVICES

Keyboard
Mouse Monitor
Joystick Printer
Scanner Plotter
Light Pen LCD Projector
Touch Screen
Bar Code Reader
MICR
OMR

INPUT DEVICES:-
Are electromechanical device that are used for entering the data into computer in the machine
under stable form i.e. in binary form. In other words, It accepts data & instruction from the user
& other applications. Data input to a computer can be in the form of text, audio etc.
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A) Scanner
Scanner is an input device used for direct data entry from the source document into the
computer system. It converts the document image into digital form so that it can be fed
into the computer. Capturing information like this reduces the possibility of errors
typically experienced during large data entry.

TYPES OF SCANNER

1. Flatbed scanners: also called desktop scanners, are the most versatile and commonly used
scanners. It provide high quality scan in a single pass. Its a box-shaped machine similar to a
photocopy machine &has a glass top & a lid that covers the glass. Used to scan full page
documents.

2. Handheld scanners: use the same basic technology as a flatbed scanner, but rely on the user
to move them instead of a motorized belt. This type of scanner typically does not provide good
image quality. However, it can be useful for quickly capturing text.

B) MICR

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition is a character recognition system that uses special ink and
characters. When a document that contains this ink needs to be read, it passes through a
machine, which magnetizes the ink and then translates the magnetic information into
characters.

MICR technology is used by banks. Numbers and characters found on the bottom of checks
(usually containing the check number, sort number, and account number) are printed using
Magnetic Ink. To print Magnetic Ink need, you need a laser printer that accepts MICR toner.

MICR provides a secure, high-speed method of scanning and processing information.

MICR, is a character recognition technology used primarily by the banking industry to facilitate
the processing of cheques. The technology allows computers to read information (such as
account numbers) off printed documents. Unlike barcodes or similar technologies, however,
MICR codes can be easily read by humans.

MICR characters are printed in special typefaces with a magnetic ink or toner, usually
containing iron oxide. As a machine decodes the MICR text, it first magnetizes the characters in
the plane of the paper. Then the characters are passed over a MICR read head, a device similar
to the playback head of a tape recorder. As each character passes over the head it produces a
unique waveform that can be easily identified by the system.
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The use of magnetic printing allows the characters to be read reliably even if they have been
overprinted or obscured by other marks, such as cancellation stamps and signature. The error
rate for the magnetic scanning of a typical check is smaller than with optical character
recognition systems. For well printed MICR documents, the "can't read" rate is usually less than
1% while the substitution rate (misread rate) is in the order of 1 per 100,000 characters.

C) OCR

Optical character recognition, usually abbreviated to OCR, is the mechanical or electronic

translation of scanned images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text into machine-encoded
text. It is widely used to convert books and documents into electronic files, to computerize a
record-keeping system in an office, or to publish the text on a website. OCR makes it possible to
edit the text, search for a word or phrase, store it more compactly, display or print a copy free of
scanning artifacts, and apply techniques such as machine translation, text-to-speech and text
mining to it. OCR is a field of research in pattern recognition, artificial intelligence and
computer vision.

OCR systems require calibration to read a specific font; early versions needed to be
programmed with images of each character, and worked on one font at a time. "Intelligent"
systems with a high degree of recognition accuracy for most fonts are now common. Some
systems are capable of reproducing formatted output that closely approximates the original
scanned page including images, columns and other non-textual components.

It involves reading text from paper and translating the images into a form that the computer can
manipulate (for example, into ASCII codes).
O
Text Scanner C ASCII
Bitma
document R Text
p

An OCR system enables you to take a book or a magazine article, feed it directly into an
electronic computer file, and then edit the file using a word processor.

All OCR systems include an optical scanner for reading text, and sophisticated software for
analyzing images. Most OCR systems use a combination of hardware (specialized circuit
boards) and software to recognize characters, although some inexpensive systems do it entirely
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through software. Advanced OCR systems can read text in large variety of fonts, but they still
have difficulty with handwritten text.

The potential of OCR systems is enormous because they enable users to harness the power of
computers to access printed documents. OCR is already being used widely in the legal
profession, where searches that once required hours or days can now be accomplished in a few
seconds.

Benefits

 Includes assessment of coursework, the best way to assess the candidate's level of
practical skills in computing.
 Simple, straightforward assessment, with all examination papers externally assessed.
For the AS level, coursework weighting reduced to 20%.

 Content revised to include greater emphasis on programming and removal of topics

entirely ICT based.

 A2 exam paper cut to two hours in length, with AS one and a half hours.

 This specification is excellent preparation for those students intending to pursue

computing studies at degree level, or for anyone considering any kind of career in
computing.

D)OMR

Optical Mark Recognition (also called Optical Mark Reading and OMR) is the process of
capturing human-marked data from document forms such as surveys and tests.
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Optical Mark Recognition also called Mark Reading (“mark sensing”). Through the technology
of OMR a simply and reasonable method of entering data by document into a computer system
is enable. Optical Mark Reading (OMR) is one of the fastest and safest methods for data-entry
into a host until today. 

OMR forms are used for collecting data. Preparation of this type of form involves several critical
steps.

Obviously, one needs to thoughtfully determine the kind of data that needs to be gathered and
layout the questions in a clear, understandable format. These questions are then sent to the
designer to figure out the best way to present these questions in an attractive layout. The
designer needs to understand how the OMR scanner reads this information and position the
questions and related response bubbles in just the right position on the form to assure that the
scanner can accurately read the information. When the form design or layout is approved by the
customer, the electronic form is moved to the printing phase. It is critical that the printer also
understands the importance of consistent positioning of the printed sheet according to the
layout.

The layout is based upon a grid system that is determined by the specific parameters of the
scanner. The two basic elements of this grid are the timing marks and the response bubbles. The
timing marks appear in one column on one edge of the sheet. These rectangular marks are
viewed by the scanner as the sheet travels through it. A timing mark determines when to begin
and end the viewing of the corresponding row of bubbles and record the results. A typical form
can have up to 48 bubbles across the sheet. In order for the scanner to know what bubbles to
look at, a file called a scanning definition needs to be created with the scanning software prior
to the actual scanning process. This scanning definition tells the scanner which bubble or
bubbles in the grid to look at to determine if they are filled in and then record the assigned
value. These values or results are then added to an Excel type data file as each form is scanned.
When the scanning is finished the results are then tabulated with the use of special reporting
software. If the quality of the original scan form has been compromised by sloppy layout or
printing processes, then the scanned data and the tabulated results potentially may not be
reliable.

OMR is a great time-saving process in collecting data but can also create a huge headache if not
done correctly. It's important to do some homework and get a good handle on how OMR works
before jumping into an OMR evaluation survey project. There are many good resources to be
found on the internet that can assist you in one or all of the steps involved. Just google "omr
data collection services" for an extensive list.

How does it work?

A pen or pencil mark is made in pre-defined positions at the document to indicate each selected
response (for example: answers to a survey question or an absent pupil in a school register).
 18

The complete forms are scanned by the Optical Mark Reader which detects the presence of a
mark by measuring reflected light levels. The reader interprets this pattern marks and spaces
into a data record and transmits it to your computer for storage, analysis and reporting.

What are the main advantages of OMR-Technology?

 simplicity: “Tick box answers” are marked with a by pen or pencil

 functionality: the OMR-Reader scans the form, detect the presence of marks and passes
information to the computer

 speed: OMR-Readers can read up to 9,000 forms DIN A4 per hour

 flexibility: OMR-readers tests for plausibility’s and transmit the processed information
to the computer with up to 38,400 Baud.

 The interpretation based on a simple “Yes/No” answer.

When to use OMR-readers?

 on applications where other entering possibilities are not present

 if a large volume of data has to be collected and processed within a short period of time

 if the persons who have to collect the data are not regular computer users

 if information mainly comprises the selection of categories or “Tick box answers” to

multiple choice questions

Where do the OMR-readers work?

 examinations at schools, colleges and universities

 public opinion polls of research institutes

 assessment tests

 counting of votes

 staff opinion surveys

What is possible?

 Barcode
 OCR

 Double document recognition

 19

 Print on the form

 Sorting with two pockets

What kind of equipment do I need?

   a computer with serial interface

   the appropriate software for your application made by Binary Logic

   specially designed forms

E) BAR-CODE READER

Data coded in the form of small lines (known as bars) are known as bar codes. Bar codes
represent alphanumeric data by a combination of adjacent vertical lines(bars) by varying their
width and the spacing between them. They are particularly used for unique identification of all
types of goods, books, postal packages, badges, tags, etc.

A bar code reader is a device used for reading (decoding) bar-coded data. It may be a hand-held
scanner, o or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. It scans a bar-code image and converts
it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the computer to which the bar-code reader is
connected, just as though the alphanumeric value had been typed on a keyboard.

A bar-code reader uses a laser-beam scanning technology. The laser beam is stroked across the
pattern of bars of a bar code. Different bar code having different patterns of bars reflects the
beam in different ways, which is sensed by a light-sensitive detector. Reflected light patterns are
converted into electrical pulses and then transmitted to recognition logic circuits which convert
it into an alphanumeric value.

F). Electronic Card Reader

An electronic-card reader, which is normally connected to a computer, is used to read the data
encoded on an electronic card and transfer it to the computer for further processing.

Depending on the manner in which data is encoded, electronic card are of following two types:

1. Magnetic strip cards:-

These cards have a magnetic strip on their back. The data to be encoded on the card is stored on
the magnetic strip.

1. Smart Card:-
 20

Smart cards have a built-in microprocessor chip instead of the magnetic strip. The data to be
encoded on the card is permanently stored in the memory of the microprocessor chip. The
memory of a smart card microprocessor can contain much more data than the magnetic strip of
a magnetic strip card.

OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices are an electromechanical device that accepts data from a computer and then
processed the data & display it in a form suitable for use by the outside world (the user).
Output generated by output devices is classified into following 2 types:-
1. Soft-copy:-
 The electronic version of an output which usually resides in a computer
memory is known as soft copy.
 It is Intangible, Transient & usually displayed on the screen.
 This output includes audio & video form of output.
 Example-Monitor’s display
2. Hard-copy: -
 It is the Physical form of output It refers to the recorded information copied from
a computer onto a paper.
 It is permanent & relatively stable form of output.
 Highly Portable.
 Example-Printout obtained from printer
Monitors
Monitors produce soft-copy output. Two basic types of monitor used today
1. Cathod Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
2. Flat-panel Monitor

1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

Monitor is an output device that resembles the television screen and uses a Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT) to display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual input of
characters and displays the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program or
application output. Like the television, monitors are also available in different sizes.
 21

Figure: CRT Monitor

Characteristic of CRT monitors

1. Screen Size:-
Screen size of monitor varies from 5 to 25 inches. Monitors with 17 inch to 21 inch screen size
are common today with personal computer and other desktop computers.
2. Resolution:-
Overall resolution of monitor is expressed as multiple of its horizontal and vertical resolution. A
low resolution monitor has a resolution of about 320*200.Today’s computer can have resolution
of 1024*768 or more.
3. Referesh Rate
The actual number of times that the electron beam scans the entire screen per second is called
the refresh rate of the monitor. The higher the refresh rate the better will be the display quality
of a monitor because it will be less strenuous for the eyes to continuously views the screen.
Today most computer operate at 60 Hz i.e. they refresh the screen 60 times per second.
Flat-panel Monitor

The display technologies used by flat-panel monitors include liquid crystal display (LCD),
electro-luminescent display(ELD).out of these LCD are most commonly used.

LCD was introduced in the 1970s and is now applied to display terminals also. Its advantages
like low energy consumption, smaller and lighter have paved its way for usage in portable
computers (laptops).

Printer

Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on the
technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.

When we talk about printers we refer to two basic qualities associated with printers: resolution,
and speed. Print resolution is measured in terms of number of dots per inch (dpi). Print speed
is measured in terms of number of characters printed in a unit of time and is represented as
characters-per-second (cps), lines-per-minute (lpm), or pages-per-minute (ppm).
 22

Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper
through a ribbon in order to produce output. The ink ribbon is pressed against the paper,
marking the page with the appropriate character, dot, line, or symbol. Common examples of
impact printers include dot matrix, daisy-wheel printers, and drum printer.

Dot-Matrix Printers

Dot-matrix printers print about 40-300 characters per second (cps) and can print some graphics,
although the reproduction quality is poor. Color ribbons are available for limited use of color.
Dot-matrix printers are noisy, inexpensive, and they can print through multipart forms,
creating several copies of a page at the same time.

Daisy-Wheel Printer

A type of printer that produces letter-quality type.daisy-wheel is a serial printer A daisy-wheel

printer works on the same principle as a ball-head typewriter. The daisy wheel is a disk made
of plastic or metal on which characters stand out in relief along the outer edge. To print a
character, the printer rotates the disk until the desired letter is facing the paper. Then a hammer
strikes the disk, forcing the character to hit an ink ribbon, leaving an impression of the
character on the paper. You can change the daisy wheel to print different fonts.

Daisy-wheel printers cannot print graphics, and in general they are noisy and slow, printing
from 10 to about 75 characters per second. As the price of laser and ink-jet printers has
declined, and the quality of dot-matrix printers has improved, daisy-wheel printers have
become obsolete.

Drum Printer

An impact printer in which a complete set of characters for each print position on a line is on a
continuously rotating drum behind an inked ribbon, with paper in front of the ribbon; identical
characters are printed simultaneously at all required positions on a line, on the fly, by signal-
controlled hammers.

Chain Printer

It is the character printer. The print element in a chain printer is a metallic band or chain
containing the embossed characters that rotates horizontally in front of paper. A complete
chain consists of the five sections; each section consists of 48 characters. As the print chain
rotates, properly timed print hammers strike the paper along with linked ribbon, against the
proper character on the chain as it passes. Chain printer are one of the fastest impact printers
that can produce up to 400 to 2500 characters per second. Chain Printer also called band
printers, contain characters on a rotation band. Speeds of up to 3000 lines a minute may be
possible with these machines.
 23

Line Printer

A high-speed printer capable of printing an entire line at one time. A fast line printer can
print as many as 3,000 lines per minute. The disadvantages of line printers are that they cannot
print graphics, the print quality is low, and they are very noisy.

Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. Nonimpact printers form characters
and images without direct physical contact between the printing mechanism and the paper.
They use chemical, heat or electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, DeskJet, Laser,
Thermal printers fall under this category of printers.

Laser Printer:

Like a dot-matrix printer, a laser printer creates images with dots. However, as in a
photocopying machine, these images are created on a drum, treated with a magnetically
charged ink-like toner (powder), and then transferred from drum to paper.
- There are good reasons why laser printers are so popular. They produce sharp, crisp images
of both text and graphics, providing resolutions from 300 dpi up to 1200 dpi, which is near-
typeset quality (NTQ). They are quiet and fast. They can print 4-32 text-only pages per minute
for individual microcomputers, and more than 120 pages per minute for mainframes. (Pages
with more graphics print more slowly.) They can print in many fonts (type styles and sizes).

Ink-jet Printers

Like laser and dot-matrix printers, ink-jet printers also form images with little dots. Ink-jet
printers spray small, electrically charged droplets of ink from four nozzles through holes in a
matrix at high speed onto paper.

- Ink-jet printers can print in color and are quieter and much less expensive than a color laser
printer. However, they are slower and print in a somewhat lower resolution (300-720 dpi) than
laser printers. Some new, expensive ink-jet printers print up 1200 or 1400 dpi
 24

Figure : An Inkjet Printer

Difference between Impact and Non-Impact printer are as follows :
Impact printer:-
1. It prints characters or images by striking print hammer against an inked ribbon.
2. Its speed is lower.
3. Its print quality is poor.
4. It normally uses continuous paper sheet.
5. It uses inked ribbon for printing.
6. It generates noise during printing.
7. It is less expensive.
8. Dot matrix is an example.
Non-Impact Printer:-
1. It prints character or image without striking the paper.
2. Its speed is faster.
3. Its print quality is higher.
4. It normally uses individual paper sheet.
5. It doesn’t generate noise during printing.
6. It uses toner or cartridges for printing.
7. It is more expensive.
8. Laser and Ink Jet are an example.

Plotter

Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. Plotters are ideal output devices for
architects, engineers, city planners and others who need to routinely generate high precision,
hard-copy graphic output of widely varying sizes.
Two commonly used types of plotter are:-
1. Drum Plotter
2. Flatbed plotter
Drum Plotter
 25

In a drum plotter the paper on which the design has to make is placed over a drum that can
rotate in both clockwise and anti-clockwise directions to produce vertical motion.
Flatbed plotter
A flatbed plotter plots a design or graph on a sheet of paper that is spread and fixed over a
rectangular flatbed table.

Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) applications like CAD (Computer Aided Design) and
CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) are typical usage areas for plotters.

Computer Architecture/Design

A typical computer system has an Input Unit, a Central Processing Unit, Memory Unit and
Output Unit. This is also known as Von Neumann Architecture of the computer. Over the years
the technology has changed but basic design/architecture is not changed. The important

elements of a computer system are discussed in the following paragraphs.

 26

Input Unit:

The input unit links the external environment with the computer system. Data and instructions
inputted to the computer system through this unit. The data can be inputted to the computer by
various means, it can be entered through a keyboard, through a card reader, through a mouse
etc. All the data supplied to the computer is transformed into the binary codes. Unit called
input interface accomplishes this transformation. Input interface is designed

to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of input devices with the requirements
of the computer system for example Keyboard, Mouse, Joy stick, Light Pen, Punched Cards,
Optical Mark Reader, Magnetic Tape, Optical Character Reader etc.

Output Unit:
 27

It links the computer with the external environment. The job of an output unit is just opposite of
an input unit. It supplies information and results of computation to the outside world. As
computers work with binary code, the results produced are also in the binary form. Hence,
before supplying the results to the outside world, it must be converted to human readable form.
Unit called output interface accomplishes this task. Output interface is

designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of output devices (e.g.
Monitor, Printer, Plotter) with the requirement of the external environment.

Central Processing Unit:

The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the Central Processing Unit
(CPU). As in a human body, the brain takes all major decisions and controls all body parts,
similarly, in a computer system, all major computations are made by the CPU and is also
responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other units. The CPU performs the
following functions:

 It performs all calculations.

 It takes all decisions.

 It controls all units of the computer.

1. Control Unit:

The control unit is able to maintain order and direct the operation of the entire system. By
selecting, interpreting, and decoding, it executes the program instructions. This unit acts as a
central nervous system for the computer. It manages and coordinates the entire computer
system. It directs the flow of data through the CPU, and to and from other devices. Control unit
controls the input and output devices and the passing of data to the Arithmetic/Logical Unit for
computation. The control unit stores the CPU's microcode, which contains the instructions for
all the tasks the CPU can perform.
 28

2.Arithmetic Logic Unit:

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual execution
of the instructions takes place during the processing operation. The data and instructions,
stored in the primary storage (RAM or Cache) prior to processing, are transferred as and when
needed to the ALU. ALU uses various CPU registers to store intermediate results of
computations. The Final result of computations is transferred back to the primary storage. After
the completion of processing, the final results that are stored in the primary storage unit are
released to an output device or to a secondary storage device.

The ALU is designed to perform all the basic Arithmetic Operations – add, subtract, multiply,
divide, Relational Operations such as comparisons using < , <=, > , >=, == etc and Logical
Operations such as AND, OR, NOT.

Storage Unit (Memory):

The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through the input
unit, before they are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are
sent to the output devices. It also saves the data for the later use. The various storage devices of
a computer system are divided into two categories.

1. Primary Storage: Stores and provides very fast. This memory is generally used to hold the
program being currently executed in the computer, the data being received from the input unit,
the intermediate and final results of the program. The primary memory is temporary in nature.
The data is lost, when the computer is switched off. In order to store the data permanently, the
data has to be transferred to the secondary memory.
The cost of the primary storage is more compared to the secondary storage. Therefore most
computers have limited primary storage capacity.

2. Secondary Storage: Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several programs,
documents, data bases etc. The programs that you run on the computer are first transferred to
the primary memory before it is actually run. Whenever the results are saved, again they get
stored in the secondary memory. The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the
primary memory. Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are Hard disk, CD,
etc.,
 29

MEMORY HIERARCHY
The memory is characterized on the basis of two key factors—capacity and access time.
Capacity is the amount of information (in bits) that a memory can store. Access time is the time
interval between the read/ write request and the availability of data. The lesser the access time,
the faster is the speed of memory. Ideally, we want the memory with fastest speed and largest
capacity.

A computer memory is a device or medium that accepts data, hold them & deliver them on
demand at a later time.

Memory cell

 Building block of computer data storage.

 Entire RAM is divided into a number of equal parts, known as memory cells.

 Each memory cell can store one-byte of data.

 Each memory cell has unique address.

Units to measure Computer memory:

1) Bit: smallest unit of information. It can hold either 0 or 1.

2) Byte: A unit of 8 bits is known as a byte.

3) Kilobyte: 1024 bytes

 30

4) Megabyte: 1024 kilobyte

5) Gigabyte: 1024 Megabyte.

6)Terabyte: 1024 gigabyte.

Primary Memory

PRIMARY MEMORY
Primary memory is the main memory of computer. It is a chip mounted on the motherboard of
computer. Primary memory is categorized into two main types-
 Random Access Memory (RAM), and
 Read Only Memory (ROM)
RAM is used for the temporary storage of input data, output data and intermediate results. The
input data entered into the computer using the input device, is stored in RAM for processing.
After processing, the output data is stored in RAM before being sent to the output device. Any
intermediate results generated during the processing of program are also stored in RAM.
Unlike RAM, the data once stored in ROM either cannot be changed or can only be changed
using some special operations. Therefore, ROM is used to store the data that does not require a
change.
Flash memory is another form of rewritable read-only memory that is compact, portable, and
requires little energy.
Random Access Memory
RAM is used to store data and instructions during the operation of computer.
 The data and instructions that need to be operated upon by CPU are first brought
 31

to RAM from the secondary storage devices like the hard disk.
 CPU interacts with RAM to get the data and instructions for processing.
 RAM loses information when the computer is powered off. It is a volatile memory. When
the power is turned on, again, all files that are required by the CPU are loaded from the
hard disk to RAM. Since RAM is a volatile memory, any information that needs to be
saved for a longer duration of time must not be stored in RAM.
 RAM provides random access to the stored bytes, words, or larger data units. This means
that it requires same amount of time to access information from RAM, irrespective of
where it is located in it.
 RAM can be read from and written to with the same speed.
 The size ofRAM is limited due to its high cost. The size of RAM is measured in MB or GB.
 The performance of RAM is affected by—
Access speed (how quickly information can be retrieved). The speed of RAM is expressed
in nanoseconds.
Data transfer unit size (how much information can be retrieved in one request).
 RAM affects the speed and power of a computer. More the RAM, the better it is.
 Nowadays, computers generally have 512 MB to 4 GB of RAM.
 RAM is a microchip implemented using semiconductors.

Types of RAM

DRAM (Dynamic Read Only Memory) is the most common type of memory chip. DRAM is
mostly used as main
memory since it is small and cheap.
 It uses transistors and capacitors. The transistors are arranged in a matrix of rows
and columns. The capacitor holds the bit of information 0 and 1. The transistor
and capacitor are paired to make a memory cell. The transistor acts as a switch
that lets the control circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor or change its
state.
 DRAM must be refreshed continually to store information. For this, a memory
controller is used. The memory controller recharges all the capacitors holding a 1
before they discharge. To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and
then writes it right back.
 DRAM gets its name from the refresh operation that it requires to store the
information; otherwise it will lose what it is holding. The refresh operation occurs
automatically thousands of times per second. DRAM is slow because the
refreshing takes time.
 Access speed of DRAM ranges from 50 to 150 ns.

SRAM (Static Read Only Memory) chip is usually used in cache memory due to its high speed.
 SRAM uses multiple transistors (four to six), for each memory cell. It does not
have a capacitor in each cell.
 A SRAM memory cell has more parts so it takes more space on a chip than DRAM cell.
 32

 It does not need constant refreshing and therefore is faster than DRAM.
 SRAM is more expensive than DRAM, and it takes up more space.
 It stores information as long as it is supplied with power.
 SRAM are easier to use and very fast. The access speed of SRAM ranges from 2–10
nanosecond.

ROM(Read only Memory)-It is a non-volatile primary memory. It does not lose its content
when the power is switched off. As the name suggest it has read only facility and no write
capability. After the information is stored in ROM, it is permanent and cannot be corrected. It
stores standard processing programs that permanently reside in the computer.
Types of ROM:

 Programmable ROM (PROM):  or one-time programmable ROM (OTP), can

be written to or programmed via a special device called a PROM
programmer. Typically, this device uses high voltages to permanently
destroy or create internal links within the chip. Consequently, a PROM can
only be programmed once.

 Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) can be erased by

exposure to strong ultraviolet light (typically for 10 minutes or longer), then
rewritten with a process that again needs higher than usual voltage applied.
Repeated exposure to UV light will eventually wear out an EPROM, but
the endurance of most EPROM chips exceeds 1000 cycles of erasing and
reprogramming. EPROM chip packages can often be identified by the
prominent quartz "window" which allows UV light to enter. After
programming, the window is typically covered with a label to prevent
accidental erasure. Some EPROM chips are factory-erased before they are
packaged, and include no window; these are effectively PROM. At time of
erasing entire EPROM is erased.

 Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is based

on a similar semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its entire
contents (or selected banks) to be electrically erased, then rewritten
electrically, so that they need not be removed from the computer (or camera,
MP3 player, etc.). EEPROM can be erased one byte at a time.

 Flash ROM or Flash memory, also called as BIOS, is a type of constantly

powered non-volatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed in
blocks. It is variation of EEPROM, which unlike flash memory, is erased and
reprogrammed and rewritten at byte level. Flash memory is often used to
hold control code such as BIOS.
 33

The primary storage of a computer system has the following limitations:

1) Limited capacity: the storage capacity of the primary storage of today’s computers is not
sufficient to store the large volume of data, which needs to be handled by most data
processing centre.

2) Volatile: The primary storage is volatile and data stored in it is lost, when the electric
power is turned off or interrupted. However, the computer systems need to store data
on a permanent basis for several days, several months or even several years.

To overcome the limitations of primary storage, additional memory, called auxiliary memory or
secondary storage is used with most computer systems.

Secondary memory: Secondary memory is also known as auxillary memory. It provides the
backup storage for instructions and data. It has large storage capacity than primary memory.
Instructions and data stored on such storage devices are permanent in nature. The most
commonly used secondary memory devices are hard disk, magnetic disk and magnetic tapes.

Secondary
Storage Device

Sequential Direct Access

Access Storage Storage Device
Device
Magnetic Magnetic Optical
Tape Disk Disk
CD-ROM
Hard CD-RW
Disk DVD
Floppy
WORM
Disk

Depending on the access mechanism used we categorized the secondary memory into two
types:-

Sequential Access Storage Devices (SASD): It is a class of data storage devices that read their
data in sequence and the time for access depends on the location of the data desired. While
sequential access memory is read in sequence, accesses can still be made to arbitrary locations
 34

by "seeking" to the requested location. Magnetic sequential access memory is typically used
for secondary storage in general-purpose computers due to their higher density at lower cost
compared to RAM, as well as resistance to wear and non-volatility.

Example: Magnetic tape

Direct Access Storage Devices (DASD): are also called random-access devices. It allows stored
data to be accessed in any order in very nearly the same amount of time for any storage location
or size of memory device. In case of direct access devices data can be accessed in a random
manner.

Example: Magnetic Disk

Direct memory access may be required in the following cases:

1) In a computerized bank, where at any instance it is required to determine the exact

balance in the savings account of a particular customer.

2) In a computerized airline ticket booking system, immediate access may be required to

reservation system records, to find out if seats are currently available on a particular
flight.

Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape is a form of auxiliary memory which is more commonly used as back up storage.
Magnetic tape is thin plastic reel coated with iron oxide substance that can be magnetized. Data
is represented as magnetized and non-magnetized spots representing 1s and 0s respectively,
Because of continuous length read/write head cannot jump to the desired location, thus tape
must be read or written sequentially. The magnetic tape can be erased and reused indefinitely.

The tape of magnetic tape storage is divided into vertical columns called frames and horizontal
rows called tracks. In magnetic tape the records are separated by blank spaces on the tape,
called Inter record gaps (IRG). When a tape contains a large number of very short records with
an IRG after each record, more than half of the tape could be unused. To overcome this problem
of efficiency in storage space utilization, records are grouped usually in blocks of two or more
separated by an inter-block gap (IBG). The process of grouping two or more records together to
form a block of data is known as blocking and the number of records put together in each block
is called blocking factor. Blocking factor generally depends on record length. The generally
 35

followed rule for deciding blocking factor is – a block should be at least ten times as long as the
IBG.

Storage capacity of tape= Data record density * length.

Types of Magnetic Tapes

Data recording density and data transfer rate of Magnetic tape depends largely on the data
organization and principles of operation various types of magnetic tape and their tape drives.
Commonly used ones are:

1) ½-inch tape reel

2) ½-inch Tape cartridge

3) 1/4 –inch streamer tape

4) 4-mm digital audio tape

Uses

Magnetic tapes are used for the following applications:

1) For taking backups of data that restored on an on-line storage device (i.e disks) so that
data can be retrieved from the backup if data on the disk is lost accidently.

2) Archiving of data which may be required rarely.

3) Magnetic tapes are generally used for distribution of software by vendors.

4) Magnetic tapes are used for applications which require sequential data processing.

Advantages

1) High Storage Capacity: The storage capacity is extremely high and it can store large
amount of data.

2) Low Cost: Magnetic tape reels and cartridges have high data recording densities. Thus
cost per bit of storage is less.

3) Reusability: Magnetic tapes can be erased and reused many times.

4) Easy to handle: Magnetic tapes and cartridges are compact and light in weight.
 36

5) Portability: Magnetic tapes are often used for transferring data and program from one
computer to another because of its compact size, light in weight and high storage
capacity.

Limitations

1) Magnetic tape is not suitable for applications which require random access of data,
because tape can only be accessed sequentially.

2) Tape must be stored in dust-free and moisture free environment.

3) It needs to be labeled in order to avoid ambiguity.