Transportation Engineering-II

Lecture 5

By
Engr. Muhammad Waseem
Lecturer Department of Civil Engineering
UET, Peshawar (Jalozai Campus)

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 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
 One of the most fundamental design criteria for all highway
facilities is that a minimum sight distance equal to the safe
stopping distance must be provided at every point along the
roadway

 On horizontal curves, sight distance is limited by roadside objects

(on the inside of the curve) that block drivers' line of sight

 Roadside objects such as buildings, trees, and natural barriers

disrupt motorists' sight lines

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Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

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 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
 Sight distance is measured along the arc of the roadway, using the
centerline of the inside travel lane

 The middle ordinate, M, is taken as the distance from the centerline of the
inside lane to the nearest roadside sight blockage

 Mid Ordinate: M = R – R cos(Δ/2)

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Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

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Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

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Example 1– SSD on Horizontal Curves
 A 6º curve (measured at the centerline of the inside lane) is being
designed for a highway with a design speed of 70 mi/h. The grade
is level, and driver reaction time will be taken as 2.5 seconds, the
AASHTO standard for highway braking reaction. What is the
closest any roadside object may be placed to the centerline of the
inside lane of the roadway?

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Example 2 – SSD on Horizontal Curves
 A horizontal curve on a two-lane highway (2 lanes per direction)
is designed with a 700m radius, 3.6-m lanes, and a 100 km/h
design speed. Determine the distance that must be cleared from the
middle of the inside lane to provide sufficient sight distance for
desirable and minimum SSD

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Vertical Alignment

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 Vertical Alignment
 The vertical alignment of a highway consists of straight sections
known as grades, (or tangents) connected by vertical curves

 Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one

tangent grade to another so that vehicles may run smoothly as
they traverse the highway

 Vertical curves can be broadly classified into crest vertical curves

and sag vertical curves

 These curves are usually parabolic in shape

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Types of Vertical Curve
More (+) followed Less (-) followed
by less (+) by More (-)

More (-) followed

by less (-) Less (+) followed
by More (+)

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Vertical Curve Layout

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 Length of Vertical Curve
 Length of Crest Vertical Curves
 Provision of a minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) is the only
criterion used for design of a crest vertical curve.
 Length of Sag Vertical Curves
 The selection of the minimum length of a sag vertical curve is controlled
by the following four criteria:
1. SSD provided by the headlight
2. Comfort while driving on the curve
3. General appearance of the curve
4. Adequate control of drainage at the low point of the curve
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Length of Crest Vertical Curves

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 Length of Crest Vertical Curves
 There are two possible scenarios that could control the design
length:

1. The SSD is greater than the length of the vertical curve

2. The SSD is less than the length of the vertical curve.

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Length of Crest Vertical Curves

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 Example
 A crest vertical curve is to be designed to join a +3% grade with a
-2% grade at a section of a two-lane highway. Determine the
minimum length of the curve if the design speed of the highway is
60 mi/h, SSD<L, and a perception-reaction time of 2.5 sec. The
deceleration rate for braking (a) is 11.2 ft /sec2.

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 Length of Sag Vertical Curves
1-SSD provided by the headlight

 The headlight SSD requirement is based on the fact that sight

distance will be restricted during periods of darkness whereas
during daylight periods, sight distance is unaffected by the sag
curve

 As a vehicle is driven on a sag vertical curve at night, the position

of the headlight and the direction of the headlight beam will
dictate the stretch of highway ahead that is lighted

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 Length of Sag Vertical Curves
1- SSD provided by the headlight

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 Length of Sag Vertical Curves
 Minimum Length based on Comfort Criterion
 The comfort criterion is based on the fact that when a vehicle travels on a sag
vertical curve, both the gravitational and centrifugal forces act in combination,
resulting in a greater effect than on a crest vertical curve where these forces act
in opposition to each other.

 It is generally accepted that a comfortable ride will be provided if the radial

acceleration is not greater than 1 ft /sec-sq.

 Minimum length of curve

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 Length of Sag Vertical Curves
 Minimum Length of Curve based on Appearance Criterion

 The criterion for acceptable appearance is usually satisfied by

assuring that the minimum length of the sag curve is not less than
expressed by the following equation:

Lmin = 100A

 Longer curves are frequently necessary for major arterials if the

general appearance of these highways is to be considered to be
satisfactory.

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 Length of Sag Vertical Curves
 Minimum Length based on Drainage Criterion

 The drainage criterion for sag vertical curves must be considered

when the road is curbed

 This criterion is different from the others in that there is a

maximum length requirement rather than a minimum length

 The maximum length requirement to satisfy the drainage criterion

is that a minimum slope of 0.35 percent be provided within 50 ft.
of the lowest point of the curve

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 Minimum Length of a Sag Vertical Curve
Example
 A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a -5% grade to a +2%
grade. If the design speed is 40 mi/h, determine the minimum
length of the curve that will satisfy all criteria. Assume a = 11.2
ft/sec2 and perception-reaction time = 2.5 sec.

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 Vertical Curve Layout

A similar diagram if inverted would apply to a sag vertical curve

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 Example
 A crest vertical curve having length of 2184 ft joining a +3 percent
and a -4 percent grade is to be designed for 75 mi/h. If the tangents
intersect at station (345+60.00) at an elevation of 250 ft, determine
the stations and elevations of the BVC and EVC.

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 Location of Highest/Lowest Point
The location of the high point (on a crest vertical curve) or the low
point (on a sag vertical curve) is given by:

 Where: L – curve length in ft., G1 – initial grade and G2 – final

grade
 Care must be taken to address the sign of the grade. A negative
grade has a minus (-) sign that must be accounted for in the
equation

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 Example
 A 600-ft long equal tangent sag vertical curve has the PVC at
station 170+00 and elevation 1,000 ft. The initial grade is -3.5%
and the final grade is +0.5%. Determine the stationing and
elevation of the PVI, the PVT and the lowest point on the curve

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 Example
 A vertical curve of 600 ft. (L = 6) connects a +4% grade to a -2%
grade. The elevation of the PVC is 1,250 ft. Find the elevation of
the PVI, PVT and the high point on the curve.

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 Vertical Alignment - Grades
 The longitudinal slope of a highway is called the grade. It is
generally stated as a percentage

 Cars: negotiate 4-5% grades without significant speed reduction

 Trucks: significant speed changes

 5% increase on short descending grades

 7% decrease on short ascending grades

 The principal operational impact of a grade is that trucks will be

forced to slow down as they progress up the grade

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 Vertical Alignment - Grades
 Crawl Speed: It is the minimum constant speed that is maintained
by a loaded truck throughout the length of the curve.

 Critical length of grade: The term “critical length of grade” is

used to indicate the maximum length of a designated upgrade on
which a loaded truck can operate without an unreasonable
reduction in speed (15kmph).

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 Crawl Speed

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1150 2300

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