Topic: Improving Efficiency of Battery

Charging and its discharging.

Abstract:
Fast charging for electric vehicles is a decisive green light
to the prevailing acceptance of EVs. It could be a solution
to consumers’ range anxiety and the assurance of electric
vehicles. The potential to recharge swiftly and efficiently
is a critical demand for a storage battery. Likewise, a
critical barrier to fast charging is temperature.
Most electric vehicles (EVs) use lithium-ion batteries as
their source of power. Lithium-ion batteries are
rechargeable batteries that are typically used to power
portable devices and electric vehicles (EVs) as well as
hybrid electric vehicles (powered both by fuel and
electricity). The batteries are considered fit for EVs due to
their high power-to-weight ratio, high energy efficiency,
good high-temperature performance, and low self-
discharge.
To be truly competitive with gasoline vehicles, EVs
should enable a driver to recharge swiftly parallel to
gasoline-fueled vehicles. None of today’s EVs, however,
grant fast charging in low temperatures. With this in
mind, we are going to look at fast charging for electric
vehicles and its complications.
Objective: Design and simulation of battery charging
and discharging for EV using Supercapacitors.
Literature:
Conventional Energy Storage units as of today (Batteries).

The following energy storage systems are used in HEVs,

PHEVs, and EVs.

Lithium-Ion Batteries
Lithium-ion batteries are currently used in most portable
consumer electronics such as cell phones and laptops because of
their high energy per unit mass relative to other electrical energy
storage systems. They also have a high power-to-weight ratio,
high energy efficiency, good high-temperature performance, and
low self-discharge. Most components of lithium-ion batteries
can be recycled, but the cost of material recovery remains a
challenge for the industry. Most of today's PHEVs and EVs use
lithium-ion batteries, though the exact chemistry often varies
from that of consumer electronics batteries. Research and
development are ongoing to reduce cost and extend their useful
life.

Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries

Nickel-metal hydride batteries, used routinely in computer and
medical equipment, offer reasonable specific energy and specific
power capabilities. Nickel-metal hydride batteries have a much
longer life cycle than lead-acid batteries and are safe and abuse
tolerant. These batteries have been widely used in HEVs. The
main challenges with nickel-metal hydride batteries are their
high cost, high self-discharge and heat generation at high
temperatures, and the need to control hydrogen loss.

Lead-Acid Batteries
Lead-acid batteries can be designed to be high power and are
inexpensive, safe, and reliable. However, low specific energy,
poor cold-temperature performance, and short calendar and
cycle life impede their use. Advanced high-power lead-acid
batteries are being developed, but these batteries are only used
in commercially available electric-drive vehicles for ancillary
loads.

Supercapacitors
Supercapacitors store energy in a polarized liquid between an
electrode and an electrolyte. Energy storage capacity increases
as the liquid's surface area increases. Ultracapacitors can provide
vehicles additional power during acceleration and hill climbing
and help recover braking energy. They may also be useful as
secondary energy-storage devices in electric-drive vehicles
because they help electrochemical batteries level load power.
Charging of Batteries in Today’s world
 The power requirements to charge a mid-sized EV is similar to
that of an electric stove connected to a 40A, 240VAC circuit
developing up to 9.6kW. Most mid-sized EVs carry a 6.6kW on-
board charger designed for a 4- to 5-hour charge. (6.6kW is
derived by multiplying 220V by 30A.)

On-board chargers are limited by cost, size and thermal issues.

With the availability of three-phase AC power in most European
residences, on-board chargers can be made smaller than with a
two-phase system. Renault offers compact on-board chargers
that range from 3–43kW.

The hookup to charge an EV is called the Electric Vehicle

Service Equipment (EVSE). Except for Level 1, all must be
installed by an electrician if not already available. There are
three categories of charging.
 
Level 1: 1.5kW typical

Cord-set connects to a regular household outlet of

115VAC, 15A (230VAC, ~6A in Europe). This
singe-phase hookup produces about 1.5kW, and the
charge time is 7 to 30 hours depending on battery
size. Level 1 meets overnight charging needs for e-
bikes, scooters, electric wheelchairs and PHEVs
not exceeding 12kWh.

EV driving range per minute charge: 130m (426

feet)
 
Level 2: 7kW typical

Wall-mount; 230VAC, 30A two pole, charges a

mid-sized EV in 4 to 5 hours. This is the most
common home and public charging station for EVs.
It produces about 7kW to feed the 6.6kW on-board
EV charger. The cost to install a Level 2 EVSE is
about $750 in materials and labor. Households with
a 100A service should charge the EV after cooking
and clothes-drying to prevent exceeding the
allotted household power.

EV driving range per minute charge: 670m (2,200

feet)
 
Level 3: 50kW typical (Tesla V2 stations charge at
120kW)

DC Fast Charger; 400–600VDC, up to 300A;

serves as ultra-fast charging by bypassing the on-
board charger and feeding the power directly to the
battery. Level 3 chargers deliver 50 kW of power
than can go up to 120kW to fill a Li-ion battery to
80 percent in about 30 minutes. The power demand
at 120kW is equal to five households.

EV driving range per minute charge at 50kW:

4.6km (2.9 miles)
 
Extra Fast Charge: 150kW; up to 400kW (Tesla
V3 stations charge at 250kW)

400kW charging stations will charge at a voltage of

up to 800VDC. This results in high component
costs and high power demand equal to 16
households. The stress factor of ultra-fast
charging on the battery also plays a role. If
possible, charge at a more regular rate.  
 EV range per minute charge at 400kW: 37km (23
miles) (30km Tesla)

In the 1990s and 2000s, EV makers made a concerted effort to

develop a universal charging port for EVs and this resulted in
the SAE J1772, a 5-pin connector carrying AC and data. The
drawback is a charge time pursuant to Level 2 that takes several
hours.

EV makers agree that the future of the EV lies in fast charging.

While Level 2 only gains about 40km (25 miles) per hour
charge, DC Fast Charging fills the battery to 80 percent in 30
minutes. This changes the EV from a commuter car into a
touring vehicle, and EV marketing has started to push the
concept.

Japan was first to introduce DC Fast Charging by developing the

CHAdeMO connector for the Nissan Leaf and Mitsubishi
MiEV. JEVS (Japan Electric Vehicle Standard) specified the
connector that includes two large DC pins with communications
pins for the CAN-BUS. The CHAdeMO standard was formed by
TEPCO (The Tokyo Electric Power Company), Nissan,
Mitsubishi, Fuji Heavy Industries (manufacturer of Subaru
vehicles) and Toyota in 2008. It charges a battery at 500VDC
and 125A with up to 62.5kW charging power. CHAdeMO
stands for “CHArge on the Move;”
 Figure 1: Japanese CHAdeMO DC Fast Charge plug
developed in 2008. Nissan and Mitsubishi lead DC fast
charging and developed CHAdeMO. It fast-charges at
500VDC and 125A, developing up to 62.5kW of power.

While the CHAdeMO connector performs well, the West

lobbied against it, citing “technical issues.” The reason for this
may be the “not invented in my backyard” syndrome as well as a
standard that favors certain brands of cars. SAE rejected
CHAdeMO in favor of their version.

After much delay, the SAE International J1772 Committee

released the SAE DC Fast Charging standard in 2012, a system
that is also known as the Combo Charging System (CCS). The
delay caused a setback in building the CHAdeMO infrastructure
and some argue that the postponement was deliberate.

To keep compatibility with Level 2 charging, CCS is based on

the existing J1772 connector by adding two DC pins. When
charging on AC, the circular connector provides AC power and
communications to govern voltage, charge rate and end-of-
charge. DC Fast Charging uses the same communications
protocol but adds the DC pins.

Figure 2: SAE J1772 Combo Charging System

(CCS). CCS allows Level 2 charging by connecting to
the upper circular receptacle only, and Level 3 charging
with a plug that includes the DC terminals.
SAE J1772 divides charging into four levels:

 AC level 1: 120VAC, 12–16A, up to 1.92kW

 AC level 2: 240VAC, 80A 19.2kW
 DC level 1: 200-500VDC, up to 80A (40kW)
 DC level 2: 200-500VDC, up to 200A (100kW)

The SAE Combo or CCS is the de facto global standard for

Level 2 and 3 charging and Audi, BMW, Daimler, Ford, General
Motors, Porsche and Volkswagen jointly announced their
support in 2011. The Chevy Spark was the first EV to feature
the SAE Combo in 2013. There is now talk to discontinue the
CHAdeMO. To maintain compatibility with EVs featuring
CHAdeMO, newer Nissan Leafs include an SAE J1772 port to
allow Level 2 charging. Some charger manufacturers, including
ABB, offer both charging plugs at their “pumps.”

Tesla Motors does not follow standards easily, and they came up
with their own system. Their exclusive Supercharger fills a
depleted battery to 80 percent in 40 minutes and gives a driving
range of 270km. (Charging from 80–100 percent doubles the
time.) While Tesla was criticized by some for introducing their
Superchargers, others say that Tesla is way ahead of the game
and did not want to wait for the world to get its standards right.
Tesla is in discussions with Nissan and BMW to offer their
Supercharger standard to these EV makers as well. They are also
working on an inter-protocol charging adapter that can support
the CHAdeMO and SAE J1772 systems.

Battling three incompatible charging systems was not the plan

for EV makers, but it occurred in part by not accepting available
technologies and delaying their own standards. Tesla jumped
ahead with their own technology and is investing heavily into
building Superchargers and offering free charging; other EV
makers have followed by also making charging free, at least for
now. The resulting incompatibility has similarities with the
railroads industry in the 1800s, when railway companies ran
their trains on different track gauges. LP vs. 45 RPM, as well as
Sony Beta vs. VHS are other examples of similar situation.
BMW with its SAE Combo Charging system chose 24kW rather
than the more common 50kW for the DC Fast Charger. They
reckon that 24 kW is cheaper, lighter and easier to install than a
50kW system. While 50kW would charge faster, the benefit is
for a brief moment only before the charge acceptance degrades.
Scaling down is especially apparent with the smaller i3 battery,
as well as packs that cannot take the ultra-fast charge due to
advanced age and other anomalies. Tests show that the 50 kW
charger fills a battery to 80 percent in about 20 minutes; the 24
kW charger does it in roughly 30 minutes.

Doubling the power does not cut the charge time in half and
moving up in the pyramid has diminishing returns. The main
reason for powerful chargers relates to battery size. The BMW
i3 carries a 22kW battery compared to the monster 85kW in the
Tesla S 85. Both charging systems keep the charge C-rate at
about 1C during DC fast charging to moderate battery stress
levels.

DC fast charging is more complex in that it must evaluate the

condition of the battery and apply a charge level that the battery
can safely absorb. A cold battery must be charged slower than a
warm one; the charge current must also be reduced when cells
develop high internal resistance and when the balancing circuit
can no longer compensate for cell mismatch.

DC Fast Charging is not designed to fill the battery completely

but to allow the vehicle to reach the next charging station. Using
Level 2 is the preferred routine for everyday charging.

Table 3 summarizes the charge levels and times with Levels 1, 2

and 3. The charge times may not fully agree with advertised
rates as the calculations are based on charging an empty battery
to fully SoC; some EV makers consider the battery charged
when it reaches 80 percent. The charge time also shortens as the
battery fades because there is less to fill.

Why supercapacitors
Supercapacitors  have become ubiquitous at this point.
They provide everything from back-up power for mobile
phones to extending the battery life of devices that
sometimes need quick bursts of power like a digital
camera’s zoom feature. These supercapacitors—
sometimes referred to as electrochemical double layer
capacitors (EDLCs)—come in a growing variety of
shapes, size and applications.
However, as wide as the application of supercapacitors
has become, the aim has been for them to reach a far
wider set of applications that have been to-date the sole
domain of batteries, in particular the application of
powering all-electric vehicles (EVs). To do this, a great
deal of research has been focused on improving the
electrode material so the supercapacitors can hold more
charge.
Supercapacitors have a much higher power density than
batteries, which means that they can both deliver and
absorb energy from the load much faster than batteries. In
EV applications this would translate into being able to
charge an EV in a matter of minutes as opposed to hours.
This would be great for EVs but supercapacitors lack the
energy density of batteries, which is the amount of energy
they can store.
On average, most run-of-the-mill supercapacitors only
have energy densities of around 8-10 Watt-hours per
kilogram (Wh/kg). Even lab prototype supercapacitors
made from graphene are only reaching 130Wh/kg,  which
is pretty far below the average Li-ion battery that has an
energy density of around 200Wh/kg.
In an analysis piece, Nick Powers, an application
marketing manager for Arrow Electronics, quotes Jamil
Kawa, a scientist at Synopsys,  on this closing gap
between the energy densities of supercapacitors and
batteries who explains: “Historically the ability of
capacitors to act as a ‘store of energy’ was so miniscule
compared to batteries that they were never seriously
considered as an alternative. Supercapacitors and
ultracapacitors have dramatically increased the volumetric
capacity for energy storage. It is not yet on par with
batteries or fuel cells, but is close enough to be
competitive with them given that it has some qualities that
are superior to batteries.”
Powers also notes that supercapacitors can be charged and
discharged for all practical purposes nearly infinitely,
whereas a battery loses its ability to be recharged after
several hundred or possibly a thousand cycles. When this
charge/discharge lifecycle is translated into how long an
EV can run on a set of Li-ion batteries, it could be around
10 years. However, when those 10 years do come, you
can be facing a pretty hefty price tag.  Removing that
potential price tag after 10 years of ownership seems a
pretty attractive benefit of supercapacitors.
While the applications for supercapacitors will evolve,
they will likely remain largely in their role as a
companion to batteries. Nonetheless, supercapacitors look
poised to start extending into those applications in which
large capacitance requirements have previously excluded
them.
Advantages:
[Link] energy storage with charge and
discharge times. Super capacitors store 1/4th the energy
by weight of Li-ion battery, they compensate with the
speed of charge. In some cases they are nearly 1000x faster
than the charge time for a similar capacity battery.

2. Wider-Ranging Operating temperatures. Much

broader effective operating temperature(from roughly -40F to
+150F).

3. Can store much more energy than electrolytic

capacitors.
4. Much longer lifespan. 100,000 to a million cycles,
compared to 500 to 10,000 of li-ion batteries.

Disadvantages:
Self Discharging Rate: The discharge rate of
Supercapacitors is significantly higher than lithium-ion
batteries; they can lose as much as 10-20 percent of their
charge per day due to self-discharge.

Gradual Voltage loss: Batteries provide a near- constant

voltage output, output of supercapacitors declines linearly.

Much expensive than Li-ion batteries: Upto four

times higher in price.

Much higher in weight: They weigh nearly 4 times more

than the same energy li-ion Battery.
Expected Outcome:
1. Research paper on implementation of supercapacitors
under student activity.
2. Working model of functioning battery/ non working
prototype of concept if hardware is available.
3. Software simulation.
4. Conference Paper.
Underway Topic related Researches:
1. Aluminum Air battery.
2. Systems evaluation.
3. Battery materials synthesis and Lifespan.
4. Thermal management and safety.
5. Computer and A.I. aided battery engineering.

References:
1. [Link]

2. [Link]

3. [Link]
pacitor_Technology
4. [Link]
percapacitor
5. [Link]

improvement-of-ba
[Link]
6.