ULTRASONIC INSPECTIONcee Y BASIC PRINCIPLES ..... Introduction to the basic concept The nature of sound. The acoustic spectrum ‘THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND The ultrasonic beam Side lobes The ultrasonic pulse Resolution Pulse repetition frequency (PRF)... Modes of propagation Boundary waves... : Factors affecting the propagation of ultrasound. Acoustic impedance Couplant Attenuation The decibel (4B). SOUND GENERATION snnmnnnmnnmnnninnnnnnnnnnnnn The piezo electric effect Reflection, refraction and Snell’s law Mode conversion Diffraction Critical angles EQUIPMENT Probes... ee UT4-4 Probe selection UT4-5 ‘The ultrasonic flaw detector (flow diagram of a typical A-scan flaw detector) UT4-6 Calibration blocks and their uses... UT48 Block No.1, A2, V1, DINS4/120 or dutch block nnn UT4-8 0° compression probe uses Ur4s UT49 ‘Shear probe uses... . Block no2, Ag, V2, DINS4/122 o kidney block snmnnensnnnnnnsnnnsee STAD Compression probe uses... Shear probe uses. Institute of Welding (OWYAS block. Equipment checks 0° PROBE SCANNING Catia : Urs. To calibrate a 0° probe to a range of 0 to 100 mm........ bosses UTS-1 Calibration exercises UTS-2 Accurate measurement. ne = see UTS-2 Multiple back wall method. — UTS-3 PeeTABLE O [roy Defect detection, Sensitivity : Graphs and DAC curves. Scanning patterns 0° probe Sizing methods 0° probe ANGLE PROBE SCANNING.. Calibration Angle probes test sensitivity Scanning patterns Skip factors ssn . ‘The ratio ofthe sides ofthe triangles inthe three most common probe angles... UT6-5 The irradiation factor. Plotting systems. Sizing methods angle probes... TESTING TECHNIQUES A,B& C scanning Pulse echo systems Through transmission testing ‘The tandem technique Immersion ULTRASONIC THICKNESS SURVEYING Acceptteject criteria Reporting... ULTRASONIC WROUGHT PLAT Technique UT9-2 uTIO UTIO-1 Defects in plate material . ULTRASONIC WELD TECHNIQUE Technique so Defect signal interpretation UTI0-3 ULTRASONIC TESTING OF FORGINGS senso UTA General UTIL ‘Technique UTH-L Defects in forgings UTIH-2 Accept and reject criteria UTIL-4 Reporting. nen uri ULTRASONIC TESTING OF CASTINGS . neem UTD General... “ : ae seo UTIQL ‘Technique nnn oe UTI2-1 Defects in castings UTI22 Accept and reject criteria uTi2-5 Reporting, UTI2-5 BRITISH STANDARDS. = APPENDIX A. British Standards relating to ultrasonic testing smn APPA-1 Peo NedNTEN BL APPENDIX B . APPENDIX C FORMULAE USED IN ULTRASONIC TESTING essen TABLE OF ACOUSTICAL VELOCITIES Table of acoustical velocities in different materials....... “ APPC-1 TABLE OF ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCES APPENDIX D Table of acoustic impedances for different materials... -APPD-1 ATTENUATION FACTOR APPENDIX E Example method for determining the attenuation factor of a material APPE-1 EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS sn me APPENDIX F Example calculations used in ultrasonics APPF-1 Buane & one TP ON TPONe!0 20 Note I: Modern digital flaw © detector use more recent Aspley technologies suchas plasma or LCD soreens. 0 0 Noe 2 The echo at At ithe result of sound energy Teflecting back of the front ‘uface ofthe specimen logether with the ringing of the eral andthe inital pe all merged ino one Signal emslope 00 BASIC PRINCIPL BASIC PRINCIPLES INTRODUCTION TO THE BASIC CONCEPT The most common technique used in ultrasonic testing is the pulse echo technique. This makes use of the phenomenon that sound waves travel in straight lines and are reflected by an obstacle placed in their path ‘The mechanism is just the same as audible sound waves bouncing off a brick wall and an echo being received. The strength of the echo is controlled by the size of the wall Also, if the time lapse between sending and receiving the echo is measured, it is possible to determine the distance to the wall. Given the required instrumentation we can pass sound waves through solid materials and receive echoes from the back wall of the material. If a defect is present in the ‘material then the sound energy would be reflected back from it and give an echo earlier than that from the back wall because the sound has not travelled as far, The strength or amplitude of this echo will be an indication of the size of the defect and the distance travelled by the sound will tellus its depth. This then is the basis of ultrasonic testing. ‘The instrument that produces the sound energy is called the probe and the echoes are shown on a cathode ray tube! (CRT) within a flaw detector. cer Probe a Al A . BL ‘Sound waves VAY Vvvw \ TITAS eT TOD vy Sound energy is twansmitted from the probe into the test specimen at surface "A" producing an echo at Al?, Some of the sound is reflected by the defect at "B" and the resulting echo appears at BI, The remainder of the sound continues through the specimen to be reflected by the back wall "C", the echo from the back wall appearing aC If the screen is calibrated from a test block of known thickness then the depth of the 4efect from the specimen surface (A to B) can be read off the screen ‘THE NATURE OF SOUND Sound is caused by mechanical vibrations. In order for sound to pass there must be a medium that will support mechanical vibrations therefore SOUND CANNOT TRAVEL IN A VACUUM. ‘The particles (molecules) within the medium vibrate passing on energy fiom one t0 another giving the effect of sound movement through the material, Inet 060103 vuTi4BOS The density and elasticity ofa ‘medi are aso the rain factors tha affect the 10 velocity 20 co 50 o ote: Velocity is sometimes denoted bythe eter ‘c n Note: The maximum Freguene the human ear cary tletect reduces with age. [148 ‘generally acceped that most People wll have heard all "he high frequency sounds ‘hat they are lable to encounter y the time they reach ten years of ae. Ley PANS Com auNetat ‘The ability to support sound depends on the elasticity and density of the medium. Since these properties will vary, from one material to another, some materials will pass sound more easily than others, Sound follows a waveform: Wavelength 3 2 Timelitance veLocrry isthe distance moved in unit time WAVELENGTH ithe distance benveen successive peaks ofa wave PERIOD isthe time taken for one complete cycle FREQUENCY is the umber of yees per second Leycle persecond = 1 Hertz (Hz) 1 Kilohertz (KHz) 1,000 Hz 1 Megahertz (MHz) 1,000,000 Hz. Wavelength Wavelengths a function of frequency and velocity Wovelengh= Yeloeiy gg aw quency 7 Two ve fa and t= % THE ACOUSTIC SPECTRUM. Manual contact testing range « . steals Infrasonic Sonic (audible)| Ultrasonic = 1MHz ‘SMHz (VO Ann Ahnu « ST Frew” \ I Tt Oey J AY VV 1 i tz okt: SOOKE 2sMz “Normal test range-> a uraPPO K jcors: Extrome (D6 intensity) edge = 1.22 50% eget dB = 056 10% edge20 dB = 1.08 » 30 90 7 100 TO Cee at PROPAGATION OF SOUND THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND ‘THE ULTRASONIC BEAM. dno eam edge rari ‘Vistang ot reece > beam cee (0008 ines) eal beam edge fez (om inca) ‘The dead zone Seen on the CRT as an extension of the initial pulse, the dead zone is the ringing time of the crystal and is minimised by the damping medium behind the crystal. Flaws or other reflectors, lying in the dead zone region of the beam will not be detected. The dead zone can be seen at the start of the trace on a CRT displaying A-scan, but only ‘with single crystal probes, The dead zone increases when the probe frequency decreases. The near or fresnel zone In this region of the beam, the sound intensity is variable owing to wave interference, therefore, reflectors or flaws lying in this zone may appear smaller or larger than theit actual size. The signal heights displayed on the CRT are unpredictable so it is desirable to keep the near zone length to a minimum, ‘The near zone length can be calculated using the following formula: Dp? Dxt Near zone length (mm) = 2— or D_* sath (mm) = Where: D = crystal diameter (mn) 2.= wavelength (mm) f= probe frequency (Hz) st material velocity (mm/s) It can be seen from the formula that the near zone can be decreased by decreasing the crystal diameter or decreasing the probe frequency. ‘The far or fraunhoffer zone Beyond the near zone the far 2one exists. In the far zone the beam diverges resulting in a decay in sound intensity as the distance from the erystal is increased, just as a beam of light from a torch gets weaker the further it travels ‘The amount of beam divergence depends upon the crystal size and the wavelength as shown in the following formu: sing K4 gp KEY Sine DE Whee: @ — ~ thehalfangle D = crystal diameter (mm) K = aconstant = probe frequency (Hz) = wavelength mm) v= atleral velocity (rm) tee 8083 ur21Peel 2» 30 0 0 co 0 TON eRe HLT D Te) FEL M ECONO eLe It may be seen from the above beam spread formula, that the beam divergence can be decreased by increasing the crystal diameter or by increasing the probe frequency. Jnfortunately this will extend the length of the near zone. So in probe design there is a compromise to obtain a minimal beam spread and a short near zone. beam extreme e486 96 intensity 10% intensity edge half angle e 50% tensity edge ‘beam centre 100% intensity ‘near zone. 50% intensity edge crystal 10% intensity edge beam extreme edge 0% intensity In the far zone of the ultrasonic beam there is no wave interference therefore the sound intensity in this zone is predictable. ‘The sound intensity reduces from 100% in the centre to 0% at the edge of the beam , therefore when the centre of the beam hits a reflectoriflaw the amplitude of the signal ‘on the CRT will be at its maximum. ‘The sound intensity will also decrease with a greater distance (in the range axis) to a reflector or flaw. In the far zone the amplitudes of reflected sound from large and small reflectors follow different laws. LARGE REFLECTORS (larger than the width of the ultrasonic beam) follow the INVERSE LAW - The amplitude is inversely proportional to the distance, ie. if the distance is doubled then the signal amplitude is halved (ic... reduced by 64B). SMALL REFLECTORS (smaller than the width of the beam) follow the INVERSE SQUARE LAW - The amplitude is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, ic. if the distance is doubled then the amplitude from the second reflector is one quarter of the amplitude of the nearer (124B less). ‘Small reflectors ke Large reflectors kk of af nee _ m th woemem 8 aaa UT22Buane & Peon 20 «0 © ” ” SIDE LOBES Side lobes are secondary lobes to the primary ultrasonic beam or main lobe that are formed at the face of a transducer and radiate away from the main lobe. They represent areas of high and low acoustic intensities and may cause unwanted echoes to be received by the probe, especially on rough surfaces, which may be mistaken for flaws on the CRT. For shear wave probes, the minimum refracted beam angle in steel is approximately 33° to 35°, but at these relatively acute angles, side lobes may be formed which, although usually negligible, may cause spurious indications on the CRT. For this reason itis usually safer to set the minimum beam angle for shear wave probes in steel at 40, ‘The narrower the main lobe, ie. the smaller the half-angle of the beam, the weaker and ‘more numerous the side lobes. saci oer THE ULTRASONIC PULSE In a modern ultrasonic pulse echo flaw detector the pulse of ultrasound is created by charging a capacitor in the circuitry then suddenly releasing this charge of electrical energy, about IKv to 2Kv, into the probe. This electrical energy is converted into a mechanical vibration by the piezo electric crystal in the probe. The ultrasonic vibrations are formed by the collapse of the crystal after the electrical energy has been removed, The behaviour of the crystal, on collapse, can be likened to the behaviour of a spring when it is stretched then released. The spring, will return to its former shape then shorten then stretch, etc., until it finally comes to rest in its original shape. This cycle of expansion and contraction is what forms the ultrasonic pulse. Maximum, expansion. Maximum| contraction tee #064108 ur23Buyano & TPONe! Boo 0 0 0 00 IT UT2+ THE Coo) Pulse length This length of pulse is unacceptable since in order to show separate, clear reflected signals on the CRT then the pulses of sound must be short and sharp. To shorten the pulses the ultrasonic crystal must be damped with a backing medium which absorbs the Sound energy (in much same way as a shock absorber fitted to a spring on a motor vehicle dampens the vibration of the suspension). In this way the pulse length can be reduced to between 3 and 5 cycles. gn cycle Damped pulse Amplitude Time/distance The ideal pulse length would be approximately two cycles but such levels of damping are difficult to achieve with conventional backing mediums and commercially available crystals. DAMPING, then controls PULSE LENGTH (the number of cycles x wavelength). ‘The other factor that controls pulse length is probe frequency. The higher the frequency the shorter the wavelength, i.c. the length of cach cycle in the pulse and hence the shorter the pulse length (containing the same number of cycles). ENGTH controls RESOLUTION. PULS Perret ur4Note: PAE. is sometimes ‘called tinebose frequency. Oe ATION OF SOUND RESOLUTION Resolution is the ability to separate on the timebase two or more reflectors that are 0 close together in terms of beam path length, Consider two reflectors within the beam with a beam path, length, difference of 3mm. If the pulse length was greater than 3mm then the signals from the two reflectors would be contained within the same envelope, as in (a). If the pulse length was less than 3mm then, in practical terms, the signals would be separated, as in (b). 20 x0 : : O1234567891 O12345678 510 40 @ ) The above therefore demonstrates that the shorter the pulse length, the better the resolution. PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (P.R.F.) The pulse repetition frequency (p.r-f.) or pulse repetition rate ([Link].) is the number of pulses of ultrasonic energy that leave the probe in a given time (usually per second), Each pulse of energy that leaves the probe must return before the next pulse leaves “otherwise they collide causing "ghost" or spurious echoes to appear on the CRT. The time taken for the pulse to travel from the probe and return is known as the transit time. «| ‘The time between pulses leaving the probe is known as the clock interval. ‘Therefore it ccan be stated that the transit time must be shorter than the clock interval or ghosting ‘occurs. Practically speaking the clock interval should be around five times the transit time. so NCE TRAVELLED (mm TRANSIT TIME (usec) = DISTANCE TRAVELLED (nm) » VELOCITY CLOCK INTERVAL 1 SK INTERVAL (600-1 Minimum = TRANSIT TIME coe P.R-F. (MHz) Practical = 5 x TRANSIT TIME. » * 100 ts UT2SPBK Sony Noe: Compression waves fare produced in see ifthe Incident angle ofthe ean In Derspes less than pprovimately 27.4% 20 30 50 Noe: Shear wowes only are produced in steel the Incident angle ofthe beam in perspec between ‘proximately 28° and S6™ o 80 © 100 PROPAG. MODES OF PROPAGATION Compression or longitudinal waves Probes that produce compression waves will normally have an incident and refracted angle of, or close to, 0° ‘These waves travel through a medium ceasing the particles of te material to ‘oscillate parallel to the direction of wave propagation and consist of altemate compression and dilation pressure waves. 4 sso 0 00m00d 0 6 0,0 0 0 $14 ponerse ° empen Sos) an ‘ Congreve velo in sel = 5960 mi at Compresion wares can propane Chrno tigen pene OG ‘el pare bonding (s ondion dt Dirctcn af ropseton ‘only exists in solids) isnot essential. Shear or transverse waves Particles vibrate at 90° to the direction of propagation and have @ whip like action aero) Shear velocity in steel = 3240 mvs Shear waves can only propagate in sali rigid particle bonding being a pre-requisite. = Incident angle tenet en uT26Ruane & TPONe! 0 so 80 100 BOUNDARY WAVES ‘These forms of propagation can only occur when a solid to gas interface is present. If the objects were immersed, these modes would be fully attenuated Surface or rayleigh waves Surface waves are formed when shear waves refract to 90°. The whip-like particle vibration of the shear wave is converted into an elliptical motion by the particles changing direction atthe interface with the surface. These waves are not often used in industrial ND-T. although they do have some applications in the aerospace industry. Their mode of propagation is elliptical along the surface of a material, penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. They will follow the contour of a surface and they travel at approximately 90% the velocity of shear Depth of Direction of propagation penetration (one wavelength) Direction of particle motion Where sharp changes in contour occur, such as a comer edge, reflected energy will return to the probe. Plate or lamb waves Plate waves are formed by the introduction of surface waves into thin plate material ‘They are a combination of compression and surface or shear and surface waves ‘causing the plate material to flex by totally saturating the material, There are two types of plate waves: DODDDDID ~ suerrene Symmetrical “<> <> <> <> <> Congitudinal wave) platc waves Surface wave v v ~*~ ___* = -- Plate di f ’ t t fora) NSF XSL Shear wave) ee rtm fy ee ewe W088) um7Buane & TP ON! "anisotropic: The erin are ‘random i rtetaion and 10 Dave diferent ease properties in diferent ‘directions. x0 0 Nove: Velocity is sometimes denoted bythe eter “e {constan veloc) 0 LGM PER ELL ocean OaSe os) FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROPAGATION OF ULTRASOUND ‘The propagation of ultrasonic waves in a material is dependant on the density and clastic properties of that material and the type of wave transmitted ‘The practical considerations which will affect propagation will include: ‘the test material's grain size + attenuation (absorption and scatter effects) + acoustic impedance ofthe test material + characteristic impedance of inclusions + diffraction + lack of homogeneity * anisotropic! materials ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE Acoustic impedance (Z) is the resistance of a material to the passage of ultrasound. It is the product ofthe material density (p) and sound velocity (¥). ie Z = pv Itis the acoustic impedance difference between two different materals/mediums which governs the intensity of ultrasound reflected from the interface between them. Conversely, the amount of ultrasound passing from one material to another depends on this difference between the two materials, This difference is expressed as the acoustic impedance rato. ‘Theoretically if an ultrasonic wave was passed through two materials, with the same acoustic impedance (1:1 ratio), in intimate contac, then no reflection would occur, i. 100% transmission of sound would occur. In practice itis very dificult to achieve intimate contact without a coupling medium (see next section). ‘The couplant would have a different acoustic impedance to the material and so would affect the amount of sound reflected ‘The amount of energy reflected at an interface can be calculated with the following, formula: Where Z1 and 22 are the % Reflected energy =( 21°22) x 100 respective acoustic Zia 22 impedances of the two materials. It can be seen from the formula that: HIGH ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE RATIO (eg, 20:1). = MORE REFLECTED ENERGY LOW ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE RATIO (eg, I:1) = MORE TRANSMITTED ENERGY It can also be seen from the formula that the same amount of energy is reflected, regardless of which direction the sound is travelling across the interface. we 064 ur2-8Ruane & TPONe! NOTES Nove: The deal acoustic 10 Impedance ofcouplant ‘shouldbe in becom the couse impedance ofthe probe andthe acoustic Impedance ofthe test ‘material The ideal thickness ofthe layer of couplant should be one quarter of th? ‘wavelength of sound dhrough Some recently developed irasonc stems se nO ‘couplant these are kxowm as ‘tr coupled systems and thes te very powerful ‘aplication and sensive ‘received eieuy 0 0 70 PONT PEM ULB OO oer ‘COUPLANT Because of the very high acoustic impedance ratio of air to a solid material almost 100% of the energy is reflected at an interface between them (the basis of flaw detection). Therefore to enable the sound energy to transmit more readily into the test specimen we have to exclude any air that may be present between the probe and test surface. This is achieved by substituting the air with a material that has a closer acoustic impedance ratio to the probe and test material. This is known as a couplant. Common couplants are: water, oil, grease, polycell, swarfega and glycerine ‘The selection of couplant is sometimes based on the post-test use of the material being tested, e.g. water based couplants may cause rusting or corrosion but are easier to clean off in preparation for painting or coating when compared to oil or grease, which may actually protect the material from corrosion. Viscosity of the couplant may also be a consideration, ideally rough surfaces require a more viscous couplant to effectively fill the air gaps more uniformly. Whatever couplant is used for calibrationisetting the search sensitivity, this must be used throughout the subsequent inspection, ATTENUATION Attenuation is defined as the loss in intensity of the ultrasonic beam as it passes through a material and is dependant upon the physical properties of the material. ‘The wo main causes of attennation are SCATTER and ABSORPTION, Scatter This is the major cause of attenuation and is the redirection of the sound waves reflecting off grain boundaries, porosity and non-metallic inclusions, etc., and becomes ‘more apparent on the inspection when the size of grains become of the wavelength of the search unit being employed, Absorption ‘As the sound travels through a material a small amount of the energy is used up by the interaction ofthe particles, as they vibrate, causing friction which is dissipated as heat. AAs the frequency of the sound is increased the attenuation increases duc to more particle vibration (absorption) and increased sensitivity to small reflectors (scatter from rain boundaries, porosity and inclusions) which is related to the wavelength of the sound. Materials such as castings and austenitic stainless steel are highly attenuative due to their coarse grain structures, etc. ‘The attenuation factor of a material can be measured and is expressed in dB/mm (sce the appendices for an example). Natural attenuation also occurs due to the divergence of the beam in the far zone, i.e, assuming compression probe use, the amplitude of the backwall echo will be halved (-6dB) every time the distance from the probe is doubled, - UT2-90 so @ 0 80 0 THE PROP. THE DECIBEL (DB) “The decibe isa logarithmic base unit used to compare sound intensities. Because we do not know the actual energy being transmitted by a probe, we can only compare sound intensities being received and express them as a ratio, eg. twice as much, ten times as much ee ‘A change in sound intensity, expressed in dB, can be measured by comparing signal heights on a calibrated CRT. The change in dB is given by the formula: a= 2010p Where Hi and H2 are the respective sigal heights By transposing the formula it is possible to determine the ratio of the signal heights when the dB difference is known, ‘The gain/attenuator controls on a conventional ultrasonic flaw detector are calibrated in decibels, ic. if we reduce the intensity of ultrasound by 6dB any signal on the CRT ‘will drop to half its original height. If we reduce or increase the intensity by 204B then the signal will reduce to a tenth or increase by ten times its original height respectively. It is important to note that on certain flaw detectors, if reject or suppression is used to remove small unwanted signals from the display, then the linearity of the amplifier, and hence the other signals, will be adversely affected, ie. a 6dB drop will not reduce the signal by 50%, Table of approximate dB drops: oo 2 Drop 0 10% 0% 4 20% 80% | 2 25%. Eee 10 33% 61% is 50% 5096 2 80% 20% } tae 06008 ur21020 % 0 ” 109 SOUND GENERATION ‘THE PIEZO ELECTRIC EFFECT This is defined as the property of certain crystals to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice versa, ‘These crystals maybe naturally occurring, artificially manufactured or grown in solution. Electrical energy in. > => Blectrical energy out Piezo electric crystals These crystals may be X-cut or Y-cut depending on which orientation they are sliced, from the erystal material. The crystals used in ultrasonic testing are X-cut due to the rode of vibration they produce (compressional). This means thatthe crystal is sliced with its major plane (the erystal face) perpendicular to the X axis of the crystal material ‘Typical eryst lectreal eqnnections Pulse width control resistor Long distance to avoid static discharge| Original exystal Gold or silver condoctors (silvering) reinforced with chrome for wear resistance The frequency of the crystal is determined by its thickness and its acoustical velocity and can be calculated with the formula: pr =X, Whow FF = Froese From the formula itcan be 2 = Cet mei eecny scen thatthe thinner the eee ‘crystal, the higher the frequency. Piezo electric erystal materials Natural “Artificially grown Manufactured ceramics Barium Titanate (BaTiO,) - Lead Zirconate (PbZrO) | Quartz Tourmaline | Lithium Sulphate (iSO) | {55 Zirconate Titanate (PT) | Lead Metaniobate (PbNb;0,) eesti uT34Buane & TPONe! The limitations of modern ceramic onsial material are ‘ar they have ow ‘mechanical strength Le they Are bre, a thay ave a tendency to age. The ledeantage however i that they are excellent generators of ulrasound 2» 30 The Curie temperanre for Barium Titanate around 100°C 19 120°C although the piezo lec propertes of arsum Titanate il tart 0 dlograde at temperatures 2f 0PC and above re primary reason standard probes re nt usualy used fn materials above SO°C because ofthe possibility of degradation of the crystal 50 The seconary reason is due tothe probe shoe characterises beginning 0 change altering velocity and therefore she Beam angle tn shear wave probes | Speeder: Mirror-ie » 0 iD GENERATION Properties of piezo electrie materials Gyeal mari Tivantgs Lato Tati Foor pian aes Quartz Good wear resistance properties Best received and easily damped thium sulphate | Soluble in water Best transmitter and good | Som piezo electric properties ee aaa May be preformed to focus | Te™Perature entical beam Good piezoelectric Lead Zirconate properties - Good transmitter and all os Lead Zirconate Titanate | Fond properties Poor silvering The polarisation of ceramics In their natural state the polycrystalline ceramic material's crystals are randomly orientated and the piezo electric properties cancel each other out. To polarise these ceramics they are heated up to their Curie temperature and subjected to an clectrostatic field. The crystals align themselves with the direction of the field, which is maintained during cooling. This polarised ceramic material then behaves as a piezo electric transducer until heated again to i's Cure temperature ‘The most common crystal materials in use are Barium Titanate and Lead Zirconate Titanate, REFLECTION, REFRACTION & SNELL'S LAW Reflection Ultrasonic waves are reflected by objects or interfaces placed in their path. When striking a specular! reflector the angle at which this reflection takes place is governed by the law of reflection, which states: Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection Refraction ‘This describes what happens to an ultrasonic beam when it passes from one medium to another where the two media have different acoustical velocities, e.g. from perspex to steel. The beam changes direction or angle inthe vertical plane. Incident angle @ Reflected angle Iocideat angle Cy) i Medivon 1 Medium a Refracted sound Reflected sound Refracted angle ® 7 ursBuane & TPONe! 2 30 “0 0 0 ” © 0 100 Snell's law The relationship between the incident angle and refracted angles is governed by Snell's Tw that states: Sing VI Where: a = incident angle Sin V2 B= refracted angle V1 = velocity in medium 1 V2. = velocity in medium 2 ‘ MODE CONVERSION A change in wave-form from one to another, together with the accompanying change in velocity, due to reflection or refraction at an interface. An example of mode conversion that we make use of is when the compression wave, generated by the crystal in a shear wave probe's perspex shoe, crosses an interface between the shoe and steel test piece and converts to a shear wave. ‘Another example of mode change that we do not want to occur, ¢.g. shear waves changing to compression waves. This occurs fairly regularly when carrying out a critical root scan on a single v fully penetrated weld with a shear wave probe, i.e. some of the ultrasound entering the root bead can be reflected vertically up to the weld cap and if a critical angle is exceeded, the wave mode will change from shear to compression. Accordingly on its return path to the probe, the received spurious signal displayed on the time base will represent an indication that appears to plot on ful! skip just outside the weld side wall on the opposite side from the scanning surface. ‘The operator however will not be able to confirm this from the opposite side of the weld on half skip which, if it had been an actual flaw, he would have expected to do so. AS this type of mode change/spurious indication gives a fairly characteristic signal display, an experienced operator would be expected to interpret this effect fairly easily It is also possible though that mode conversions and/or spurious indications can be misinterpreted as flaws, particularly if not investigated carefully, DIFFRACTION ‘This occurs when sound waves pass the tip of a narrow reflector. Some of the sound scatters off the tip causing waves in different directions that reinforce or cancel out the original waves. This results in a series of high and low intensity waves radiating out from the tips, giving the impression of sound bending around the edges of the defect. tz <— Diffracted energy sa ——1k Sound waves hs Le oS — ZS20 20 “0 0 o 0 80 OUND GENER: CRITICAL ANGLES TThese are the incident angles in the first medium at which the refracted angles in the second medium change over from one wave-form to the next. The first critical angle is where the refracted compressional wave is just about to disappear leaving only shear waves in the second medium, The second critical angle is where the refracted shear ‘wave has changed to a surface wave. ‘The critical angles can be calculated using Snell's law. Ist critical angle Critical angles perspex to stect In diagram (1) a compression wave (c) is incident on the boundary between perspex and steel at an angle of O°, At the interface some energy reflects (1) and some is transmitted across (c) continuing through at 0°. Tn (2) as we increase the angle (a) of the incident wave (c), inthe perspex ({e, less than first incident critical angle), the ‘wave in the steel (6) refracts (8°), due to the difference in the velocities of perspex (V1) and steel (v2). However a5 well as the refracted compression wave there will also bbe a weak shear wave mode (s)- see sketch (2). In (3) if we increase the incident angle (Ge until the refracted wave (c) reaches 90° (B°(e)), then the incident angle (a) has reached what we term the frst critieal angle, Following behind the refracted compression wave isa shear wave (s) and in (4) as we increase the incident angle (c) sill further, the compression wave internally reflets (1) leaving only shear waves (8) inthe stel,At (5) if the incident angle (a) is further increased then the shear wave refacts until it reaches 90° (B°(3). This is what we term the second critical angle. ‘At this point the shear wave bounding along the interface has changed into a surface ‘wave (Gu). Therefore we can sce that (i) compression and shear waves exist in the second medium when the incident angle is between 0° and the first critical angle. (ii) Only shear waves exist when the incident angle is between the first and second critical angles and (ii) surface waves exist only at the second critical angle. Beyond the second critical incident angle, asin diagram (6), all conventional modes of propagation, ate reflected internally ss uT3420 ” 0 Calculation of the critical angles for a perspex to stee! interface. = incident angle B= refracted angle v1 = compressional velocity in perspex = 2740 mis v2 = velocity in steel, compressional= 5960 m/s shear 3240 mis, 1st eritical angle: wl 2140 mis sina = 1 « sin sina = 240 ms , sin go° vie a 5960 m/s 459731543 x 1 a= 278° 2nd critical angle: vt 2740 mis sina = “1 x sin sina = 740 ms sin 90° vis a © = 3240 mis Sina = 0.845679012 x 1 @ = 577" At the first critical angle compression and shear waves co-exist, so the lowest angle for shear waves only in practical use, is just beyond the first critical angle, at an incident angle of 29°, which gives a refracted shear angle of 35°, sing = 2240.78 y sin 29° 20 mis Atthe second critical angle surface waves exist so the highest incident angle we use for shear waves is 56° that gives an 80° shear wave So the range of shear wave probe angles in steel (for practical purposes) are 35° to 80°, produced from incident angles of 29° to 56° in perspex. tae won UT3sBuane & Peon 20 + May aso be referred 100s vim eral probe. tal pro 30 “0 50 "Dead sone: Ringing tine 60 oferta 70 EQUIPMENT PROBES The angle of a probe used in ultrasonic testing is measured from a line drawn, perpendicular to the test surface. This line is known as the normal. A 0° probe then is fone which transmits sound at 90° to the test surface. Also known as a normal probe, this probe usually transmits compressional or longitudinal waves. A 60° angle probe would transmit sound at 60° to the normal, i.e. 30° from the surface. ‘The most common angle probes transmit shear waves (although angled compression probes do ‘exist for special applications) and the manufacturers quote the angle of the probe for ‘use on mild steel 0° combined double* probe Double probes have two crystals, one transmits and the other receives ultrasound. The Electrical connections Backing, Casing medium Crystals ‘Cork separator Perspex shoes cork separator in between the shoes prevents "cross-talk" or "chatter" between the crystals. Using oil as a couplant may eventually break down the acoustic barrier and, produce spurious standing echoes on the display. Having separate crystals eliminates the dead zone! on the display, enabling the detection of near-surface defects. These probes are therefore useful for testing thin sections, e.g. thickness gauging and ‘examining for near surface flaws. The crystals may be focused to give a focal point at the ideal beam path range to be examined. Single crystal angle probe Electrical connection Casing Damping ‘material Caystal fh Index point Perspex shoe ‘Single crystal probes have one crystal that transmits and receives ultrasound. The flaw detector controls the process by transmitting a pulse of energy then switching the circuit to receive, listening for any returning sound, in between pulses, ‘The circuitry can be switched quicker than the crystal can be damped. So the receiver picks up the last few vibrations of the crystal, as it switches in, and displays them on the screen as the dead zone. This eliminates the possibility of detecting near-surface defects. ens uratRuane & LON PER LULA GY TP ON Angle probes have a perspex shoe, on which the erystal sits, that can be machined to any angle. The angle of the wedge determines the angle that the ultrasound strikes the interface (incident angle). This in turn, according to Snell's law, controls the angle that the sound will propagate through the test material (refracted angle). Damping material 10 | on the back of the crystal (also known as a backing slug) controls the length of the ultrasonic pulses by absorbing the sound energy, producing short sharp pulses. The Tength of the pulse is the main factor in determining the resolution of the equipment. ‘The most common damping/backing medium is Tungsten Araldite SHORT PULSE LENGTH/WIDTH/DURATION MEANS GOOD RESOLUTION, 20 Soft nosed probe Electrical conneotion x0 i Damping Casing sug Clamping) coal ring, “ Couplant” —\Soft diaphragm ‘This has a soft diaphragm mounted on the front of the crystal, clamped in place by 2 threaded ring, the space in between the diaphragm and the crystal being filled with so | couplant to expel any air. The soft diaphragm follows the contour of the surface under test, making this probe ideal for rough or uneven surfaces, e.g. castings or rough ‘machined components. ‘Water gap or gap scanning probe « Electrical water connection in Probe 70 Nozzle. Column of water acts as couplant » “Test material v, Sound path ‘This consists of a water jacket with a nozzle at the end and a probe inside. Water is fed into the jacket and flows out through the nozzle, forming a column of water, to the test surface, through which the sound can travel, Because of the flexibility of the coupling 50 | medium, (water) the probe can be used on rough or uneven surfaces. These probes are usually used in automated ultrasonic scanning systems and can be set up, using a guide wheel to follow the contour of a component. They can also be used in atrays to scan a wider area 100 teem) UTs2Ruane & TPONeI 20 30 0 0 70 30 %0 100 Wheel type probe Blectrical connection Spring loaded joint Soft tyre, solid ‘or water filled Crystal (within axle) In this probe the crystal is within the axle of the wheel and the sound travels through, the soft tyre into the test material. The spring loaded joint allows the probe to follow the contour of the surface so it can be used on rough or uneven surfaces. It is used in a similar way to the water gap probe. The main advantage of this type of probe is that it removes the requirement of externally applied couplant, mainly used in aerospace industries. Delay line probe Electrical connection Damping Casing = } Clamping: Crystal “ye Re 3 onepse ee a The delay line probe is very similar in construction to the soft nosed probe. The difference is that it has a long perspex shoe clamped in instead of a diaphragm. The length of the shoe extends the time taken for the echo from the front surface, of the ‘material under test, o return to the crystal. This places the front surface echo (FSE) further along the timebase, ie. beyond the dead zone, This enables near surface defects to be located or thin plate to be tested using a single crystal probe. These probes are usually high frequency probes (which means they have a small dead zone), but high frequency = long near zone, therefore, to use them for near surface flaw detection/sizing, the long shoe is used to contain the near zone in the probe not in the test material, Ine 06003 UT43Buane & ca} Tayo TPONe Magnetostrictive transducers 20 30 Used for detecting defective bar stock, the transducer coil has a magnetic field that is switching at ultrasonic frequency. This field causes the bar stock to vibrate at an 40| ultrasonic frequency and the vibrations travel along the length of the bar. When the vibrations reach the other end of the bar, they reflect back and are then picked up by the transducer (in receive mode) and register on the detector. The equipment is calibrated off a defect free piece of bar stock to register a specific value on the detector and defective bar stock is recognised by a change in this value so PROBE FREQUENCY, BANDWIDTH & DAMPING ‘An ultrasonic probe transmits sound at a range of frequencies, not just at the stated Tre freaieney sate nite, | frequency, this is known as the bandwidth. For example a SMHz probe may produce a eee frequency range of 4 to 6MHz. ‘The bandwidth is also an indication of the damping Thi he reer oft ae eee Broad Band Probes ‘Narrow Band Probes “They are highly damped [ They have low damping | Have a short pulse length - A longer pulse length a (typically 1 102 cycles) _ (ypically 3 or 4 cycles) TA short ringing time (dead 2000) Tong ringing ime (dead zone) Better resolving power I Poor resolution Poor penetration Good penetration | 0 %0 100 twee 0608 uresRuane & LONG M CES XO UD TPONe PROBE SELECTION ‘The selection of probes for ultrasonic inspection is influenced by various aspects of the test and the particular material under test. These may include; the type and size of 0 defect being sought, the type of material under test and the distance the sound has to travel through the material. Probe angle is another consideration when searching for defects at different orientations throughout the material Below is a table of properties of probes using the two criteria that we ean select, ie frequency and diameter » Effect of frequency Low Frequency High Frequeney wo Tong wavelength _ ‘Short wavelength More beam spread Less beam spread | Shorter near 2one “Longer near zone Better penetration Less penetration Tess attenuation ~___ More attenuation fa Longer dead zone L Shorter dead zone - Less sensitivity Tligher sensitivity Effects of Diameter oy | Large Diameter ‘Small Diameter, ~_Less beam spread ‘More beam spread Longer near zone Shorter near zone Better penetration Less penetration co | | Less attenuation (due to beam spread) More attenvation Difficult coupling on curved surfaces | Easier coupling on curved surfaces More coverage on flat surfaces Less coverage on flat surfaces Another consideration is whether to use a single crystal or a combined double crystal 70 | probe. The advantages of a single erystal probe are; better penetration, for the same size probe as a double, because the effective transmitter crystal diameter is larger, no focal point, ic. it works effectively over a longer range and cost (cheaper). The main advantage of a double erystal probe, is that there is no dead zone on the screen, this ‘means better near surface resolution can be achieved. It can be seen from the tables that higher frequency probes have a higher sensitivity. In this context, sensitivity refers to the ability to detect small defects. The higher the probe frequency the smaller the wavelength and the smaller the size of reflector the probe can detect. It is generally accepted that the smallest reflector a probe can detect is half the probe's wavelength. So a probe with a long wavelength (low frequency) will not detect small reflectors, such as small defects or grain boundaries and so the sound will penetrate further through the material because it is not reflected at these small interfaces. 0 0 100 few en88 uT4s: