Elements of Research Null Hypothesis
Independent Variable (IV) states that there is no significant relationship between the
the variable that is manipulated by the researcher two variables being studied
in other words, any differences that exist are due to
Dependent Variable (DV) chance
the variable that is measured by the researcher. It is ex. There will be no significant difference in the number
assumed that the DV changes as a result of the of words recalled from a list of 30 words by Secondary 4
manipulation of the IV pupils whether the light is on or off.
Controlled Variables Alternative Hypothesis
the variables that are kept constant in order to avoid also known as experimental hypothesis
influencing the relationship between IV and DV predicts that there will be a difference between the two
conditions
Standardised procedure ex. Secondary 4 pupils will recall more words from a list
the idea that directions given to participants during an of 30 words when the light is on than when the light is off.
experiment are exactly the same
Key Terms and Concepts
Random allocations to conditions Operationalised definitions
in a true experiment, participants are randomly allocated variables expressed in terms of observable behaviour
to conditions in order to avoid sampling bias
Confounding variables
Types of Experiment refers to variables that can potentially distort the
Lab Experiment relationship between the IV and DV, resulting in bias
an experiment done under highly controlled conditions must be controlled either by eliminating them or keeping
them constant in all groups of participants
Field Experiment
an experiment done in a natural setting. There is less Sample
control over the variables refers to the group of people taking part in the experiment
must be representative of the target population to which
True Experiment the findings of the study are expected to be generalised
an IV is manipulated and a DV is measured under
controlled conditions. Participants are randomly allocated Representativeness & Generalisability
to conditions. the goal of quantitative research is to generalise the results
from the experiment to the target population. Thus, the
Quasi Experiment researchers must make sure that their sample is
no IV is manipulated; pre-existing differences in the IV representative of the target population
and participants are not randomly allocated to conditions. Sampling bias occurs when the sample is not
Instead, it is their traits that set them apart. representative of the target population or has low external
validity
Natural Experiment
an experiment that is the result of a ‘naturally occurring
event’
the IV occurred naturally/manipulated by nature
Sampling Techniques
Convenience sampling
a pre-existing sample that is readily available
aka opportunity sampling
Random sampling
Null & Alternative Hypotheses a sample in which everyone in the target population has
Always include the ff. when writing a hypothesis the same probability of being chosen
a clearly operationalised independent variable
a clearly operationalised dependent variable Purposive sampling
the population to be studied a sample with a set of traits specific to the aim of the
research
Stratified sampling
a sample that reflects the sub-groups within a target
population
Validity
Validity
refers to whether the experiment is measuring what it is
supposed to measure
Internal validity
the extent to which the change in the DV is caused by the
IV, not the confounding variable
External validity
the extent to which the findings of the experiment can be
generalised to other populations and situations
Population validity
generalisability to other populations
population validity is high when the sample is
representative of the target population
sampling bias occurs when population validity is low
Ecological validity
generalisability to real-life/other settings or situations
low ecological validity means that it is much harder to
generalise the findings from the study as they are not
representative of the real world or task
Reliability
Reliability
the consistency of a research study or measuring test
the experiment must yield the same results if replicated =
high reliability
What makes a good theory?
TEACUP
T – testable
E – empirical support
A – application
C – clearly defined variables
U – unbiased
P – predicts behaviour
Research on Memory
Multi-Store Memory Model
Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
Has three components: sensory memory, short-term
memory or long-term memory
Duration
How long the store is able to store information
Capacity
How much information the store can hold
Condition
Requirements for information to transfer from one store to the Method and Procedure
other 240 army enlistees were separated into two groups: the controlled
and experimental group. Both groups were presented a list of
Based on the ff. assumptions: words to remember through free recall.
Memory consists of a number of separate locations in Half of the participants were instructed to recall the list straight
after presentation in the immediate free recall condition.
which information is stored
The other half recalled them after a delay of 30 seconds.
Those memory processes are sequential To prevent further rehearsal of the list of words during the delay,
Each memory store operates in a single, uniform way participants in this second condition were given a filler task: to
count backwards for thirty seconds.
STM serves as a gateway by which information can gain
access to LTM Results
Various memory stores are seen as components that Control group – remembered the words at the start and end of the
operate in conjunction with the permanent memory store list (last few words were recalled immediately and first few
through processes such as attention, coding words were retrieved from LTM)
Experimental group – recalled the words at the beginning of the
and rehearsal
list (last few words weren’t rehearsed enough to transfer to the
Attention is needed to remember information (SM to LTM due to the filler task)
STM)
Rehearsal is vital to keep material active in STM by Why were the participants unable to recall the words at the end
repeating it until it can be stored in the LTM of the list?
Suggests that sensory information from the world enters The words at the end of the list were stored in the STM. In the
the sensory memory, which is modality-specific or related experimental group, they were asked to do a filler task during the
to different senses, such as hearing and vision delay before recall which displaced the information stored in the
The most important stores in the model are the visual store STM, making them incapable of recalling the last few words on
and auditory store. Information in the sensory store stays the list. The information was displaced because it exceeded the
duration and capacity limit of the STM
here for a few seconds and only a very small amount
continues onto the STM What process was responsible for the participants’ ability to
Capacity of the STM is around 7 items and duration is recall the first few words on the list?
normally 6-12 seconds. Information in the STM is lost if Rehearsal – the information was kept active in the STM through
not rehearsed rehearsal until it got stored into the LTM (which is believed to
LTM is conceptualised as a vast storehouse of information, have no limit in capacity or duration)
believed to be of indefinite duration and or potentially
unlimited capacity What process was likely responsible for the participants’
inability to recall words in the middle of the list?
Displacement – the words in the middle of the list were displaced
Decay or replaced by the words at the end of the list, causing an
When the information is forgotten asymptote, which is a hypothetical explanation for the
consistency of recall
Displacement Words in the middle of the list had been there too long to be held
When the old information is replaced by new information in the STM (due to displacement) and not long enough to be put
into the LTM
Working Memory Model
Glanzer and Cunitz
Suggests that the components of the MSM are separate from each
other as demonstrated in the serial position effect Proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
Suggests that the STM is not a single store, but rather
Primacy effect consists of a number of different stores
Occurs when information is transferred from the STM to the Has four components: central executive, visuospatial
LTM through rehearsal sketchpad, phonological loop, & episodic buffer
Recency effect
Occurs when information is retained in the STM
Multi-tasking
The WM argues that as long as we are using different
Free Recall STM stores, then there shouldn’t be a problem with multi-
Method of recalling a list of items in any order tasking
Dual-task technique – participants are asked to do two
Experimental group tasks at a time
The group that receives the treatment whose effect the researches The WM argues that as long as we are using different
wish to study STM stores
Filler Task
Central executive
Participants are asked to do an additional task that will prevent
rehearsal Attention control system that monitors and coordinates the
operations of the other subordinate components
Aim Has the capacity to focus attention, divide attention
To show that there are two processes involved in retrieving between two or more sources, or switch attention from one
information task to another
Modality-free – can process any type of sensory The data supported the prediction of the WMM that the
information disruption of the phonological loop through the use of
articulatory suppression is preventing rehearsal in the
phonological loop due to overload. This is because the original
Phonological loop
task and the articulatory suppression task were both of the same
Auditory component of the STM modality and were using the same store (phonological loop).
Two components: Because rehearsal was prevented from happening, accuracy in
Articulatory process – rehearses and encodes written serial recall was affected because the information wasn’t stored
information into phonological form; subvocally rehearses in the LTM which hindered the STM store from retrieving any
sound in the inner ear data or memory.
Phonological store – holds auditory memory traces.
Processes speech perception and stores spoken words we
hear for 1-2 seconds
Visuospatial sketchpad
Visual component of the STM
Temporary store for visual and spatial information from
either sensory memory or LTM.
Visual processing includes storage and manipulation of
visual patterns and spatial movements in 2D or 3D
Two components:
Visual cache – where visual data like shape and color are
stored
Inner scribe – stores arrangements and transfers
information to the central executive
Episodic buffer
Acts as a temporary and passive display store until the
information is needed
Temporarily holds pieces of information active at the same
time, while a person considers what is needed for the
present situation
Cognitive levels of processing model
Proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972)
Focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory,
and predicts the deeper information is processed, the
Landry and Bartling longer a memory trace will last
Suggests that multitasking hampers memory, especially if the
Memory is what happens as a result of processing
tasks use the same working memory store as demonstrated in the
articulatory suppression test information
Articulatory suppression Shallow processing
The process of inhibiting memory performance by speaking Can take in the form of structural processing (how it looks)
while being presented with an item to remember and phonetic processing (how it sounds)
Involves maintenance rehearsal – repetition, which leads to
Serial recall fairly short-term retention of information
Method of recalling a list of items in a specific order, usually in
the order they were presented
Deep processing
Aim Takes in the form of semantic processing (how it links to
Know how articulatory suppression affects the way a series of prior knowledge)
letters are recalled Involves elaboration rehearsal – a meaningful analysis
(e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information
Method & Procedure and leads to better recall
34 undergraduate psychology students were split into two groups:
controlled and experimental. Both groups were given list of Craik and Tulving
letters which are phonetically different. Aim
In the control group, the participants were presented a list for five To investigate how deep and shallow processing affects memory
seconds and were asked to wait another five seconds. Afterwards, recall
they were instructed to write the correct order of letters as
accurately as possible (10 times) Method
In the experimental group, participants received instructions to Participants were presented with a series of 60 words about
repeatedly say the numbers 1 and 2 at a rate of two numbers per which they had to answer one of three questions. Some questions
second from the time of presentation of the list until the time they required the participants to process the word in a deep way and
filled the answer sheet (10 times) others in a shallow way.
The participants were then given a long list of 180 words into
Results which the original words had been mixed. They were asked to
Control group – scored higher with 76% pick out the original words.
Experimental group – scored lower with 45%
Results
Conclusion
Participants recalled more words that were semantically
processed compared to phonemically and visually processed
words.
Conclusion
The results support Craik and Tulving’s level of processing
theory and the idea that the consolidation of memory traces in the
LTM is not only due to rote/maintenance rehearsal and that LTM
is a function of how information was processed at the stage of
encoding
Semantically processed words involve elaboration rehearsal and
deep processing which results in more accurate recall
Phonemic and visually processed words involve shallow
processing and less accurate recall
