Specific Types of Quantitative Research ○ This test, essentially a pilot test of
Mr. Nino Archie S. Labrador the treatment, may be designed
either as a small scale or as a
Types of Quantitative Research quasi experiment.
The types vary in study purpose rather than in ● Phase 3
research design. ○ Is a full test of the treatment- an
RCT with randomization to an
1. CLINICAL TRIALS experimental or control group.
● These are associated with ○ Adverse effects are also monitored.
medical research. ○ Phase 3 RCTs often involve a large
2. EVALUATION and heterogeneous sample of
● These are associated with the participants, some selected from
fields of education, social work multiple sites to ensure that
and public policy. findings are not unique to a single
setting.
The two types involve interventions, but ● Phase 4
methods for each have evolved separately ○ Are studies of the effectiveness of
because of their disciplinary roots. an intervention in a general
population.
I. CLINICAL TRIALS ○ This phase’s efforts may also
These are studies designed to assess clinical examine the cost-effectiveness of
interventions. new treatments.
● The terms associated with clinical trials ○ In pharmaceutical research, phase
are used by many nurse researchers. 4 trials typically focus on post
● Clinical trials are undertaken to test a approval safety surveillance and on
new drug or an innovative therapy often long term consequences over a
are designed in a series of four phases. larger population and timescale
than was possible during earlier
PHASES OF A FULL CLINICAL TRIAL phases.
● Phase 1
○ Occurs after initial development of TYPES OF CLINICAL TRIALS
the drug or therapy, and is 1. Sequential Clinical Trials
designed primarily to establish ● Data from paired “mini
safety and tolerance and to experiments” are continuously
determine optimal dose. analyzed, using measures of
○ This involves small scale studies preference for the experimental or
using simple designs (before-after control condition for pairs of
without a control group) observation.
○ The focus is on developing the best TERMS:
possible (and safest) treatment. ➢ Preferences are plotted on special
● Phase 2 graphs until the plot crosses one of the
○ Involves seeking preliminary boundaries which designate stopping
evidence of treatment rules for the trial.
effectiveness. ➢ “Mini experiments” - first patient is
○ During this, researchers assess randomly assigned to the experimental
feasibility of launching a rigorous (e) or control (c ) condition. The next
test, seek evidence that the patient automatically assigned to the
treatment holds promise, look for alternative condition, creating a series of
signs of possible side effects and randomized paired comparisons.
identify refinements to improve the
intervention. 2. Pragmatic/Practical Clinical Trials
● They are designed to provide replicated by others- or so other
information to clinical decision people can better understand
makers. why the program was or was not
● They sometimes involve hybrid effective in meeting its objectives.
designs that aim to reduce the
gap between efficacy and Process evaluations often overlap with efforts to
effectiveness studies- that is, monitor intervention fidelity.
between internal and external
validity. Outcome Analysis
● These address practical ● Describes the status of some condition
questions about the benefits and after the introduction of a program that
risks of an intervention- as well as does not use rigorous experimental
its costs- as they would unfold in design.
routine clinical practice. ● It simply documents the extent to which
the goals of the program are attained,
II. EVALUATION RESEARCH that is, the extent to which positive
These are studies that focus on developing outcome occur.
information needed by the decision makers
about whether to adopt, modify, or abandon a Impact Analysis
program, practice, or procedure. ● Assess a program’s net impacts- impacts
● This is most often used when that can be attributed to the program,
researchers are trying to evaluate a over and above effects of a
complex program, rather than when they counterfactual.
are evaluating a specific entity. ● It uses an experimental or quasi
experimental design because their aim is
TYPES OF ANALYSIS UNDER EVALUATION to permit casual inferences about its
● Process or Implementation Analysis effects.
● Outcome Analysis & Impact Analysis
● Cost Analysis Cost Analysis
● This is used to determine whether the
Process or Implementation Analyses benefits of the program outweigh the
● A process or implementation analysis monetary costs.
provides descriptive information about ● New programs or policies are often
the process by which a program gets expensive to implement, but existing
implemented and how it actually program also may be costly.
functions. ● Administrators and public officials make
● This is designed to answer the following decisions about resource allocations for
questions: health services based not only on
○ Does the program operate the whether something works but also on
way its designers intended? whether it is economically viable.
○ What are the strongest and
weakest aspects of the program? TYPES OF COST ANALYSIS
○ How does the program differ from A. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
traditional practices? ● In which monetary estimates are
○ What were the barriers to its established for both costs and
implementation? benefits.
● Purpose: ● It is only sometimes difficult to
○ It is undertaken with the aim of quantify benefits of health services
improving a new or ongoing in monetary terms, assigning an
program. amount to the value of human life.
○ In other situations, to describe B. COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS
carefully so that it can be
● Is used to compare health ● One survey method is through personal
outcomes and resource costs of interview, in which interviewers meet
alternative interventions. respondents face to face and question
● Costs are measured in monetary them.
terms but outcome effectiveness is ● Telephone interviews are less costly, but
not, quality of life cannot be easily are inadvisable if the interview is long or
valued in monetary terms. if the questions are sensitive.
C. COST-UTILITY ANALYSIS ● Questionnaires are self-administered
● Preferred when morbidity and (questions are read and answered by
mortality are outcomes of interest, respondents). They are economical but
or when the quality of life is a major are inadvisable when interviewing certain
concern. An index called groups of population. (ELDERLY AND
“quality-adjusted life year” (QALY) CHILDREN)
frequently an important outcome V. OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH
indicator in cost-utility analysis. 1. Secondary Analysis
III. HEALTH SERVICES AND OUTCOMES ● Involves the use of existing data
RESEARCH from a previous study to test new
● Health Services Research - is the hypotheses or answer new
broad interdisciplinary field that studies questions.
how organizational structures and ● This is considered efficient as data
processes, health technologies, social collection is typically the most
factors and personal behaviors affect time-consuming and expensive
access to healthcare, the cost and part of the study.
quality of healthcare, and ultimately, ● In some cases, a secondary
people’s health and well-being. analysis involves examining the
relationships among variables that
● Outcomes Research - is a subset of were previously unanalyzed
health services research, comprises (dependent variable in the study
efforts to understand the end results of could become the independent
particular healthcare practices and to variable).
assess the effectiveness of healthcare 2. Needs Assessment
services. ● Used to estimate the needs of a
group, community, or organization.
MODEL OF HEALTHCARE QUALITY ● The aim of the study is to assess
Encompasses several broad concepts including: the need for special services or to
see if a program is meeting the
A. Structure - factors such as accessibility, needs of those who are supposed
range of services, nursing skill mix and to benefit from it.
organizational climate. ● Various methods can be used in
B. Process - such as nursing decisions and needs assessment:
actions ○ Key informant approach -
C. Client Risk Factors - such as illness, researchers collect information
severity, and comorbidities. about a group’s needs from
D. Outcomes - such as specific end results people who are in a position to
of patient care in terms of patient know those needs. Key
functioning. informants could be:
Community Leader, Key
IV. SURVEY RESEARCH Health Care Workers.
● Involves studying people’s ○ Indicators approach - relies
characteristics, behaviors, and intentions on facts and statistics available
by asking them to answer questions. in existing reports or records.
This is cost-effective as sophisticated procedures for
available data is used. obtaining data have lead to an
3. Delphi Surveys increased interest on
● Developed as a tool for short-term methodological studies.
forecasting.
● Feedback from previous
questionnaires is provided with
each new questionnaire so that the
experts can converge on
consensus.
● The experts are spared the
necessity of attending a formal
meeting, thus saving time and
expense. Responses to each of the
three rounds is analyzed,
summarized and returned to the
experts with a new questionnaire
until consensus after three rounds
is obtained.
● An advantage is that a persuasive
or prestigious expert cannot have
undue influence over opinions of
others.
4. Replication Studies
● These are direct attempts to see if
the findings obtained in a study can
be duplicated in another study. A
strong evidence based practice
requires replications,
● Evidence can accumulate through
a series of “close enough to
compare” studies.
● These studies include:
○ Identical Replication - exact
duplication of methods of an
earlier study.
○ Virtual Replication - close
approximation but not exact
duplication.
○ Systematic Replication -
deliberate attempts to test the
implications of the original
research.
5. Methodological Studies
● These are investigations of the
ways of obtaining high quality data
and rigorous research.
Methodologic studies address the
development and assessment of
research tools or methods.
● The growing demands for sound,
reliable outcome measures, and for
