Applied Math for Engineers Module
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Fasil Gidaf Tegegne (MSc)
September 2016
WOLLO UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
Module Title: Applied Mathematics I for Engineers
Author: Fasil Gidaf Tegegne (MSc.)
Reviewer: Belete Debalkie (MSc.)
Editor: Tadegew Bogale Mole (MSc.)
September 2016
Dedication
To my beloved wife Bezawit Mulugeta and my daughter Rekik Fasil.
Acknowledgment
First I would like to give special thanks to the almighty god who allowed me to live and
access everything in this oddly made world.
My lovely wife w/o Bezawit Mulugeta should also be acknowledged for her contribution
in writing part of the material and for her treatment and follow-up for the completion of
this module.
I am proud to thank Mr Belete Debalkie, Mr Tadegew Bogale, Mr Mulugeta Dawud, Mr
Fitsum Mulaw, Mr Hagos Tadesse, and Mr Kahssay Godefay for their commitment and
contribution by reviewing this module and providing relevant comments to improve the
quality of the module.
Finally, I would like to appreciate the department, the staff members of mathematics
department, and those who engaged in the preparation of this module.
Table of Contents Pages
Unit-1: Vectors and Vector Spaces .................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scalars and Vectors in R2 and R3 .................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Addition and Scalar Multiplication.............................................................................................. 11
1.3 Scalar Product ............................................................................................................................. 13
1.3.1 Magnitude of a Vector ............................................................................................ 13
1.3.2 Angle between two vectors ..................................................................................... 16
1.3.3 Orthogonal Projection ............................................................................................. 21
1.3.4 Direction Angles and Direction cosines ................................................................. 24
1.4 Cross Product .............................................................................................................................. 26
1.5 Lines and Planes .......................................................................................................................... 33
1.5.1 Lines ........................................................................................................................ 33
1.5.2 Planes ...................................................................................................................... 37
1.6 Vector Space; Subspaces............................................................................................................. 39
1.7 Linear Depedndence and In dependence; Basis of a Vector Space ............................................ 53
1.8 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 62
1.9 Review Exercises ......................................................................................................................... 65
Unit-2: Matrices and Determinants ................................................................................ 68
2.1 Definition of Matrix and Basic Operations.................................................................................. 69
2.2 Product of matrices and some algebraic properties; Transpose of a matrix.............................. 73
2.3 Elementary Operations and Its Properties ................................................................................. 84
2.4 Inverse of a matrix and its properties ......................................................................................... 96
2.5 Determinant of a Matrix and Its Properties .............................................................................. 104
2.6 Solving System of Linear Equations .......................................................................................... 118
2.6.1 Gaussian‘s Method................................................................................................ 121
2.6.2 Gauss-Jordan Elimination ..................................................................................... 124
2.6.3 Cramer‘s rule ........................................................................................................ 126
2.6.4 Matrix inversion (Inverse matrix) Method ........................................................... 128
2.7 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors ................................................................................................ 129
2.8 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 133
2.9 Review Exercises ....................................................................................................................... 134
Unit-3: Limits and Continuity ......................................................................................... 137
3.1 Definitions of Limits .................................................................................................................. 137
3.2 Basic Limit Theorems ................................................................................................................ 145
3.3 One Sided Limits ....................................................................................................................... 156
3.4 Infinite limits, limit at infinity and asymptotes ......................................................................... 162
3.4.1 Limit at Infinity ..................................................................................................... 162
3.4.2 Infinite Limits at Infinity ...................................................................................... 167
3.4.3 Infinite Limits ....................................................................................................... 168
3.5 Continuity; one- sided continuity ............................................................................................. 172
3.6 Intermediate value theorem ..................................................................................................... 179
3.7 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 181
3.8 Review Exercises ....................................................................................................................... 182
Unit-4: Derivatives and Application of Derivatives ............................................................... 185
4.1 Definition of derivatives; basic rules ......................................................................................... 185
4.2 Derivatives of Inverse Functions ............................................................................................... 219
4.2.1 Derivatives of Inverse of Trigonometric functions ............................................... 222
4.2.2 Hyperbolic and Inverse hyperbolic Functions ...................................................... 222
4.3 Higher Order Derivatives .......................................................................................................... 227
4.4 Implicit Differentiation .............................................................................................................. 230
4.5 Applications of Derivatives ....................................................................................................... 234
4.5.1 Extreme Values of Functions ................................................................................ 235
4.5.2 Mean - Value Theorem ......................................................................................... 240
4.5.3 The First and Second Derivative Tests ................................................................. 246
4.5.4 Concavity and Inflection Points ............................................................................ 258
1
4.6 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 265
Review Exercises ....................................................................................................................... 266
Unit-5: Integration .................................................................................................................... 270
5.1 Antiderivatives; indefinite integrals .......................................................................................... 270
5.2 Techniques of integration ......................................................................................................... 277
5.2.1 Integration by substitution, by parts and by partial fraction ................................. 277
5.2.2 Trigonometric Integrals ........................................................................................ 290
5.2.3 Integration by Trigonometric Substitution............................................................ 298
5.3 Definite Integrals; Fundamental Theorem of Calculus ............................................................. 306
5.4 Improper Integrals ................................................................................................................... 315
5.5 Review Exercises ...................................................................................................................... 321
Unit-6: Application of Integration ........................................................................................... 323
6.1 Area ........................................................................................................................................... 323
6.2 Volume ...................................................................................................................................... 326
6.3 The Disk Method ....................................................................................................................... 330
6.4 The Washer Method ................................................................................................................. 331
6.5 Length of a Plane Curve ............................................................................................................ 335
6.6 Surface Area .............................................................................................................................. 336
6.7 Review Exercise:........................................................................................................................ 339
Reference ................................................................................................................................... 340
2
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course covers basic elements of vectors, vector spaces, matrices, determinants, solving
systems of linear equations, limit concepts and applications of differential and integral calculus
of one variable.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Up on completion of this course students should be able to:
understand the basic ideas of vector algebra,
understand matrix algebra,
determine the determinants,
determine linear independence of vectors,
apply scalar and vector products,
write equations of lines and planes,
determine direction angles and direction cosines of a vector,
apply the basic techniques of matrix algebra,
determine inverse of a matrix,
apply elementary row operations,
solve systems of linear equations,
understand the concepts of limit and continuity
evaluate derivatives,
apply derivatives,
understand the concepts of integration,
evaluate integrals,
apply integrals,
i
Overview
Calculus, which is sometimes called the ―mathematics of change,‖ is the branch of mathematics
concerned with describing the precise way in which changes in one variable related to changes in
another. In almost every human activity we encounter two types of variables: those that we can
control directly and those that we cannot. Fortunately, those variables that we cannot control
directly often respond in some way to those that we can. For example, the acceleration of a car
responds to the way in which we control the flow of gasoline to the engine, the inflation rate of
an economy responds to the way in which the national government controls the money supply,
and the level of an antibiotic in a person‘s bloodstream responds to the dosage and timing of a
doctor‘s prescription. By understanding quantitatively how the variables we cannot control
directly responded to those that we can, we can hope to make predictions about the behavior of
our environment and gain some mastery over it. Calculus is one of the fundamental mathematical
tools used for this purpose. Calculus has an enormous, but often unnoticed, impact on our daily
lives.
The module consists of six chapters which are composed of linear algebra and calculus. The first
two chapters‘ deals with linear algebra namely vectors and vector spaces and matrix and
determinants. The last four chapters talks about calculus namely limit and continuity,
differentiation and its application, integration and application of integration. Traditionally, that
portion of calculus concerned with finding tangent lines and rates of change is called differential
calculus and that portion concerned with finding areas is called integral calculus.
We have tried to explain important things in each chapter. Try to do each exercise before you
move to the next section.
A great discover solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any
problem. Your problem may be modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and brings in to play
your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means, you may experience the tension
and enjoy the triumph of discovery.
George Polya
ii
UNIT- ONE
VECTORS AND VECTOR SPACES
Unit-1: Vectors and Vector Spaces
UNIT OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this unit each student will able to:
List and explain representation of vectors geometrically
Understand operation of vectors algebraically and geometrically.
Realize properties of operations on vectors.
Learn about projection of a vector along another vector.
Understand the dot product and cross product of two vectors.
Define the norm /magnitude of a vector.
Develop parametric and non-parametric equation of a given line.
Develop the parametric form and normal form of equation of a plane.
Understand about vector spaces and subspaces
Identify base and dimension of vector space.
1.1 Scalars and Vectors in R2 and R3
Many physical quantities, such as area, length, mass, and temperature, are completely described
once the magnitude of the quantity is given. Such quantities are called scalars. Other physical
quantities are not completely determined until both a magnitude and a direction are specified.
These quantities are called vectors. For example, wind movement is usually described by giving
the speed and direction, say 20 mph northeast. The wind speed and wind direction form a vector
called the wind velocity. Other examples of vectors are force and displacement. In this unit our
goal is to review some of the basic theory of vectors in two and three dimensions.
1
Definition of Points in n-Space
Definition 1.1: If n is a positive integer, then an ordered n-tuple is a sequence of n real numbers
a1, a2 , a3 ,..., an . The set of all ordered n-tuples is called n-space and is denoted by .
When n 2 or 3, it is customary to use the terms ordered pair and ordered triple, respectively,
rather than ordered 2-tuple and ordered 3-tuple. When n 1 , each ordered n-tuple consists of one
real number, so may be viewed as the set of real numbers. It is usual to write rather than
for this set. It might have occurred to you in the study of 3-space that the symbol a1, a2 , a3
has two different geometric interpretations: it can be interpreted as a point, in which case,
a , a , and a are the coordinates (Figure 1.1a), or it can be interpreted as a vector, in which
1 2 3
case a , a , and a are the components (Figure 1.1b). It follows, therefore, that an ordered n-
1 2 3
tuple a1, a2 , a3 ,..., an can be viewed either as a ―generalized point‖ or as a ―generalized
vector‖—the distinction is mathematically unimportant. Thus we can describe the 5-tuple (−2, 4,
0, 1, 6) either as a point in or as a vector in .
Figure 1.1a Figure 1.2b
Figure 1.1: The ordered triple a1, a2 , a3 can be interpreted geometrically as a point or as a vector
2
Definition 1.2: a) Two vectors u u1,u2 ,u3 ,...,un and v v1, v2 , v3 ,..., vn in are called
equal if u1 v1 , u 2 v2 ,..., u n vn .
b) The sum u v is defined by u v u1 v1,u 2 v2, ,...,u n vn
c) If k is any scalar, the scalar multiple ku is defined by ku ku1, ku2 , ku3 ,..., kun . The
operations of addition and scalar multiplication in this definition are called the standard
operations on .
d) The zero vector in is denoted by 0 and is defined to be the vector .
e) If u u1,u2 ,u3 ,...,un is any vector in , then the negative (or additive inverse) of u is
denoted by u and is defined by u u1,u2 ,u3 ,...,un .
f) The difference of vectors in n is defined by v u v u or, in terms of components
v u v1 u1, v2 u2 , v3 u3 ,...,vn un
.
Vectors in n-Space; Geometric interpretation in 2- and 3- Spaces
In this section, vectors in 2-space and 3-space will be introduced geometrically, arithmetic
operations on vectors will be defined, and some basic properties of these arithmetic operations
will be established.
Geometric Vectors
Vectors can be represented geometrically as directed line segments or arrows in 2-space or 3-
space. The direction of the arrow specifies the direction of the vector, and the length of the arrow
describes its magnitude. The tail of the arrow is called the initial point of the vector, and the tip
of the arrow the terminal point. Symbolically, we shall denote vectors in lowercase boldface
type (for instance, a, k, v, w, and x). When discussing vectors, we shall refer to numbers as
scalars. For now, all our scalars will be real numbers and will be denoted in lowercase italic type
(for instance, a, k, v, w, and x).If, as in Figure 1.2a, the initial point of a vector v is A and the
terminal point is B, we write ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
3
Vectors with the same length and same direction, such as those in Figure 1.2b, are called
equivalent. Since we want a vector to be determined solely by its length and direction,
equivalent vectors are regarded as equal even though they may be located in different positions.
If v and w are equivalent, we write
a) The vector AB b) Equivalent Vectors
Figure 1.2
Definition 1.3: If v and w are any two vectors, then the sum is the vector determined as
follows: Position the vector w so that its initial point coincides with the terminal point of v. The
vector is represented by the arrow from the initial point of v to the terminal point of w
(Figure 1.3 a).
In Figure 1.3b we have constructed two sums, (color arrows) and (gray arrows). It is
evident that and that the sum coincides with the diagonal of the parallelogram
determined by v and w when these vectors are positioned so that they have the same initial point.
The vector of length zero is called the zero vector and is denoted by 0. We can easly see that
4
for every vector v. Since there is no natural direction for the zero vector, we shall agree that it
can be assigned any direction that is convenient for the problem being considered. If v is any
nonzero vector, then v , the negative of v, is defined to be the vector that has the same
magnitude as v but is oppositely directed (Figure 1.4).This vector has the property
(Why?) In addition, we define .
The negative of v has the same length as v but is oppositely directed (Figure1.4). Subtraction of
vectors is defined as follows:
Definition 1.4: If v and w are any two vectors, then the difference of w from v is defined by
(Figure 1.5a).
To obtain the difference without constructing , position v and w so that their initial
points coincide; the vector from the terminal point of w to the terminal point of v is then the
vector (Figure 1.5b).
Definition 1.5: If v is a nonzero vector and k is a nonzero real number (scalar), then the product
is defined to be the vector whose length is k times the length of and whose direction is the
same as that of v if k 0 and opposite to that of v if k 0 . We define if k 0 or .
5
Figure 1.6 illustrates the relation between a vector v and the vector and . Note that
the vector has the same length as v but is oppositely directed. Thus is just the
negative of v; that is,
Figure 1.6
A vector of the form is called a scalar multiple of v. As evidenced by Figure 1.6, vectors that
are scalar multiples of each other are parallel. Conversely, it can be shown that nonzero parallel
vectors are scalar multiples of each other. We omit the proof.
Vectors in Coordinate Systems
Problems involving vectors can often be simplified by introducing a rectangular coordinate
system. For the moment we shall restrict the discussion to vectors in 2-space (the plane). Let v be
any vector in the plane, and assume, as in Figure 1.7, that v has been positioned so that its initial
point is at the origin of a rectangular coordinate system. The coordinates v1, v2 of the terminal
point of v are called the components of v, and we write v v1, v2
Figure 1.7: v and v are the components of v.
1 2
If equivalent vectors, v and w, are located so that their initial points fall at the origin, then it is
obvious that their terminal points must coincide (since the vectors have the same length and
direction); thus the vectors have the same components. Conversely; vectors with the same
6
components are equivalent since they have the same length and the same direction. In summary,
two vectors and are equivalent if and only if and .
The operations of vector addition and multiplication by scalars are easy to carry out in terms of
components. As illustrated in Figure 1.8, if and then
(1)
Figure 1.8
If v v1, v2 and k is any scalar, then by using a geometric argument involving similar triangles,
it can be shown that
(2)
(Figure1.9). Thus, for example, if and , then
v w (1, 2) (7, 6) (1 7, 2 6) (8, 4)
and
( )
Since, , it follows from Formulas 1 and 2 that
. (Verify.)
7
Figure 1.9
Vectors in 3-Space
Just as vectors in the plane can be described by pairs of real numbers, vectors in 3-space can be
described by triples of real numbers by introducing a rectangular coordinate system. To
construct such a coordinate system, select a point O, called the origin, and choose three mutually
perpendicular lines, called coordinate axes, passing through the origin. Label these axes x, y, and
z, and select a positive direction for each coordinate axis as well as a unit of length for measuring
distances (Figure 1.10a).Each pair of coordinate axes determines a plane called a coordinate
plane. These are referred to as the xy -plane, the xz -plane, and the yz -plane. To each point P in
3-space we assign a triple of numbers (x, y, z), called the coordinates of P, as follows: Pass three
planes through P parallel to the coordinate planes, and denote the points of intersection of these
planes with the three coordinate axes by X, Y, and Z (Figure 1.10b). The coordinates of P are
defined to be the signed lengths and .
In Figure 1.11a we have constructed the point whose coordinates are (4, 5, 6) and in Figure
1.11b the point whose coordinates are (-3, 2, -4)
Figure 1.10
8
Figure 1.11
Rectangular coordinate systems in 3-space fall into two categories: left-handed and right-
handed. A right-handed system has the property that an ordinary screw pointed in the positive
direction on the z-axis would be advanced if the positive x-axis were rotated 90° toward the
positive y-axis (Figure 1.12a); the system is left-handed if the screw would be retracted (Figure
1.12b).
Remark: In this module we shall use only right-handed coordinate systems.
If, as in Figure 1.13, a vector v in 3-space is positioned so its initial point is at the origin of a
rectangular coordinate system, then the coordinates of the terminal point are called the
components of v, and we write v (v1 , v2 , v3 )
9
Figure 1.13
If v v1 , v2 , v3 and w w1 , w2 , w3 are two vectors in 3-space, then arguments similar to those
used for vectors in a plane can be used to establish the following results
v and w are equivalent if and only if and
, where k is any scalar.
Example 1: Vector Computations with Components
If v (1, 3,2) and w (4, 2,1), then
v w (5, 1, 3) , 2v (2, 6, 4), w (4, 2, 1),
v w v (w) (3, 5,1)
Sometimes a vector is positioned so that its initial point is not at the origin. If the vector p1 p 2 has
initial point p1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and terminal point p2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) then
p1 p 2 ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 )
That is, the components of p1 p 2 are obtained by subtracting the coordinates of the initial point
from the coordinates of the terminal point. This may be seen using Figure 1.14.
Figure 1.14
The vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the difference of vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , so
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 )
10
Example 2: Finding the Components of a Vector
The components of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ with initial point and terminal
point are
v (7 2, 5 (1), (8) 4) (5, 6, 12)
In 2-space the vector with initial point p1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and terminal point p1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is
p1 p 2 ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 ) .
1.2 Addition and Scalar Multiplication
Properties of Vector Operations
The following theorem lists the most important properties of vectors in 2-space and 3-space.
Theorem 1.1: Properties of Vector Arithmetic
If u, v, and w are vectors in 2- or 3-space and k and l are scalars, then the following
relationships hold.
(a) u v v u (e) k lu klu
(b) u v w u v w (f) k u v ku kv
(c) u 0 0 u u (g) k l u ku lu
(d) u u 0 (h) 1u u
Before discussing the proof, we note that we have developed two approaches to vectors:
geometric, in which vectors are represented by arrows or directed line segments, and analytic, in
which vectors are represented by pairs or triples of numbers called components. As a
consequence, the equations in Theorem 1.6 can be proved either geometrically or analytically.
To illustrate, we shall prove part (b) both ways. The remaining proofs are left as exercises.
Proof of part (b) (analytic) we shall give the proof for vectors in 3-space; the proof for
11
2-space is similar. If, u (u1 , u2 , u3 ) , and w (w1 , w2 , w3 ) then
(u v) w (u1 , u2 , u3 ) (v1 , v2 , v3 ) (w1 , w2 , w3 )
(u1 v1 , u2 v2 , u3 v3 ) (w1 , w2 , w3 )
([u1 v1 ] w1 , [u2 v2 ] w2 , [u3 v3 ] w3 )
(u1 [v1 w1 ], u2 [v2 w2 ], u3 [v3 w3 ])
(u1 , u2 , u3 ) (v1 w1 , v2 w2 , v3 w3 )
u (v w) .
Proof of part (b) (geometric)
Let u, v, and w be represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ as shown in Figure 1.15. Then
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ also, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Therefore,
Figure 1.15 The vectors and are equal
Remark: In light of part (b) of this theorem, the symbol is unambiguous
since the same sum is obtained no matter where parentheses are inserted. Moreover, if the
vectors u, v, and w are placed ―tip to tail,‖ then the sum is the vector from the
initial point of u to the terminal point of w (Figure 1.15).
Properties of Vector Operations in n-Space
The most important arithmetic properties of addition and scalar multiplication of vectors in n
are listed in the following theorem. The proofs are all easy and are left as exercises.
12
Theorem 1.2: Properties of Vectors in
If
u u1,u2 ,u3 ,...,un
, v v1, v2 , v3 ,..., vn
, and w w1, w2 , w3 ,..., wn are vectors in
and k and m are scalars, then:
(a) u v v u (b) u v w u v w
(c) u 0 0 u u (d) u u 0 ; that is, u u 0
(e) k mu kmu (f) k u v ku kv
(g) k mu ku mu (h) 1u u
Theorem 1.7 enables us to manipulate vectors in without expressing the vectors in terms of
components. For example, to solve the vector equation x u v for x, we can add u to both
sides and proceed as follows:
x u u v u
x u u v u
x0 vu
x vu
The reader will find it instructive to name the parts of Theorem 1.2 that justify the last three steps
in this computation.
1.3 Scalar Product
1.3.1 Magnitude of a Vector
The magnitude of a vector is a length of a vector and also called norm of a vector. The length of a
vector u is often called the norm of u and is denoted by‖ ‖ . It follows from the Theorem of
Pythagoras that the norm of a vector ( ) in 2-space is
‖ ‖ √
Figure 1.16a
Let ( ) be a vector in 3-space. Using Figure 1.16b and two applications of the Theorem
of Pythagoras, we obtain
13
‖ ‖
Thus
‖ ‖ √
A vector of norm 1 is called a unit vector.
If ( ) and are two points in 3-space, then the distance d between them is
the norm of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (Figure1.3.2). Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
it follows from 2 that
Similarly, if ( ) and are points in 2-space, then the distance between them is given
by
Figure 1.17
14
The distance between and is the norm of the vector ‖⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ .
Example 1: Finding Norm and Distance
The norm of the vector is ‖ ‖ √ √ The distance d
between the points is
= 44 2 11 .
From the definition of the product ku , the length of the vector ku is k times the length of u.
Expressed as an equation, this statement says that
ku k u
This useful formula is applicable in both 2-space and 3-space.
Exercise
1. Find the norm of v.
(a) v ( 2, 5)
(b) v (21, 2, 51)
(c) v (0, 0,15)
2. Find the distance between p1 and p2 .
(a) p1 (3, 4), p2 (5, 7)
(b) p1 (7,5,1), p2 (7,2, 1)
3. Let v (1, 2, 5) . Find all scalars k such that kv 4 .
v
4. (a) Show that if v is any nonzero vector, then is a unit vector.
v
15
(b) Use the result in part (a) to find a unit vector that has the same direction as the vector v (3, 4)
.
(c) Use the result in part (a) to find a unit vector that is oppositely directed to the vector
. v (2, 3, 6) .
1.3.2 Angle between two vectors
Scalar Product of Vectors: It is also called dot product.
Let u and v be two nonzero vectors in 2-space or 3-space, and assume these vectors have been
positioned so that their initial points coincide. By the angle between u and v, we shall mean the
angle θ determined by u and v that satisfies 0 .
Figure 1.18: The angle θ between u and v satisfies 0 .
Definition 1.6: If u and v are vectors in 2-space or 3-space and θ is the angle between u and v,
then the dot product or Euclidean inner product u.v is defined by
u v cos , if u 0 and v 0
u.v (1)
0 , if u 0 or v 0
Example 1: As shown in Figure 1.19, the angle between the vectors u (0, 0,1) and v (0, 2, 2)
is 45°. Thus
1
u.v u v cos ( 0 2 0 2 12 )( 0 2 2 2 2 2 ) 2
2
16
Figure 1.19
Component Form of the Dot Product
For purposes of computation, it is desirable to have a formula that expresses the dot product of
two vectors in terms of the components of the vectors. We will derive such a formula for vectors
in 3-space; the derivation for vectors in 2-space is similar.
Let u (u1 , u 2 , u3 ) and v (v1 , v2 , v3 ) be two nonzero vectors. If, as shown in Figure1.20, θ is the
angle between u and v, then the law of cosines yields
2
PQ u v 2 u v cos
2 2
(2)
Since PQ v u , we can rewrite 2 as
1
u v cos ( u v vu )
2 2 2
or
1
u.v ( u v vu )
2 2 2
Substituting
2
u12 u22 u32 , v v12 v22 v32
2
u
And
vu
2
(v1 u1 ) 2 (v2 u2 ) 2 (v3 u3 ) 2
we obtain, after simplifying,
17
u.v u1v1 u2 v2 u3v3 . (3)
Although we derived this formula under the assumption that u and v are nonzero, the formula is
also valid if or (verify).
Figure 1.20
If and are two vectors in 2-space, then the formula corresponding to
3 is
u.v u1v1 u2v2 (4)
Finding the Angle between Vectors
If u and v are nonzero vectors, then Formula 1 can be written as
u.v
cos (5)
u v
Example 2: Consider the vectors u (2, 1,1) and v (1,1, 2) . Find u.v and determine the angle θ
between u and v.
Solution: u.v u1v1 u2v2 u3v3 (2)(1) (1)(1) (1)(2) 3
For the given vectors we have u v 6 , so from (5),
u.v 3 1
cos
u v 6 6 2
18
Thus, 60 0 . The following theorem shows how the dot product can be used to obtain
information about the angle between two vectors; it also establishes an important relationship
between the norm and the dot product.
Theorem 1.3: Let u and v be vectors in 2- or 3-space.
1
(a) v.v v ; that is, v (v.v)
2 2
(b) If the vectors u and v are nonzero and θ is the angle between them, then
is acute if and only if u.v 0
is obtuse if and only if u.v 0
2
if and only if u.v 0
Proof (a): Since the angle θ between v and v is 0, we have
v.v v v cos v cos v
2 2
Proof (b): since θ satisfies 0 , it follows that θ is acute if and only if cos 0 , that θ is
obtuse if and only if v1 vn , and that if and only if cos 0 . But cos has the
2
same sign as u.v since u.v u v cos , u 0 , and v 0 .
Thus, the result follows.
Example 3: Finding Dot Products from Components
If u (1, 2, 3 ) , v (3, 4, 2) , and w (3, 6, 3) , then
u.v (1)(3) (2)(4) (3)(2) 5
v.w (3)(3) (4)(6) (2)(3) 21
u.w (1)(3) (2)(6) (3)(3) 0
Therefore, u and v make an obtuse angle, v and w make an acute angle, and u and w are
perpendicular.
Orthogonal Vectors
19
Perpendicular vectors are also called orthogonal vectors. In light of the Theorem above b, two
nonzero vectors are orthogonal if and only if their dot product is zero. If we agree to consider u
and v to be perpendicular when either or both of these vectors is 0, then we can state without
exception that two vectors u and v are orthogonal (perpendicular) if and only if u.v 0 . To
indicate that u and v are orthogonal vectors, we write u v .
Example 4: A Vector Perpendicular to a Line
Show that in 2-space the nonzero vector n (a, b) is perpendicular to the line ax by c 0 .
Solution: Let P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) be distinct points on the line, so that
ax1 by1 c 0
(6)
ax 2 by2 c 0
Since the vector P1 P2 ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 ) runs along the line (Figure 1.21), we need only show
that n and P1 P2 are perpendicular. But on subtracting the equations in (6), we obtain
a( x2 x1 ) b( y2 y1 ) 0 , which can be expressed in the form
(a, b).( x2 x1 , y2 y1 ) 0 or n. P1 P2 0 .
Thus n and P1 P2 are perpendicular.
Figure 1.21
The following theorem lists the most important properties of the dot product. They are useful in
calculations involving vectors.
20
Theorem 1.4: Properties of the Dot Product
If u, v, and w are vectors in 2-or 3-space and k is a scalar, then
(a) u.v v.u
(b) u. v w u.v u.w
(c) k u.v ku .v u.kv
(d) v.v 0 if v 0 , and v.v 0 if v 0
Proof: We shall prove (c) for vectors in 3-space and leave the remaining proofs as exercises. Let
u (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v (v1 , v2 , v3 ) ; then
k (u.v) k (u1v1 u2v2 u3v3 )
(ku1 )v1 (ku2 )v2 (ku3 )v3 )
(ku).v
Similarly, k (u.v) u.(kv)
1.3.3 Orthogonal Projection
In many applications it is of interest to ―decompose‖ a vector u into a sum of two terms, one
parallel to a specified nonzero vector a and the other perpendicular to a. If u and a are positioned
so that their initial points coincide at a point Q, we can decompose the vector u as follows
(Figure 1.3.7): Drop a perpendicular from the tip of u to the line through a, and construct the
vector w1 from Q to the foot of this perpendicular. Next form the difference w2 u w1
As indicated in Figure 1.3.7, the vector w1 is parallel to a, the vector w2 is perpendicular to a,
and w1 w2 w1 (u w1 ) u
The vector w1 is called the orthogonal projection of u on a or sometimes the vector component
u
of u along a. It is denoted by proja (7)
21
The vector w2 is called the vector component of u orthogonal to a. Since we have w2 u w1 ,
this vector can be written in notation 7 as w2 u proja
u
Figure 1.22
The vector u is the sum of w1 and w2 , where w1 is parallel to a and w2 is perpendicular to a.
The following theorem gives formulas for calculating proja and u proja .
u u
Theorem 1.5:
If u and a are vectors in 2-space or 3-space and if a 0 , then
u.a
proja
u
2
a (vector component of u along a)
a
u.a
u proja u
u
2
a (vector component of u orthogonal to a)
a
Proof: Let w1 proja and w2 u proja . Since w1 is parallel to a, it must be a scalar multiple
u u
of a, so it can be written in the form w1 ka . Thus
u w1 w2 ka w2 . (8)
Taking the dot product of both sides of 8 with a and using the above Theorems yields
u.a (ka w2 ).a k a w2 .a
2
(9)
u.a
But w2 .a 0 since w2 is perpendicular to a; so 9 yields k 2
a
22
u.a
Since proja w1 k.a , we obtain proja
u u
2
a.
a
Example5: Vector Component of u Along a
Let u (2, 1, 3) and a (4, 1, 2) . Find the vector component of u along a and the vector
component of u orthogonal to a.
Solution:
u.a (2)(4) ( 1)(1) ( 3)(2) 15
a 4 2 (1) 2 22 21
2
Thus the vector component of u along a is
u.a 15 20 5 10
proja a (4, 1, 2) ( , , )
u
2
a 21 7 7 7
and the vector component of u orthogonal to a is
20 5 10 6 2 11
u proja (2, 1, 3) ( , , ) ( , , )
u
7 7 7 7 7 7
As a check, the reader may wish to verify that the vectors u proja and a are perpendicular by
u
showing that their dot product is zero.
A formula for the length of the vector component of u along a can be obtained by writing
u.a
u
proja 2
a
a
u.a
2
a a
a
u.a
0
2
2
a sin ce a
a
Which yields
23
u.a
u
proja (10)
a
If.θ denotes the angle between u and a, then u.a u a cos , so 10 can also be written as
proja u cos
u
(11)
(Verify.) A geometric interpretation of this result is given in Figure 1.23.
As an example, we will use vector methods to derive a formula for the distance from a point in
the plane to a line.
1.3.4 Direction Angles and Direction cosines
The direction angles of a nonzero vector a are the angles , , and
(in the interval 0, that a makes with the positive x ,y, and z -axes. (See Figure 1.24)
Figure 1.24
24
The cosines of these direction angles cos , cos , and cos , are called the direction
cosines of the vector a. Using the formula of angles between two vectors , we obtain
a i a a a
cos 1 , cos 2 , and cos 3
a i a a a
Exampl : Find the direction angles of the vector a 1,2,3
Solution: Since a 12 2 2 32 14 then
1 2 3
cos , cos , and cos
14 14 14
1 2 3
cos 1 74 0 , cos 1 58 0 and cos 1 37 0
14 14 14
Exercise
1. Find u.v
(a) u (2, 3), v (5, 7)
(b) u (2, 2, 3), v (1, 5, 7)
2. In each part of Exercise 1, find the cosine of the angle θ between u and v.
3. Determine whether u and v make an acute angle, make an obtuse angle, or are
orthogonal.
(a) u (6, 2,1), v (9, 0, 7)
(b) u (0, 0, 3), v (1, 1,1)
4. Find the orthogonal projection of u on v.
(a) u (2, 2), v ( 5, 7)
(b) u (1, 0, 0), v (4, 3, 8)
5. In each part of Exercise 4, find the vector component of u orthogonal to v.
25
1.4 Cross Product
In many applications of vectors to problems in geometry, physics, and engineering, it is of
interest to construct a vector in 3-space that is perpendicular to two given vectors. In this section
we shall show how to do this.
Definition 1.7: The cross product a xb of two vectors a and b , unlike the dot product, is a
vector. For this reason it is also called the vector product. Note that a xb is defined only when
a and b and are three-dimensional vectors.
Definition 1.8: If 〈 〉 and b 〈 〉, then the cross product of and is the
vector
〈 〉
This may seem like a strange way of defining a product. The reason for the particular form of
Definition 1.8 is that the cross product defined in this way has many useful properties, as we will
soon see. In particular, we will show that the vector is perpendicular to both and. In order to
make Definition 1.8 easier to remember, we use the notation of determinants.
A determinant of order 2 is defined by
a b
ad bc ( 1)
c d
2 1
For example, 2(4) 1(6) 14
6 4
A determinant of order 3 can be defined in terms of second-order determinants as
follows:
a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3 a1 a2 a3 (2)
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
26
Observe that each term on the right side of Equation 2 involves a number ai in the first row of
the determinant, and ai is multiplied by the second-order determinant obtained from the left side
by deleting the row and column in which ai appears. Notice also the minus sign in the second
1 2 1
0 1 3 1 3 0
term. For example, 3 0 1 1 2 (1)
4 2 5 2 5 4
5 4 2
1(0 4) 2(6 5) (1)(12 0) 38
If we now rewrite Definition 1 using second-order determinants and the standard basis vectors i ,
j and k , we see that the cross product of the vectors a a1i a2 j a3k and b b1i b2 j b3k
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
axb i j k (3)
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
In view of the similarity between Equations 2 and 3, we often write
i j k
axb a1 a2 a3 (4)
b1 b2 b3
Although the first row of the symbolic determinant in this Equation 4 consists of vectors, if we
expand it as if it were an ordinary determinant using the rule in Equation 2, we obtain Equation
3. The symbolic formula in Equation 4 is probably the easiest way of remembering and
computing cross products.
Example: If a 1, 3, 4 and 2, 7, 5 , then
i j k
axb 1 3 4
2 7 5
3 4 1 4 1 3
i j k
7 5 2 5 2 7
(15 28)i (5 8) j (7 6)k 43i 13 j k
27
Exercise: Show that axa 0 for any vector a in V3 .
The second method is slightly easier; however, many textbooks don‘t cover this method as it will
only work on determinant. This method says to take the determinant as listed above in
equation 4 and then copy the first columns onto the end as shown below.
i j k i j
axb a1 a2 a3 a1 a2
b1 b2 b3 b1 b2
We now have three diagonals that move from left to right and three diagonals that move from
right to left. We multiply along each diagonal and add those that move from left to right and
subtract those that move from right to left.
Example: If a 2, 1, 1 and b 3, 4, 1 compute each of the following
(a) axb
(b) bxa
Solution: (a) Here is the computation for this one.
i j k i j
axb 2 1 1 2 1
3 4 1 3 4
i(1)(1) j (1)(3) k (2)(4) j (2)(1) i(1)(4) k (1)(3)
5i j 11k
(b) Left as an exercise .
One of the most important properties of the cross product is given by the following
Theorem.
Theorem 1.6: The vector is orthogonal to both and .
Proof: In order to show that is orthogonal to , we compute their dot product as follows:
28
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
( a x b) . a a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
a1 (a2b3 a3b2 ) a2 (a1b3 a3b1 ) a3 (a1b2 a2b1 )
a1a2b3 a1a3b2 a2 a1b3 a2 a3b1 a3 a1b2 a3 a2b1 )
0
Theorem 1.7: If is the angle between and then
| | | || |
Proof: From the definitions of the cross product and length of a vector, we have
a x b (a2b3 a3b2 ) 2 (a3b1 a1b3 ) 2 (a1b2 a2b1 ) 2
2
a22b32 2a2 a3b2b3 a32b22 a32b12 2a1a3b1b3 a12b32
a12b22 2a1a2b1b2 a22b12
(a12 a22 a32 )(b12 b22 b32 ) (a1b1 a2b2 a3b3 ) 2
a b ( a . b) 2
2 2
a b a b cos 2
2 2 2 2
a b (1 cos 2 )
2 2
a b sin 2
2 2
Taking square roots and observing that sin 2 sin because sin 0 , when 0 , we
have
a x b a b sin
Since a vector is completely determined by its magnitude and direction, we can now say that
is the vector that is perpendicular to both and whose orientation is determined by the
right hand rule, whose length is a x b a b sin .
In fact, that is exactly how physicists define .
COROLLARY: Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if
29
Proof : Left as an exersice.
`Note: - The length of the cross product axb is equal to the area of the parallelogram determined
by a and b.
Example 3: Find a vector perpendicular to the plane that passes through the points
P (1, 4, 6), Q(-2, 5, -1), and R(1, -1, 1).
Solution: The vector PQ x PR is perpendicular to both PQ and PR and is therefore
perpendicular to the plane through P, Q, and R. We have
PQ (2 1)i (5 4) j (1 6)k 3i j 7k
PR (1 1)i (1 4) j (1 6)k 5 j 5k
We compute the cross product of these vectors:
i j k
PQ x PR 3 1 7
0 5 5
(5 35)i (15 0) j (15 0)k 40i 15 j 15k
So the vector <-40, -15, 15> is perpendicular to the given plane. Any nonzero scalar multiple of
this vector, such as <-8, -3, 3>, is also perpendicular to the plane.
Example 4: Find the area of the triangle with vertices
P (1, 4, 6), Q(-2, 5, -1), and R(1, -1, 1)
Solution: In Example 3 we computed that PQ x PR = <-40, -15, 15> .
The area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides PQ and PR is the length of this cross product:
PQ x PR (40) 2 (15) 2 152 5 82
If we apply to the standard basis vectors and ng
We obtain
30
i x jk j x k i k xi j
j xi k k x j i i xk j
Observe that
i x j j xi
Thus the cross product is not commutative. Also
i x (i x j ) i x k j
So the associative law for multiplication does not usually hold; that is, in general,
(a x b) x c a x (b x c)
However, some of the usual laws of algebra do hold for cross products. The following theorem
summarizes the properties of vector products.
Properties: If a, b, and c are vectors and c is a scalar, then
1. a x b = -b x a
2. (ca) x b = c(a x b) = a x (cb)
3. a x (b+c) = a x b +a x c
4. (a+b) x c = a x c+b x c
5. a . (b x c) = (a x b) . c
6. a x (b x c) = (a . c) b - (a . b) c
These properties can be proved by writing the vectors in terms of their components and using the
definition of a cross product. We give the proof of Property and leave the remaining proofs as
exercises.
Proof of Property (1)
If a a1 , a2 , a3 , b b1 , b2 , b3 , and c c1 , c2 , c3 , then
31
a .(bxc ) a1 (b2 c3 b3c2 ) a2 (b3c1 b1c3 ) a3 (b1c2 b2 c1 )
a1b2 c3 a1b3c2 a2b3c1 a2b1c3 a3b1c2 a3b2 c1
(a2b3 a3b2 )c1 (a3b1 a1b3 )c2 (a1b2 a2b1 )c3
(axb). c
There is an important difference between the dot product and cross product of two vectors—the
dot product is a scalar and the cross product is a vector. The following theorem gives some
important relationships between the dot product and cross product and also shows that is
orthogonal to both u and v.
Theorem: - Relationships Involving Cross Product and Dot Product.
If u, v, and w are vectors in 3-space, then
a) u.(u x v) = 0 (u x v) is orthogonal to u.
b) v.(uxv) = 0 (u x v) is orthogonal to v.
2
u
2
v (u.v) 2
2
c) uxv Lagrange' s identity .
d) ux(vxw) = (u.v)v-(u.v)w relationship between cross and dot product.
e) (uxv)xw = (u.w)v-(v.w)u relationship between cross and dot product.
Proof: left as an Exercise.
Example 5: Show that uxv is perpendicular to u and to v.
Solution: Consider the vectors u = (1, 2, -2) and v = (3, 0, 1).
Then we can show that uxv (2, 7, 6)
Since u. (uxv) = (1)(2)+(2)(-7)+(-2)(-6) = 0 and
v. (uxv) = (3)(2)+(0)(-7)+(1)(-6) = 0
Hence, uxv is orthogonal to both u and v, as guaranteed by the Theorem above.
Exercise
1. Let u = (3, 2, -1), v = (0, 2, -3), and w = (2, 6, 7) compute
32
(a) vxw
(b) (uxv)xw
(c) ux(v-2w)
2. Find a vector that is orthogonal to both u and v.
(a) u = (-6, 4, 2) , v = (3, 1, 5)
(b) u = (-2, 1, 5) , v = (3, 0, -3)
1.5 Lines and Planes
1.5.1 Lines
A line in the xy-plane is determined when a point on the line and the direction of the line (its
slope or angle of inclination) are given. The equation of the line can then be written using the
point-slope form. Likewise, a line L in three-dimensional space is determined when we know a
point P0 x0 , y0 , z 0 on Land the direction of L. In three dimensions the direction of a line is
conveniently described by a vector, so we let be a vector parallel to L. Let Px, y, z be an
arbitrary point on L and let r0 and r be the position vectors of P0 and P (that is, they have
representations OP0 and OP ). If a is the vector with representation P0 P , as in Figure 1.6.1,
then the Triangle Law for vector addition gives r r0 a . But, since a and v are parallel
vectors, there is a scalar t such that a = tv. Thus
r r0 tv (1)
Figure 1.6.1
33
which is a vector equation of L . Each value of the parameter t gives the position vector r of a
point on L. In other words, as t varies, the line is traced out by the tip of the vector r. As Figure
1.6.2 indicates, positive values of t correspond to points on L that lie on one side of P0 , whereas
negative values of t correspond to points that lie on the other side of P0 . If the vector v that gives
the direction of the line L is written in component form as v a, b, c , then we have
tv ta, tb, tc . We can also write r x, y, z and r0 x0 , y0 , z 0 , so the vector equation (1)
becomes x, y, z x0 ta, y0 tb, z 0 tc
Two vectors are equal if and only if corresponding components are equal. Therefore we
have the three scalar equations:
x x0 at , y y0 bt , z z0 ct (2)
where t . These equations are called parametric equations of the line L through the point
P0 x0 , y0 , z 0 and parallel to the vector v a, b, c . Each value of the parameter t gives a point
x, y, z on L.
Figure 1.27
Example 1:
(a) Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the line that passes through the point
5,1,3 and is parallel to the vector i 4 j 2k .
(b) Find two other points on the line.
Solution:
34
Figure 1.28
(a) Here r0 5,1,3 5i j 3k and v i 4 j 2k , so the vector equation(1) becomes
r 5i j 3k t i 4 j 2k r 5 t )i 1 4t j 3k 3 2t k Or Parametric equations
are x 5 t , y 1 4t , z 3 2t .
(b) Choosing the parameter value t= 1 gives x=6, y=5, and z=1 so 6,5,1 is a point on the line.
Similarly t = -1, gives the point 4,3,5 . The vector equation and parametric equations of a line
are not unique. If we change the point or the parameter or choose a different parallel vector, then
the equations change. For instance, if, instead of 5,1,3 , we choose the point 6,5,1 in Example
1, then the parametric equations of the line become x 6 t , y 5 4t , z 1 2t Or, if we stay
with the point 5,1,3 but choose the parallel vector 2i 8 j 4k , we arrive at the equations
x 5 2t , y 1 8t , z 3 4t In general, if a vector v a, b, c is used to describe the direction
of a line L, then the numbers a, b, and c are called direction numbers of L. Since any vector
parallel to v could also be used, we see that any three numbers proportional to a, b, and c could
also be used as a set of direction numbers for L. Another way of describing a line L is to
eliminate the parameter from Equations 2. If none of a, b, or c is 0, we can solve each of these
equations for t, equate the results, and obtain
x x0 y y0 z z0
(3)
a b c
These equations are called symmetric equations of L. Notice that the numbers a, b, and c that
appear in the denominators of Equations 3 are direction numbers of L , that is, components of a
vector parallel to L . If one of a, b, or c is 0, we can still eliminate t. For instance, if a = 0, we
35
y y0 z z 0
could write the equations of L as x x0 , This means that L lies in the vertical
b c
plane x= x0.
Example 2:
(a) Find parametric equations and symmetric equations of the line that passes through the points
A2,4,3 and B3,1,1 .
(b) At what point does this line intersect the xy-plane?
Solution:
Figure 1.29
(a) We are not explicitly given a vector parallel to the line, but observe that the vector v
with representation line AB is parallel to the line and v 3 2,1 4,1 (3) 1,5,4
Thus direction numbers are a=1, b=-5, and c=4. Taking the point 2,4,3 as P0, we see that
parametric equations (2) are x 2 t , y 4 5t , z 3 4t and symmetric equations (3) are
x2 y4 z 3
1 5 4 .
(b) The line intersects the xy-plane when z = 0, so we put z =0 in the symmetric equations and
x2 y4 3 11 1
obtain this gives x and y , so the line intersects the xy-plane at the
1 5 4 4 4
11 1
point , ,0 .
4 4
36
In general, the procedure of Example 2 shows that direction numbers of the line L through the
points P0 x0 , y0 , z 0 and P1 x1 , y1 , z1 are x1 x0 , y1 y0 , and z1 z 0 and so symmetric equations
of L are
x x0 y y0 z z0
x1 x0 y 1 y 0 z1 z 0
The vector equation of a line through the (tip of the) vector r0 in the direction of a vector v is
. If the line also passes through (the tip of) , then we can take
and so its vector equation is r r t r1 r0 1t r tr1
0 0 .
The line segment from to is given by the parameter interval 0 t 1
r (t ) (1 t )r0 tr1 .
1.5.2 Planes
Although a line in space is determined by a point and a direction, a plane in space is more
difficult to describe. A single vector parallel to a plane is not enough to convey the ―direction‖ of
the plane, but a vector perpendicular to the plane does completely specify its direction. Thus a
plane in space is determined by a point P0 x0 , y0 , z 0 in the plane and a vector that is
orthogonal to the plane. This orthogonal vector is called a normal vector. Let Px, y, z be an
arbitrary point in the plane, and let and be the position vectors of P0 and P. Then the
vector is represented by a line P0P. (See Figure below.) The normal vector is
orthogonal to every vector in the given plane. In particular, is orthogonal to and so we
have ( ) = 0 which can be rewritten as and this Equation is called a
vector equation of the plane. To obtain a scalar equation for the plane, we write a, b, c ,
x, y, z , and x0 , y 0 , z 0 . Then the above vector equation becomes
a, b, c x x0 , y y0 , z z0 0 or ax x0 ) b y y0 c( z z 0 0 .And this Equation is
the scalar equation of the plane through with normal vector a, b, c .
37
Figure 1.30
Example-1: Find an equation of the plane through the point 2,4,1 with normal Vector n =
2,3,4 . Find the intercepts and sketch the plane.
Solution: Putting a 2, b 3, c 4, x0 2, y0 4, z 0 1 in the scalar equation of the plane we
see that an equation of the plane is 2x 2) 3 y 4 4( z 1 0 or 2 x 3 y 4 z 12
To find the x-intercept we set y =z = 0 in this equation and obtain x = 6. Similarly, they -
intercept is 4 and the z-intercept is 3. This enables us to sketch the portion of the plane that lies
in the first octant (see Figure below)
Figure1.31
Example-2: Find an equation of the plane that passes through the points P1,3,2, Q3,1,6 and
R5,2,0 .
Solution: The vectors a and b corresponding to line PQ and line PR are a= 2,4,4 ,
b 4,1,2 .Since both a and b lie in the plane, their cross product axb is orthogonal to the
plane and can be taken as the normal vector.
38
i j k
Thus, n = axb = 2 4 4 = 12i+20j+14k with the point P1,3,2 and the normal vector n, an
4 1 2
equation of the plane is 12x 1) 20 y 3 14( z 2 0 6 x 10 y 7 z 50 .
Note: Two planes are parallel if their normal vectors are parallel. For instance, the
planes x 2 y 3z 4 and 2 x 4 y 6 z 3 are parallel because their normal vectors are =
1,2,3 and = 2,4,6 and =2 . If two planes are not parallel, then they intersect in a
straight line and the angle between the two planes is defined as the acute angle between their
normal vectors.
1.6 Vector Space; Subspaces
Definition 1.9: Definition of a Vector Space
Let V be a set on which two operations (vector addition and scalar multiplication) are defined. If
the following axioms are satisfied for every u, v and w in V and for every scalar (an element of a
field F) c and d, then V is called vector space over a field F.
Addition:
A-1 u + v is in V ------------------------- Closure under addition
A-2 u + v = v + u---------------------------Commutative Property
A-3 u + (v+ w) = (u + v) + w --------------Associative property
A-4 V has a zero vector 0 such that ----Existence of Additive Identity for every u in
V, u+0 = u
A-5 For every u in V, there is ----------- Existence of additive inverse a vector in V denoted
by-u Such that u + (-u) =0 where 0 is the identity element.
39
Scalar Multiplication:
A-6 cu is in V ------------------ Closure under scalar multiplication
A-7- c (u + v) = cu + cv ---------- Distributive property
A-8- (c+d) u=cu + du -------- Distributive Property
A-9- c (du) = (cd) u = d (cu) -------- Associative Property
A-10- 1 (u) = u, where 1 F --- -- Scalar Identity
Remark
1. It is important to realize that a vector space consists of four entities: a set of vectors, a set
of scalars, and the two operations. When you refer to a vector space V, be sure that all four
entities are clearly stated or understood,
2- A vector space together with the defined operation addition is ablian group.
Activity-
1- Is a vector space V can be empty set? Whatever your answer comes with justification
2 - Identify the difference between vector space axioms 7 and 8 (A-7 & A-8)
3- Is the zero vectors invertible under vector addition? If so, find its additive inverse.
Examples of different models of a vector space
Throughout mathematics one encounters many examples of mathematical objects that can be
added to each other and multiplied b y numbers. Geometric vectors and vectors in n-space
studied in the preceding chapter are examples of such objects. Other examples are real-valued
functions, complex numbers, and polynomials over the real. In this chapter we discuss a general
mathematical concept which includes these examples and many more. Throughout this chapter,
by a ―field‖ we shall mean either the field of rational numbers, we shall, however, use a neutral
letter k, since it is necessary to deal with each of these fields. The elements of k will also be
called numbers or scalars.
40
Definition 1.10: A vector space v over a field is a set of objects which can be added and
multiplied by elements of such that the following axioms are satisfied
Axiom 1: (closure under addition)
For all v1 , v2 v, there exists a unique element of v called the
Sum of v1 and v2 , denoted v1 v2
Axiom 2: (closure under multiplication by elements of k)
For every v V and all a k ,
there exists an element of called the product of a and v, denoted av.
Axiom 3: (commutative law for addition)
For all v1 , v2 v, we have v1 v2 v2 v1 .
Example-1: Let V= Define: x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 , x2 R , usual product in
and , then show that V is a vector space over with 1 as the zero
element.
Solution:
1. Let x1 , x2 V then x1 x2 x1 x2
x1 x2 V , Since + is closed under usual multiplication
V is closed under vector addition
2. Let x1 , x2 V then x1 x2 x1 x2 x2 x1 (Why?)
= x2 x1
x1 x2 x2 x1 x1 , x2 R
Vector addition is commutative
3. Let x1, x2 , x3 V then
41
( x1 x2 ) x3 = ( x1 x2 ) x3 by definition of addition in V
= ( x1 x2 ) x3 , by definition of addition in V
= x1 ( x2 x3 ) , (Why?)
= x1 ( x2 x3 ) , by definition of ' +' in V
= x1 ( x2 x3 ), by definition of ‗+' in V
Thus, ( x1 x2 ) x3 x1 ( x2 x3 ) x1 , x2 , x3 V
Vector addition is associative.
4. Suppose e is a zero vector in V then
e x x x e, x V
Now, e x x
e.x x, By definition of ‗+' in V
e 1 , (How?)
The zero vector in V = is 1
Therefore, such that 1+ x x x 1x V
Additive identity exists in V
5. Let x V R suppose y V is
An additive inverse of x then
x y 1 y x
But, x y 1
x. y 1
y 1 / x (Why?)
Hence, x V y 1 / x V such that x y 1
42
Every element in V has an additive inverse
6. Let x. V and a then ax x a V (why?)
ax V a And x V
V is closed under scalar multiplication.
7. Let a and x, y V then
a( x y ) a( x. y) By definition of '+' in V
= ( x. y) a by definition of '.' in V
= x a .y a (Why?)
= xa ya by definition of ' +' in V=
= ax ay by definition of '.' in V =
Therefore, a( x y) ax ay Va and x, y V
8. Let a, b and x V then
(a+ b) x x a b , by definition of scalar multiplication in V
x a x b , (Why)?
x a x b , by definition of ‗+‘ in V
= ax bx , by definition of ‗.' In V
(a b) x ax bx a, b And x V
9. Let a, b and x V then
a(bx) a( x b ) , by definition of '.' in V
( x b ) a , by definition of ‗.' in V
x ba , Why?
43
x ab
(ab) x
a(bx) (ab) x a, b and x V
10. Let x V then
1. x x1 x
1.x x x V
Hence, by 1-10 we have V= + is a vector space over with the given addition and scalar
multiplication defined on it.
Example-2 Let V = ( x,2 x) : x then show that V is a vector space over with
Standard operations (component wise addition and multiplication)
Solution:
1. Let u, v V then u ( x,2 x) for some x and v ( y,2 y) for some y .
Now, u+v ( x,2 x) ( y,2 y)
( x y,2 x 2 y), By definition ‗+' in V
( x y,2( x y))
( z, 2 z ), Where z x y
u v ( z, 2 z) For some z x y
u v V , by definition of the set V
V is closed under vector addition.
2. Let u ( x,2 x), v ( y,2 y) V then
u u ( x,2 x) ( y,2 y)
( x y,2 x 2 y )
44
( y x,2 y 2 x) ; Since addition is commutative in
= ( y, 2 y) ( x, 2 x), by definition of ' +' in V
v u
u v vu u, v V
Therefore vector addition is commutative in V
3. Let u ( x,2 x), v ( y,2 y), w ( z,2 z) V then
(u v) w ( x,2 x) ( y,2 y) ( z,2 z)
( x y,2 x 2 y) ( z,2 z), By definition of '+' in V
( x y) z, (2 x 2 y) 2 z , by definition of '+' in V
x ( y z),2 x (2 y 2 z) ;
Since the usual addition is associative in
( x,2 x) ( y z,2 y 2 z) ; By definition '+' in V
( x,2 x) ( y,2 y) ( z,2 z) ; By definition of '+' in V
u (v w)
(u v) w u (v w) u, v, w V
Therefore the defined addition is associative in V
4. Since 0 we have
0 (0,2.0) (0,0) V And u ( x,2 x) V ,
0+u (0,0) ( x,2 x) (0 x,0 2 x)
( x,2 x)
u
0u u u V
45
Therefore additive identity element exists inV and is the additive identity element in V.
5. Let u ( x,2 x) V then u ( x,2 x) V and
u+-u ( x,2 x) ( x,2 x)
( x x,2 x 2 x)
(0,0)
u u 0
u V , u V Such that u u 0
That is, every element in V has an additive inverse.
6. Let a and u ( x,2 x) V then
a . u a( x,2 x)
(ax,2ax) , by definition of scalar multiplication
( y,2 y); Where y ax
a . u ( y,2 y) For some y ax
au V , why?
Therefore V is closed under scalar multiplication.
7. Let a and u ( x,2 x), v ( y,2 y) V then a(u v) a( x,2 x) ( y,2 y)
a( x y,2 x 2 y), By definition of ' +' in V
a( x y), a(2 x 2 y) by definition of scalar multiplication in V
(ax ay,2ax 2ay), Why?
(ax,2ax) (ay,2ay), by definition of scalar multiplication in V
= a( x, 2 x) a( y, 2 y)
au av
46
a(u v) au av a u, v V .
8. Let a, b and u ( x,2 x) V then (a b)u (a b)( x,2 x)
(a b) x, (a b)2 x) ; By definition of scalar multiplication in V
(ax bx,2ax 2bx) ; Why?
(ax, 2ax) (bx,2bx) ; By definition of '+' in V
a( x,2 x) b( x,2 x) ; Why?
au bu
(a b)u au bu a, b And u V
9. Let a, b and u ( x,2 x) V then
a(bu) a(b ( x, 2 x))
a(bx,2bx) ; By definition of scalar multiplication in V
a(bx), a(2bx) ; Why?
(ab) x, (ab)2 x ; Why?
ab( x,2 x) ; Why?
(ab)u
a(bu) (ab)u a, b And u V
10. Let u ( x,2 x) V then
1.u 1( x,2 x) (1.x,1.2 x)
( x,2 x)
u
1.u uu V
Therefore, by 1-10 we've V is a vector space over
47
Example-1: show that the set of rational numbers Q is not a vector space with standard
operations over .
Solution: Since 2 and 1 Q such that
2 . 1 2 Q We‘ve Q is not closed under scalar multiplication.
Example-2: Let V= 3 , the set of ordered triple of real numbers, then. Show that V is not a
vector space over with the standard operation of addition and the following non-standard
definition of scalar multiplication:
a( x1 , x2 , x3 ) (ax1 , ax2 , 0)
Solution: Since 1 we've u = (1,1,1) V and 1.(1,1,1) (1.1,1.1,0) (1,1,0)
1.(1,1,1) (1,1,0) (1,1,1) = u
1.(1,1,1) (1,1,1) = u
1. u u
V Doesn‘t satisfy one of the vector space axioms
V is not a vector space over
In fact, Show that V satisfies the first nine axioms.
Remark
A single failure of one of the ten vector space axioms suffices to show that a set is not a vector
space. That is to show that a set V is not a vector space we need only find one thing wrong
regardless of how many of the ten axioms are satisfied.
Subspaces
Definition 1.11: (definition of subspace of a vector space)
48
Let V be a vector space over a field F and W be a subset of V, then we say that W is a subspaces
of V if W is itself a vector space over F under the operations of addition and scalar
multiplication in V.
Activity
1. Let V= the set of all real valued continuous functions defined on 0,1 and W be the set of
real valued differentiable functions on 0,1 then show that
A) V is a vector space over R with standard operations
B) W is a subspace of V
2. Let V 4 and W (0, x, y, z); x, y, z then show that
A) V with the standard operations is a vector space over Q.
B) W is a subspace of V.
To establish that a set W is a vector space we must verify all the ten vector space axioms.
However if W is a subset of a larger vector space V (and the operations defined on W are the
same as those defined on V), then most of the ten properties are inherited from the larger space
and need no verification. The following theorem tells us that it is sufficient to test for closure in
order to establish a subset of a vector space is a subspace.
Theorem 1.8: Test for a subspace
Let V be a vector space over a field F and W be an empty subset of V, then W is a subspace of
V over F if and only if the following closure conditions hold:
i) if u and v are in W, then u+v is in W
ii) If u is in W and F , then u is W
Proof: Let V be a vector space over a field F and W c V
Suppose W is a subspace of V over F then by definition of subspace we have Wi
49
a vector space over F under the induced operations and hence w is closed under addition
and scar multiplication.
u v W u, v W And u W F , u w
i) and ii) hold.
() Suppose i) and ii) hold then W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication.
A-1 and A-6 are satisfied ----- ( )
Also, let u, v, w W and a, b F then
u,v,w V and a,b F ;Since WcV
A-2, A-3, A-7, A-8, A-9, and A-10 are satisfied automatically, by definition of V --
Furthermore, since w we‘ve u 1 W and hence u1 W F ; by II
In particular, for 0 we get 0u 1 W
0 W ; Since 0u 1 0 by theorem 2-2
W Has additive identity element; why?
A 4 is satisfied -------
In addition, because W is closed under scalar multiplication, if follows that
u W (1)u W
U W ; by theorem 2-2
Every element in W is invertible with respect to the induced additive
operation
A 5 is satisfied ---------
Thus, by , , and we have W is a vector space over F.
W is a subspace of V over F.
50
Remark:
1. If W is a subspace of a vector space V over a field F then both W and V must have the
same zero vector O. Justify!
2. Since a subspace of a vector space is itself a vector space, it must contain the zero vector.
In fact, the simplest subspace of a vector space is the one consisting of only the zero
Vector = 0 W 0
Definition 1.12: Let V be a vector space over a field F then
A) V and 0 are called improper (trivial) subspaces of V.
B) Subspaces of V other than V and 0 are called proper (non trivial)
Subspaces of V.
Observe that improper subspaces of a vector space always exist while the proper subspace of
vector spaces may not exist.
Example (1) Let V be the set of all real valued functions defined on and
W = f : / f is even function then show that
A) With the standard operations, is a vector space over
B) W is a subspace of V over
Solution: A) Left as an exercise to you.
B) Let V= f / f : is afunction and
W = f : / is even function then
W= f : / f ( x) f ( x)x
I) Clearly, W V ; why?
Also, consider the function f 0 that has a value of zero for all x.
51
That is, f 0 ( x) 0, x is any real number, then f 0 : and f 0 ( x) 0 f 0 ( x)
f 0 W
W . Thus, W cV
II) Let F , G W then F ,G : Such that both are even functions and hence
F G : such that F+G is even function,
Since (F+G) ( x) F ( x) G( x) F ( x) G( x); why?
( F G)( x)x
Hence, W is closed under the induced vector addition.
III) Let a and f W then
af : and (af )( x) af ( x); Why?
af ( x); Why?
(af )( x)x
af W
W is closed under the induced scalar multiplication.
Therefore, by I), II), III) and test for subspace theorem we have W is a subspace of V over .
Example 2: Show that the set of first quadrant vector W ( x, y) : x 0andy 0, with the
standard operations, is not a subspace of 2 over .
Solution: To see this, we note that (1, 2) is in W, but the scalar multiple (-1) (1, 2)
= (-1,-2) is not in W. Therefore, W is not closed under scalar multiplication and
hence W is not a subspaces of 2 over . In fact, one can show that W is nonempty and closed
under addition.
Exercise:
52
1. Determine whether the set W is a subspace of 3 over with standard operations. Justify
your answer
a) W (a, b,2a 3b) : a, b
b) W (r, r t , t ) : r, t
c) W ( x, y, xy ) : x, y
d) W ( x, y,3) : x, y
2. Which of the following subset of C (- , ) are subspaces of C (- , ) over ?
a) The set of all real valued nonnegative functions: f ( x) 0x
b)The set of all real valued even functions: f ( x) f ( x) x
c) The set of all real valued odd functions: f ( x) f ( x)x
d) The set of all real valued constant functions: f ( x) cx
e) The set of all functions such that: f (0) 0;0
f) The set of all functions such that: f (0) 1;0,1
3. Prove that a non empty set W is a subspace of a vector space V over field F if and only if
ax by is an element of Wx, y Wanda, b F .
4. Give an example showing that the union of two subspace of a vector space V over a filed F
is not necessarily a subspace of V over F.
1.7 Linear Depedndence and In dependence; Basis of a Vector Space
Spanning Sets
Definition 1.13: Definition of linear combination of vectors
Let V be a vector space over a field F and v, x1 , x2 , , xn be vectors in V then we
say that v is a liner combination of x1 , x2 , , and x n if v can be expressed as
53
v 1 x1 2 x2 n xn ; Where i F ,1 i n
Example1: Let v1 , (1,3,1), v2 (0,1,2) and v3 (1,0,5) be vectors in 3 then since
v1 3v2 v3 3(0,1,2) (1,0,5) (1,3,1) .We have v1 is a linear combination of v 2 and v3 .
Example 2: Finding a liner combination
Let v (1,1,1), x1 (1,2,3), x2 (0,1,2) and x3 (1,0,1) be vectors in 3 then write a linear
combination of x1 , x2 and x3 .
Solution: We need to find scalars 1 , 2 and 3 such that v 1 x1 2 x2 3 x3
But v 1 x1 2 x2 3 x3
(1,1,1) 1 (1,2,3) 2 (0,1,2) 3 (1,0,1)
(1 3 ,21 2 ,31 2 2 3 )
Then, by equating the corresponding components, we arrive at the following system of linear
equations.
1 3 1
2 1 2 1
3 2 1
1 2 3
1 1 r, 2 1 2r, 3 r This is an infinite number of solutions, by Gauss-
Jordan elimination method
For instance, to obtain one solution, we could let r =1, then 1 2, 2 3 and 3 1 Hence;
v 2 x1 3x2 x3 . other choices for r would yield other ways to write v as a linear combination
of x1 , x2 and x3 .
Definition 1.14: Definition of spanning set of a vector space
54
Let S x1 , x2 , , xn be a subset of a vector space V over a field F. The set S is called a
spanning set (or a generator set) of V if every vector in V can be expressed as a linear
n
combination of vectors in S. That is, if v V 1 , 2, , n F such that v i xi . in
i 1
such cases we say that S spans (or generates) V over F.
Example 3: Examples of spanning sets
a) Let x1 (1,0,0), x2 (0,1,0) and x3 (0,0,1) be vectors in 3 then since
v ( x, y, , z ) 3 , v ( x, y, z) x(1,0,0) y(0,1,0) z(0,0,1)
xx1 yx 2 zx3 We have S x1 , x2 , x3 spans or generates 3
b) The set S 1, x, x 2 generates of P2 , since any polynomial p( x) a bx cx 2 in P2
can be written as p( x) a(1) b( x) c( x 2 ) a bx cx 2
Note: The spanning sets given in example -3 are called the standard spanning sets of
and p 2 , respectively.
Definition 1.15: Let V be a vector space over a filed F and S be non empty subset of V then the
set of all finite linear combination of elements of S is called span of S and span of S is denoted
by span (S). That is span
n
(s) = i xi : i F and xi S i such that 1 i n
i 1 .
Theorem 1.9: Span(S) is a subspace of V
Let V be a vector space over a field F and S is nonempty subset of V then span(S) is a subspace
of V.
Moreover, span(s) is the smallest subspace of V that contains S, in the sense that every other
subspace of V that contains S must contain span (s).
Proof: Exercise
55
Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors
Definition 1.16: Let V be a vector space over a field F and S = x1 , x2 , , xn be subset of V
n
then S is called linearly independent if the vector equation x
i 1
i i 0 has only the trivial
solution. If there are also non-trivial solutions, then S is called linearly dependent.
That is,
a) If ∑ , then S is a linearly independent set.
n
b) If 1 , 2 , , n F not all zero such that
i 1
i xi 0 then S is linearly
dependent set.
Remark: Testing for Linear Independence and Linear Dependence
A. Let S = u1 , u 2 , u n be a set of vectors in a vector space V over a field F. To
determine whether S is linearly independent or linearly dependent, perform the following
steps.
n
Step-1: From the vector equation u
i 1
i i O, write a homogenous system of linear
equations in the variables 1 , 2 , , n .
Step-2: Use Gaussian elimination method to solve the system for
1 , 2 , , and n .
Step-3: If the system has only the trivial solution, 1 O 2 n , then
the set S is linearly independent. If the system also has non trivial solutions, then S is
linearly dependent.
B. Every set of vectors in a vector space is either linearly independent or linearly dependent.
Thus a single test suffices.
56
C. We say that an infinite set S is linearly independent if every finite subset of S is a linearly
independent set.
Theorem 1.10: A Property of Linearly Dependent Sets
Let S x1 , x2 , , xn , n 2 be a subset of a vector space V over a field F then S is
Linearly dependent if and only if at least one of the vectors x i can be written as a linear
combination of the other vectors in S.
Proof: Exercise
Example-4
Let S 1 x 2 x 2 ,2 5x x 2 , x x 2 then show that S is linearly dependent subset of P2 .
Solution:
Let f1 1 x 2 x 2 , f 2 2 5x x 2 and f 3 x x 2 then one can observethat
f 2 2 f1 3 f 3 And hence f2 is a linear combination of f1 and f3
Thus, by theorem 1.28 we have S is linearly dependent.
Example 5:
Let V be a vector space over a field F and u, v V then show that u and v are linearly dependent
if and only if one is a scalar multiple of the other.
Solution:
It is a immediate consequence of theorem 1.28. It is a simple test for determining whether two
vectors are linearly dependent.
Exercise:
1. Determine which vectors u, v and w can be written as linear combinations of the vectors in S.
a) S (1,2,2), (2,1,1), u (1,17,17), v (3, 2 3 , 2 3 ) and w (8,4,3)
57
b) a) S (2,0,7), (2,4,5), (2,12,13)u (4,20,24), v (1,0,0) and w (6,24,9)
2. Determine whether the given set S spans R3. If the set does not span R3, describe the
subspace that it does span.
a) S (1,0,1), (1,1,0), (0,1,1)
b) S (1,0,3), (2,0,1), (4,0,5), (2,0,6)
c) S (1,2,3), (0,1,2), (2,0,1)
d) S (1,2,3), (0,1,2), (1,0,1)
3. For which values of r are the following sets linearly independent?
a) S (r,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)
b) S (r, r, r ), (r,1,0), (r,0,1)
4. Determine whether the set S y 2 2 y, y 3 8, y 3 y 2 , y 3 y 2 , y 2 4 Spans or generates
p3 .
Bases and Dimension of a Vector Space
Basis of a vector space
Definition 1.17: Definition of Basis
A set of vectors S x1 , x2 , , xn in a vector space V over a field F is called basis for V if
i) S spans V and.
ii) S is linearly independent.
Remark:
1. The above definition tells us that a basis has two features. A basis S must have enough
vectors to span V, but not so many vectors that one of them could be written as a linear
combination of the other vectors in S.
58
2. An infinite set S is said to be a basis for V if
i- S spans V and ii- S is linearly independent. That is, if every element of V is a finite linear
combination of elements of S and every finite subset of S is linearly independent. Thus a
basis of a vector space V may consists of infinite number of vectors.
Activity:
1. Show that s(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0,1 is a basis for R3. S is called the standard basis for R3.
2. Let e1 (1, 0, ,0), e2 (0, 1, 0, ,0), , en (0,0, ,1) then show that
S= e1 , e2 , , en is a basis for Rn S is called a standard basis for R n .
3. Show that
a) S (1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 2), (2, 0, 1) is a non standard basis for R3
b) S (1, 1), ( 1, 1) is a non standard basis for R2
c) S 1, x, x 2 , , x n is a standard basis for Pn
Theorem 1.11: Uniqueness of Basis Representation
Let V be a vector space over field F and s x1 , x2 , xn be a basis for V then every vector in
V can be written in one and only one way as a linear combination of vectors in S.
Proof: Exercise
Theorem 1.12: Basis and Linear Dependence
If S v1 , v2 , , vn is a basis for a vector space V over a field F, then every set containing
more than n vectors in V is linearly dependent. That is, the maximum number of linearly
independent vectors in V is n.
Proof: Exercise
Example-3: Linearly Dependent sets in R3, P3 & Rn
a) Since R3 has a basis consisting of three vectors, the set
59
(1,2,1), (1,1,0), (2,3,0), (5,9,1) , must be linearly dependent.
b) Since P3 has a basis consisting of four vectors, the set 1, 1 x, 1 x, 1 x x 2 ,1 x x 2
must be linearly dependent.
c) Since, Rn has the standard basis
Containing of n vectors, it follows from theorem 1.28 that every set of vectors in Rn congaing
more than n vectors must be linearly dependent.
Theorem 1.13: Number of Vectors in a Basis
If a vector space V over a field F has one basis with n vectors, then every basis for V has n
vectors.
Proof:
Let S1 x1 , x2 , , xn and S 2 y1 , y 2 , , y m be basis for V over F then since S 1 is a
basis and S2 is linearly independent we get m n (*) Also, since S is a basis for V and S1
is linearly independent we get n m (**)
Now, Combing (*) and (**) we have m n and n m which intern implies m=n.
Example-4
a) Since the standard basis for R3, (1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1) i, j, k has three vectors we
have the set (3,2,1), (7,1,4)is not a basis for R3.
b) Since the standard basis for p3 , 1, x, x 2 , x 3 has four elements we have the set
x 2, x 2
, x 3 1,3x 1, x 2 2 x 3 is not a basis for P3.
The Dimension of a Vector Space
Definition 1.18: Definition of dimension of a vector space
If a vector space V over a field F has a basis consisting of n vectors, then the number n is called
the dimension of V, denoted by dim (V)=n. If V consists of the zero vectors alone, then the
60
dimension of V is defined as zero. In general, let V be a vector space, over a filed F. Suppose
there is some whole number n such that V contains a set of n vectors that are linearly
independent, while every set of (n+1) vectors in V is linearly dependent then V is called finite
dimensional and n is called the dimension of V.
Example -5
a) Since e1, e2 , e3 , , en form a basis for Rn over R we have dim (Rn) = n
b) Since 1, x, x 2 , , x n form a basis for Pn over R we have dim ( Pn ) = n+1
Theorem 1.14: Basis Tests in an n-Dimensional space
Let V be a vector space over a field F with dimension n
a) If x1 x2 , xn is a linearly independent set of vectors in V, then S is a basis for V
over F .
b) If v1 , v2 , , vn spans V, then S is a basis for V over F.
Proof: Left as an exercise
Exercise:
1. Determine whether is a basis for the indicated vector space
a) (1,2,0,0), (2,0,1,0), (3,0,0,4), (0,0,5,0) for R4 over R
b) (1, i for overR
c) (1,5,3), (0,1,2), (0,0,6) for R 3 overR
2. Find all subsets of the set
a) S (1,0),0,1), (1,1) , that form a basis for R2 over R
b) S (1,3,2), (4,1,1), (2,7,3), (2,1,1) , that form a basis for R3 over
3. Find a basis for
61
a) -R2 over R that includes the vector (1,1)
b) -R3 over R that includes the set
S (1,0,2), (0,1,1)
4. Let w1 (2t , t ) :t R
w2 (0, t ) :t R
w3 (2r , r ,r ) : r R
w4 (2s t , s, t ) : s, t R
a) Show that w1 and w2 are subspaces of R2 over R.
b) Show that w3 and w4 are subspaces of R3 over R.
1.8 Summary
Vectors are physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction, and thus cannot be
described or represented by a single real number. Geometrically vectors are represented by a
directed line segment or an arrow. We define a vector in n-space to be an n-tuple of
numbers: ( x1 , x2 , , xn )
Thus, n ( x1 , x2 , , xn : xi for all i such that 1 i n
For any vectors u, v and w and any scalars r and s we have:
a) u v v u
b) u (v w) (u v) w
c) v 0 v 0 v
d) v (v) 0
e) (r s)v rv sv
62
f) r (u v) ru rv
g) (rs)v r (sv) s(rv)
h) 1v v
i) 0v 0 r 0
The above properties are properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication.
In the xy-plane a vector v whose initial point is the origin and terminal point is A( x, y)
is represented by or where and and we have:
a) v x2 y2 where x and y are called the first and second component of v .
,
b) If p ( x1 , y1 ) then vectorAP A P ( x, y) ( x1 , y1 ) ( x x1 , y y1 )
c) k v k ( x, y ) (kx, ky)
d) If u (a, b ) then v u ( x a, y b ) and v u ( x a, y b)
e) x v cos , y v sin and tan y x
If is the angle between non zero vectors u and v the u. v
u v u v cos and 1 u.v 1
u v
Given two non zero vectors u, v then
a) u and v are perpendicular to each other, denoted by u v , if u. v = 0
b) u and v are parallel, denoted by u // v if there exists a scalar k such that u kv.
Let u, v and w be vectors n and c, d then
a) u v is a vector in n
b) u v v u
c) (u v) w u (v w)
63
d) u 0 u
e) u (u) 0
f) cu is a vector in n
g) c(u v) cu cv
h) (c d )u cu du
i) c(d u)=(c d)u=d(c u)
j) 1 u u
The above properties are properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication
Let u ( x1 , x2 ,, xn ) and v ( y1 , y 2 , , y n ) be vectors in n then
a) u x12 x22 xn2
b) u.v x1 y1 x2 y 2 xn y n
c) d (u, v) u v ( x1 y1 ) 2 ( xn y n ) 2
d) u.v u v , the Cauchy Schwarz Inequality
e) u v u v , the triangle inequality
The above properties are geometric properties of the cross product.
Let V be an arbitrary nonempty set of objects on which two operations are defined:
addition, and multiplication by scalars (numbers). By addition we mean a rule for
associating with each pair of objects u and v in V an object u + v , called the sum of u and
v; by scalar multiplication we mean a rule for associating with each scalar k and each
object u in V an object ku , called the scalar multiple of u by k. If the following axioms
are satisfied by all objects u,v ,w in V and all scalars k and m, then we call V a vector
space and we call the objects in V vectors.
1. If u and v are objects in V, then u v is in V
64
2. u v v u
3. u + (v + w) = (u + v) +w
4. There is an object 0 in V, called a zero vector for V, such that 0 + u = u+0 = u
for all u in V.
5. For each u in V, there is an object in -u , called a negative of u , such that
u + (-u) = (-u) + u =0 .
6. If k is any scalar and u is any object in V, then ku is in V .
7. k (u + v) = ku + kv
8. (k + m) u = ku + mu
9. k (mu) = (km)u
10. 1.u = u
1.9 Review Exercises
1. Identify the following quantities as scalars or vectors
a) Forces f) Speed
b) Temperature g) Length
c) Volume h) N 700 E
d) 10k m East g) 90 c
e)
2. (a) Find the components of the vector w if w 5 and the direction angle for w is
65
300 0
(b) Let u (3,1,5), v ( 2 , 1, 3 ), then find the components of u v,
3u 2v, 5u, u v.
3. (a) Find the parametric vector equation of the line that passes through (1,4) and
I. Parallel to the line y 3x 1
II. Perpendicular to the line x 2 y 5
(b) A triangle has (1, 2) , (5, 3), and (1, 2) as the coordinates of its vertices, then find
the vector equations of its medians
4. (a) Let x and y be unit vectors and the angle between them is then find
6
x y and x y
(b) Let u and v be vectors with an angle between them. If u 2 and v 3
3
Then find
(i) u.v (iii ) (u v) 2 (v) (u 2v)
(ii ) u.u (iv ) (3u 2v) (vi) (3u 2v) (3v 2u )
(c) Find a unit vector whose direction is opposite to 3i 6 j k.
5. Use the given functions f and g in C 1,1 and the definition
1
f.g = the dot product of f and g 1
f ( x) g ( x) dx to find
(i) f .g (iii ) g
(ii ) f (iv ) d ( f , g )
( a ) f ( x) x 2 , g ( x) x 2 1 (c) f ( x) x, g ( x) x 2 x 2
(b) f ( x) x, g ( x) e x (d ) f ( x) 1, g ( x) 3x 2 1
6. (a) Find a unit vector that is orthogonal to both u i 4 j k and v 2i 3 j
66
(b) Find the area of a parallelogram that has u 3i 4 j k and v 2 j 6k
as adjacent sides.
7. Find an equation of the plane passing through the given points
a) (1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 7) and (2, 1, 3)
b) (0, 1, 0), (1, 1, 0), (2, 1, 2)
c) (0, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1)
d) (1, 2, 7), (4 , 4, 2), (3, 3, 4)
8. Prove that
a) If u v u v then u v
b) If u.(v w) v(u w), then w u v
c) If the cosine of the angle between the vectors
2i kj and ki j is 3 then k 1 or k 2
10
67
UNIT-TWO
MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
Unit-2: Matrices and Determinants
UNIT OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this unit each student should able to:
Learn a matrix and know properties of matrices
Identify the properties of matrix operations
Realize inverses of a matrices
Define types of matrix
Work with elementary row/column operations
Understand about determinant of a matrix
Understand how to solve system of linear equations by using Cramer‘s rule.
Work with Eigen values and Eigen vectors of a matrix
Introduction
In working with a system of linear equations such as
x1 2 x2 3x3 x4 2
2 x1 3x2 7 x3 5x4 1
x1 10 x2 x3 2 x4 1
8x1 4 x2 11x3 8x4 0
Only the coefficients and their respective positions are important. Thus these coefficients can be
efficiently arranged in a rectangular array called a ''matrix''.
68
Moreover, certain abstract objects in higher mathematics can also be represented by matrices.
Thus, matrices can be used to solve systems of linear equations. They have also numerous
applications.
2.1 Definition of Matrix and Basic Operations
The concept of a Matrix
Definition 2.1: Let m, n be natural numbers. An (read ''m by n'') matrix is a collection of
mn numbers arranged in a rectangular array.
n columns
a11 a1 2 a1 n
a 21 a 2 2 a 2 n
' ' '
m rows
' ' '
' ' '
a m1 a m 2 a m n
in which each entry, ai j , of the matrix is a number. An matrix has m rows (horizontal
lines) and n columns (vertical lines).
Remarks
1. The numbers in the above matrix are called the matrix entries and are denoted by
ai j ,Where i, j are indices (which are natural numbers) with 1 i m and 1 j n.
The index i is called the row index or row subscript because it gives the position in
the horizontal lines, and j is the column index or column subscript because it gives the
position in the vertical lines. So aij is the entry which appears in the ith row and jth
column of the matrix.
2. The plural of matrix is matrices. If each entry of a matrix is a real number / complex
number, then the matrix is called a real/ complex matrix.
69
3. An mxn matrix is said to be of order mxn. If m=n, then the matrix is square of order n.
For a square matrix, the entries a11 , a2 2 , a3 3 , are called the main diagonal entries.
4. We can abbreviate the above matrix by writing A (ai j )mxn.
Example-1: Consider the matrix
[ √ ]
Since A has three rows and four columns, we say that A is a 3x4 matrix or A is a matrix of order
3x4.
Moreover, a11 0, a1 2 1, a13 2, a14 3
a21 e, a2 2 2, a2 3 1, a2 4 5, a31 1
2 , a3 2 3, a3 3 0, a3 4 10
Example-2: The following matrices have the indicated orders.
(a) Order: 1x1 (c) Order: 3x3
0 0 0
2 0 0 0
0 0 0
(b) Order: 1x4 (d) Order: 3x2
0 2 1 3 [ ]
The Algebra of Matrices
Equality of Matrices
Definition 2.2: Two Matrices A= ai j
and B= bi j are equal, denoted by A=B if and only if
I) they have the same order ( ) and
70
II) Such that 1 i m and 1 j n.
That is, two matrices of the same order are said to be equal if their corresponding entries are
equal.
Example-3: Solve for x, y, z and W in the following matrix equation:
x 1 0 2 y
5
z 1
w 2
Solution: Because two matrices are equal only if the corresponding entries are equal, we
conclude that: x 1 2, y 0, w 5 and z 1 2
x 1, y 0, w 5, z 1.
Addition and Subtraction of Matrices
be matrices of order mxn, then their sum is an mxn
Definition 2.3: Let A= ai j and B bi j
matrix given by A B a b That is, we add the two matrices of the same order by adding
ij ij
their corresponding entries and the sum of two matrices of different orders is undefined.
2 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0
Example-4: Let A = 4 0 1 , B = 1 3 , C =
3 2 2 2 4 0 0 1
Then find a) A+B b) A+C
Solution: a) Since A and B have different orders, we have A+B is undefined.
2 1 0 1 0 0
4 0 1
b) A+C = + 0 1 0
3 2 2 0 0 1
Definition 2.4: Let A and B be two Matrices of the same order then the difference of A and B,
denoted by A-B , is defined to be the matrix obtained by subtracting each element of B from the
71
corresponding elements of A. That is if ( ) ( ) , then
( ) .
1 2 3 2 3 0
Example-5: Let A= , B then
0 1 4 1 2 5
1 2 3 2 3 0 1 2 23 3 0 1 1 3
A B =
0 1 4 1 2 5 0 (1) 1 2 4 5 1 1 3
Note that: Two matrices of the same order are said to be conformable for addition and
subtraction. Only conformable matrices can be added or subtracted.
Multiplication of a matrix by scalar
Definition 2.5: Let A ai j mxn be a matrix and b be scalar, and then a scalar multiple of A
by b is an mxn matrix given by: bA bai j . That is, bA is an mxn matrix obtained from A by
multiplying each of its elements by b.
1 2 4 2 0 0
3 0 1 and B 1 4 3
Example-6: Let A= then find
2 1 2 1 3 2
a) 3A b) -B c) 3A-B
1 2 4 3(1) 3(2) 3(4) 3 6 12
3(2) 3(0) 3(1) 9 0 3
Solution: a) 3A 3 3 0 1
2 1 2 3(2) 3(1) 3(2) 6 3 6
2 0 0 (1)2 (1)0 (1)0 2 0 0
(1) 4 (1)3 1 4 3
b) B 1B (1) 1 4 3 (1)1
1 3 2 (1) 1 (1)3 (1)2 1 3 2
3 6 12 2 0 0 1 6 12
c) 3 A B 9 0 3 1 4 3 10 4 6
6 3 6 1 3 2 7 0 4
72
Note:
(1) If A is any matrix and b is any scalar then bA=Ab
(2) -A represent the scalar product (-1) A.
2.2 Product of matrices and some algebraic properties; Transpose of a matrix
Matrix Multiplication
It is a basic matrix operation. At first glance the following definition may seem unusual. You
will see later, however, that this definition of the product of two matrices has many practical
applications.
Definition 2.6: Let
A ai j be an mxn matrix and B bi j is an nxp matrix, then the
product AB is an mxp matrix given by AB ci j
n
where c ai k bk j
ij
k 1
ai 1 b1 j ai 2 b2 j ai 3 b3 j ai n bn j
That is, the ij th element of AB is obtained by multiplying each element of the i th row of A
(denoted by Ai) in to the corresponding element of the jth column of B (denoted by Bj) and
adding the products or equivalently, the ijth element of AB is the dot product of the ith row
vector of A by the jth column vector of B and hence AB ci j where ci j Ai .B j
.
1 3
3 2
Example-7: Let A 4 2 and B
4 1
, then find the product AB.
5 0
Solution: First note that the product AB is defined because A has order 3x2, and will take the
form.
73
1 3 c11 c12
4 2 3 2 c
4 1 21 c 22
5 0 c
31 c32
To find c11 (the entry in the first row and first column of the product) we take the dot product of
the first row of A and the first column of B That is,
[ ]* +
Similarly, to find c1 2 , we take the dot product of the first row of A and the second column of B
and hence c1 2 A1 B 2
2
(1 3).
2
(1) (2) (3)(1) 2 3 1
Continuing this pattern produces the following results.
3
c21 A2 B1 (4 2) . .(4) (3) (2)(4) 4
4
2
c22 A2 B 2 (4 2) . .(4) (2) (2)(1) 6
1
3
c31 A3 B1 (5 0). (5) (3) (0)(4) 15
4
2
c32 A3 B 2 (5 0). (5) (2) (0)(1) 10
1
Thus the product is
1 3 9 1
3 2
AB 4 2
4 1 4 6
5 0 15 10
Remarks
74
1. The product of two matrices A and B is defined if the number of columns Of A is equal
to the number of rows of B, say if A is an mxn matrix and B is an nxp matrix. In this
case, the product AB is an mxp matrix.
(ai j ) mxn and B (bi j ) nxp then
2. Let A=
A1 B1 A1 .B 2 A1 B 3 A1 .B p
AB= A2 .B1 A2 B 2 A3 B 3 A2 B p
A B1 A B 2 A B 3 A B p
m m m m
Where, A i . B j is the dot product of the ith row of A and jth column of B
i 1, 2, , m and j 1, 2, , p
.
3. If the product that AB is defined, then it is not necessary that BA must also be defined.
For instance, if A is of order 3x3 and B is of order 3x2, then clearly AB is defined but BA
is not defined, as the number of columns of B is not equal to the number of rows of A.
Properties of Matrix Operations
We begin by listing several properties of matrix addition and scalar multiplication
Theorem 2.1: Properties of Matrix Addition and scalar multiplication.
Let A, B, C be an mxn matrices and c and d be scalars, then the following properties are true.
1. A B B A -------------------------- commutative property of Addition
2. A ( B C) ( A B) C Associative property of Addition
3. (cd ) A c(dA)
4. 1 A A
5. c ( A B) cA cB ---------------------------Distributive property
6. (c d ) A cA dA Distributive property A
Proof:
75
Proof of these six properties follows directly from the definitions of matrix addition, scalar
multiplication, and the corresponding properties of scalars. For example, to prove the
commutative property of matrix addition, we let
A ai j and B bi j .Then, using the
commutative property of scalars, we have A B ai j bi j b
ij
ai j B A similarly, to
prove property 5, we use the distributive property for scalars of multiplication over addition and
hence c( A B) c(ai j bi j ) cai j cbi j cA cB.
The proofs of the remaining four properties are left as an exercise.
Note: If A is an mxn matrix and omn is the mxn matrix consisting entirely of zeros then
one can observe that A+ omn =A. We call omn a zero matrix or null matrix and it serves as
0 0 0
the additive identity for the set of all mxn matrices. For example, the matrix 0 2 3
0 0 0
serves as the additive identity for the set of all 2x3 matrices.
Theorem 2.2: Properties of zero Matrices
Let A be an mxn matrix and c be a scalar then
a) A Om n A
b) A ( A) Om n
c) cA Om n c o or A Om n
Proof: Left as an exercise.
Remarks :
1. Property b) above can be described by saying that the matrix-A is the additive inverse of A
2. The algebra of real numbers (scalars) and the algebra of matrices have many similarities.
Theorem 2.3: Properties of Matrix Multiplication
Let A,B and C be matrices with orders such that the given matrix products are defined and b is a
scalar, then the following properties are true.
76
a) A( BC ) ( AB)C ---------------------Associative property of multiplication
b) A( B C ) AB AC ----------------Left distributive property
c) ( A B)C AC BC ---------------Right distributive property
d) b( AB) (bA) B A(bB)
Proof: Exercise
Activity
1 2 3 4
1. Let A and B then solve for X in the equation 3X+A=B
0 3 2 1
1 7 0 1 1
1 0 5
2. Let A , B 3 1 0 and C 2 0 then show that
7 2 0 1 0 5 0 4
A(BC) =(AB)C
2 3
1 2 3 3 4 5
3. Consider A 1 1 , B andC
5 6 7
then show that
3 4 5
0 4
a) A( B C ) AB AC
b) ( B C ) A BA CA
1 3 2 1
4. Let A and B= then show that AB BA and conclude that matrix
2 1 0 2
multiplication is not commutative.
Definition 2.7: Identity matrix
A special type of square matrix of order n that has 1's on the main diagonal and 0's elsewhere is
called the identity matrix of order n and it is denoted by I n .
77
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
That is, I n 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
It serves as the identity for matrix multiplication.
For instance, if n = 1, 2, or 3, we have
1 0 0
1 0
I1 1, I 2 , I 3 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
Properties of the identity Matrix
Theorem 2.4: If A is a matrix of order mxn, then
a) A I n A
b) I m A A
c) If m=n then A I n I n A A
Proof: Left as an exercise
Example-8:
2
2 3
Let A , B 1 then
5 6 4
2 3 1 0 2 3
a) AI 2 A I 2 A
5 6 0 1 5 6
1 0 0 2 2
b) I 3 B 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 4 4
78
Note: For repeated multiplication of square matrices, we use the same exponential
notation used with real numbers.
That is, A1 A
A2 AA and for k N
We define Ak AA A K factors
It is convenient also to define A0= I n , where A is a square matrix of order n
As a result one can observe that the following properties.
a) A j Ak A j k
b) ( A j ) k A jk
Types of Matrices: Square, Identity, Scalar, Diagonal, Triangular, Symmetric,
and Skew Symmetric Matrices
1) Row Matrix: A matrix which has only one row. It is a 1xn matrix, where n is arbitrary
natural number. It is also called a row vector
Example-1: (-1 0 0 4) is a row matrix with order 1x4.
(1 -2 -3) is a 1x3 row matrix.
2) Column Matrix: A matrix which has one column. It is also called a column vector.
2
1
Example-2: is a 3 by 1 column matrix.
5
3) Zero matrix: is a matrix of arbitrary size in which all the entries are zero. It is also called
null matrix and denoted by O.
Example-3: The following are null matrices
79
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
order 1x2 order 2x2 order 3x2
4) A square matrix: Is a matrix where the number of rows is equal to the number of columns.
It is an nxn matrix; where n N .
1 0 3
2 1 4 1 3
Example 4:
3 8 6 7 1 2
Square matrix of square matrix of
Order 2x 2 order 3x3
Let A ai j be a square matrix of order n, then
a) The entries ai i ; 1 i n are called main diagonal entries of A.
b) The sum of the main diagonal entries of A is called the trace of A and it is denoted by
n
Tr ( A) That is, Tr ( A) a11 a 22 a33 a nn aii
i 1
Example-5: Find the trace of the following matrix
1 2 3 1 0 0
(a) A 0 2 4 (b) B 0 1 0
3 1 3 0 0 1
3
Solution: (a) T r ( A) aii 1 2 3 2
i 1
3
(b) Tr ( B) bii b11 b22 b33 1 1 1 3
i 1
80
5) Diagonal Matrix: Is a square matrix in which all entries that are not on the main diagonal are
zero.
Example-6: The following are Diagonal matrices
1 0 0 2 0 0
(a) 0 2 0
(b) 0 3 0
0 0 2 0 0 0
a11 0 0 0
0 a 22 0 0
(c) 0 0 a33 0
0 0 0 a nn
Note: If A (ai j )nxn is a diagonal matrix then ai j O i j while aii can be zero or
different from zero.
6) Scalar Matrix: Is a diagonal matrix whose main diagonal elements are equal. That is, if
A (ai j ) is a square matrix such that
0 , if i j
ai j Where c is a scalar, then A is called scalar matrix.
c , if i j
3 0 0
Example-7: D 0 3 0
0 0 3
7) Identity Matrix: Is a diagonal matrix in which all the main diagonal elements are equal to 1.
It is also called a unit matrix.
1 0 0
1 0
Example-8 : 1 , , 0 1 0 are unit matrices of order 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
0 1 0 0 1
Note
81
1. The nxn identity matrix is denoted by I n
.
2. The identity matrix behaves like 1 in multiplication of numbers: If A is a mxn matrix,
then Im A = A and A I n A .
1 0 1
3- I n Are some short hand ways of drawing the matrix I n .
0 1 1
8) Upper triangular Matrix: Is a square matrix in which all the elements below the main
diagonal are zero. That is, if A (ai j )nxn is a square matrix such that
ai j 0 for all i j then A is said to be upper triangular matrix.
Example-9:
1 0 0 0
1 2 3 0 1
0 0
A 0 2 0 , B are upper triangular matrices of order 3 and 4 respectively.
0 0 1 0
0 0 8
0 0 0 1
9) Lower triangular matrix: Is a square matrix whose entries above the main diagonal are 0.
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
Example-10: 1 0 0, are lower triangular matrices of order 3 and 4
0 0 1 0
2 3 1
0 0 0 1
respectively.
Note :
1) We often indicate that a whole region in a matrix consists of zeros by leaving it blank
or by putting in a single O.
2) We use * to indicate an arbitrary undetermined entry of a matrix.
Definition 2.8: The Transpose of a Matrix
82
Let [ ]be an matrix. Then the transpose of , denoted by At (and sometimes by
, is the matrix obtained interchanging rows and columns to produce the matrix
[ ] [ ]
Example-11: The Transpose of a matrix
3 2 1
3
(a) A (b) B 4 1 0
4 0 0 1
a11 a12 a13 a1n
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 2 n
(c) C a31 a32 a33 a3n
a a a a
m1 m 2 m 3 mn
a11 a 21 a31 a m1
a a a32 a m 2
3 4 0 12 22
Solution: (a) A 3 4 (b) B 2 1 0
t t
(c) C a13 a 23
t
a33 a m 3
1 0 1
a1n a 2 n a3n a mn
Theorem 2.5: Properties of Transposes
Let A and B be matrices with orders such that the given matrix operations are defined and c is a
scalar, then the following properties are true
(a) ( At ) t A Transpose of transpose
(b) ( A B) t At B t Transpose of a sum
(c) (cA) t c( At ) Transpose of a scalar multiple
(d) ( AB) t B t A t Transpose of a product
(e) ( I n ) t I n
83
Proof: Exercise
Definition 2.9: A matrix A is said to be symmetric if it is equal to its transpose. That is, if At =A
then A is called symmetric matrix.
Note: A symmetric matrix is necessarily a square matrix
1 1 2
Example-12: Let A 1 0 3 then since A=At we have A is symmetric
2 3 7
Definition 2.10: A square matrix a is said to be skew-symmetric if At = -A.
2 0
Example-13: Let A , then At A and hence A is skew symmetric.
2 0
2.3 Elementary Operations and Its Properties
Elementary Row Operations
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 1
Consider the matrices A 4 5 6 and B 1 2 3, C 2 1 2,
0 0 1 0 0 1 3 1 1
2 4 2 1 2 1 1 2 1
D 2 1 2 E 3 1 1 and F 0 7 4
3 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2
Observe that:
I) B is obtained from A by interchanging the first and second rows of A
II) D is obtained from C by multiplying the first row of C by -2
III) F is obtained from matrix E by replacing the second row of E by a new row
This is made up by multiplying the first row by -3 and adding to the second row of E. Such
operations on rows of a matrix as described above in (i), (ii) and (iii) are called elementary row
84
operations. These operations will be very useful in finding inverse of a matrix and solving
systems of linear equations.
Similarly, elementary column operations can be defined. Hence we have the following
definition
Definition 2.11: An elementary operation on a matrix is either elementary row operation or
elementary column operation and is of the following three types.
Type I: The interchange of any two rows or (columns).
Type II: The multiplication of any row or (column) by a non zero number.
Type III: The addition of a multiple of one row (or column) to another row (or column).
Notations: We shall use the following notations for the three types of elementary
operations.
1. The interchange of ith and jth rows (columns) is denoted by Ri R j ( Ci C j ) .
2. The multiplication of the ith row (column) by a none zero number k is denoted by
Ri kRi (Ci kCi )
.
3. The addition of k times the jth row (column) to ith row (column) is denoted by X
R j R j kRi ( C j C j kCi ) .
Note:
a) Ri kRi means replace the ith row by k times the ith row
b) R j R j kRi Means replace the ith row by the sum of itself and k times the jth row.
c) Although elementary operations are simple to perform, they involve a lot of
arithmetic Because it is easy to make a mistake, we suggest that you get in the habit of
noting the elementary operation performed in each step so that you can go back to check
your work
85
0 0 1 2
2
Example 1: Give a matrix A 2 3 0
3 3 6 9
Interchange rows 1 and 3 of A
3 3 6 9
2 3 0 2
0 0 1 2
1
Multiply the third row of A by
3
0 0 1 2
2 3 0 2
1 1 2 3
Multiply the second row of A by -2, then add to the third row of A
0 0 1 2
2 3 0 2
1 3 6 5
Definition 2.12: Row Equivalent and column Equivalent Matrices
Two matrices are said to be row-equivalent or (column equivalent) if one can be obtained from
the other by a finite sequence of elementary row or (column) operations. That is,
row
a) A (aij )mxn is row equivalent to B (bij )mxn denoted by A B if B is attainable from A
by successive operations of finitely many elementary row operations on A.
column
A (aij )mxn is column equivalent to B (bij )mxn denoted by A B if B is attainable
b)
from A by successive operations of finitely many elementary column operations on A.
86
1 2 0 1 3 3
Example-1: Let A 3 1 2 , B 1 4 3 , then show that
2 3 2 1 3 4
1 2 0
(a) A 3 1 2 ,
row row
(b) B I 3
2 3 2
Solution:
1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0
R2 3 R1 R2
(a) A 3 1 2
0 7 2 0 7
R3 2 R1 R3
2
2 3 2 2 3 2 0 7 2
1 2 0
0 7
R3 2 R1 R3
2
0 0 0
1 3 3 1 3 3 1 3 3
(b) B 1 4 3 0
R2 R2 R3
1 0 0
R3 R3 R1
1 0
1 3 4 1 3 4 0 0 0
1 0 3 1 0 0
0 1
R1 R1 3 R2
0 0 1
R1 R1 3 R3
0
0 0 0 0 0 0
Elementary Matrices
Definition 2.13: Definition of Elementary Matrix
Let A be an nxn matrix such that A can be Obtained from In by a single elementary row/column
operation then A is called an elementary matrix.
Example-2: Elementary Matrices and Non elementary Matrices
Which of the following matrices are elementary? For those that are describe the corresponding
elementary row operation.
87
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
(a) A I n (b) B 0 4 0 (c) C (d ) D
0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0
(e) E 0 0 1 ( f ) F 0 2 0 ( g ) G
4 1
0 1 0 0 0 1
Solution: (a) Since A I n can be obtained from itself by multiplying any one of its rows by 1.
R1 1R1
i.e. I n A we have I n is elementary matrix.
(b) Since B can be obtained from I 3 by multiplying the second row of is
R2 4 R2
I 3 by 4 we have I 3 B and hence B is an elementary matrix
(c) Since C is obtained by multiplying the fourth row of I 4 by 0 we have C is not
elementary matrix. Note that, row multiplication must be a non zero constant.
(d) D is not elementary because it is not square marix.
R2 R3
(e) Since I 3 E we've E is elementary.
(f) This matrix is not elementary because two elementary row operations are required to
obtain it from I 3 .
R2 4 R1 R2
(g) Since I 2 G we have G is elementary.
Note Elementary Matrices are useful because they enable us to use matrix multiplication
to perform elementary row/ column operations.
Example-3: Elementary Matrices and Elementary Row Operations
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Let E1 1 0 0 , E2 0
1 0 , E3 2 1 0
2
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
88
0 2 1 1 0 4 1 1 0 1
Let A1 1 3 6 , A2 0 2 6 4 and 2 2 3
3 2 1 0 1 3 1 0 4 5
Then
1 3 6
(a) E1 A1 0 2 1 , this product matrix is a matrix obtained by interchanging the first two
3 2 1
rows of A. And E1 is an elementary matrix in which the first two rows of I 3 has been
interchanged.
1 0 4 1
(b) E2 A2 0 1 3 2
0 1 3 1
Here, E2 is an elementary matrix in which the second row of I 3 has been multiplied by 1
2 and
1
R2 R2
A2
E2 A2 .
2
1 0 1
(c) E3 A3 0 2 1 . R2 2 R1 R2
Here, I 3 R2 2 R1 R2
E3 and A3 E3 A3
0 4 5
Definition 2.14: Let A, B be an mxn matrices. We say that A is equivalent to B, denoted by
A B , if B can be attainable from A by successive application of finitely many elementary row
or column operations.
Definition 2.15: (Elementary matrices are Invertible.) If E is an elementary matrix, then E 1
exists and is an elementary matrix.
Proof: Since elementary operations are reversible then to find the inverse of an elementary
matrix E, we simply reverse the elementary row operation used to obtain E.
If E is an elementary matrix such that
89
R R
(a) I n
i
j E then put E 1 E .
Ri CRi
(b) I n E then put E 1 E1 where E1 is an elementary matrix such that
1
Ri Ri
I n
C
E1
R R CR
(c) I n
i
i
j E then put E 1 E2 where E2 is an elementary matrix
R R CR
such that I n
i
i
j E2 . And to check that EE 1 I n E 1 E .
Example-5:
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Let E1 1 0 0 , E2 0 1 0 and E3 0 1 0 then
1
0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0
2
1 0 0 1 0 0
E E1 , E 0 1 0 and E3 0 1 0
1
1 1
2
1
2 0 1 0 0 2
Row Reduced Echelon form of a Matrix
1. Row-Echelon Matrix
Definition 2.16: Definition of Row-Echelon Form of a Matrix
A matrix is said to be in row-echelon form if
1. All the non-zero rows, if any, precede all zero rows, if any. That is, all rows
Consisting entirely of zeros occur at the bottom of the matrix.
2. In any non-zero row after the first row, the number of zeros preceding the first non-
Zero elements is greater than the number of such zeros in the preceding row.
That is, the first non-zero entry of row i+1 is to the right of the first non-zero entry
of row i.
90
3. The first non-zero entry in each non-zero row is 1. This entry is called a pivot or
a leading 1.
Example-1: Determine whether the given matrix is in row-echelon form or not.
1 2 1 4 0 1 0 5
a) 0 1 0 3 b) 0 0 1 3
0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2
c) 0 2 1 1 d ) 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 3 0 1 1 4
Solution: The matrices shown in parts (a) and (b) are in row-echelon form, while the matrices
shown in parts (c) and (d) are not in row-echelon form.
2 1 1 3
1 1 2 1
Example 2: Transform A to row echelon form by applying suitable
4 6 7 1
2 0 1 3
row operations.
2 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1
1 1 2 1 R R 2 R2 R2 2 R1 0 3 5 1
1 1 3
Solution: 1
2
R R 4R
4 6 7 1 4 6 7 1 3 3 1 0 2 1 5
2 0 1 3 2 0 1 3 R4 R4 2 R1
0 2 3 1
1 1 2 1 R3 R 2 R 1 1 2 1
0 1 6 4 3 2
0 1 6 4
R R R
2 2
R4 R4 2 R2
5
3
0 2 1 0 0 13 13
0 2 3 1 0 0 9 9
91
1 1 2 1
1 1 2 1
0 1 6 4 R 4 R 9 R 0 1 6 4
1
R R
2
13 3
4
3
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 9 9 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 1
0 1 6 4
Therefore, the row echelon form of A is .
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
Note: One can show that every matrix is row equivalent to a matrix in row-echelon form.
Definition 2.17: Definition of Reduced Row-Echelon Form of a matrix.
A matrix M in row-echelon form is in reduced row-echelon form if the first non-zero element in
each non-zero row is the only non-zero element in its column.
That is, M is in reduced row-echelon form if M is in row-echelon form and if every column that
has a leading 1 has zeros in every position above and below its leading 1.
Note that: It can be shown that the reduced row echelon matrix obtained from a given
matrix A by elementary operations is unique. That is, that it does not depend on the particular
sequence of operations used.
Example 1:
1 2 0 0 2 1 0 0 3 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
and
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0
are the matrices in reduced row echelon form. Where as the matrix
92
1 2 3 4
0 1 2 5
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 0
is not in reduced row echelon form but in row echelon form since the matrix has the first 3
properties and all the other entries above the leading 1 in the third column are not 0. The matrix
1 0 3 4
0 1 2 5
0 1 2 2
0 0 0 0
are not in row echelon form (also not in reduced row echelon form) since the leading 1 in the
second row is not in the left of the leading 1 in the third row and all the other entries above the
leading 1 in the third column are not 0.
Remarks:
1. Any m n matrix A can be changed to row echelon form or reduced row echelon form
by applying appropriate sequence of elementary operations.
2. Different sequences of elementary row operations starting with same matrix A may
yield different row echelon forms of A .
Example-2: The following matrices are in reduced row-echelon
1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 5
1 0 2 0 0 1 3
(a)
0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
93
Theorem 2.6: Let A be an mxn matrix, then A is row equivalent to an mxn reduced row-
echelon form of a matrix.
Proof: Exercise
Example: Find the unique reduced row-echelon matrix that is row equivalent to the matrix
2 6 7 9
3 4 5 1
1 2 3 1
2 5 8 4
1 2 2 10
Solution: Let us apply Row operation to get the reduced row echelon form of A .
2 6 7 9 1 2 3 1
3 4 5 1 3 4 5 1
R R
1 2 3 1 1
3 2 6 7 9
2 5 8 4 2 5 8 4
1 2 2 10 1 2 2 10
R R 3 R
2 2 1
R R 2 R 1 2 3 1
3 3 1
R R 2 R 0
4 4 1 2 4 4
R R R
5 5 1 0 2 1 5
0 1 2 2
0 4 5 11
R R 2 R
1 2 3 1 3 3 2
R R R 1 2 3 1
R R
1 0 4 4 2
1 2 2 R R 4 R 0 2
2 2 2 1 2
0 2 1
5 5
5 2
0 0 3 3
0 1 2 2
0 0 0 0
0 4 5 11
0 0 3 3
94
1 2 3 1
0 2
R R R 1 2 3 1 R 1R 1 2
0 2
2 32
5 53
1 2 0 0 1 1
0 0 3 3
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 3
0 1 2 2 R R R 1 0 0 4
R R 2 R R1 R1 23R 0 1 0 4
1 1
0
2 0 1 1 2 2 3
0 1
0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Hence the reduced row echelon form of A is
1 0 0 4
0 1 0 4
0 0 1 1 .
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Rank of a matrix
The rank of a matrix A , denoted by rank ( A ), is the number of nonzero rows remaining after it
has been changed into row echelon or reduced row echelon form.
Remark: If A is zero matrix then rank ( A ) is 0 .
Example 1: Determine the rank of the following matrices.
1 0 0 1
3 1 2 3 1
1 2 6
a) A b) B 3 6 9 3
1 2 5 4
2 4 6 2
2 3 7 2
95
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
3 1 2 6 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Solution: a) ~ ~ ~ ~
1 2 5 4 0 2 5 3 0 0 1 9 0 0 1 9
2 3 7 2 0 3 7 0 0 0 1 9 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 21
0 0 1 9
0 0 0 0
Hence, rank ( A ) = 3 by using elementary row operations.
1 2 3 1 1 2 3 1
3 6 9 3 0 0 0 0
b). ~ . Therefore, rank ( B) 1
2 4 6 2 0 0 0 0
2.4 Inverse of a matrix and its properties
Definition 2.18: An nxn matrix A is invertible (or nonsingular) if there exists an nxn matrix B
such that AB I n BA; where I n is the identity matrix of order n. The matrix B is called the
(multiplicative) inverse of A. A matrix that doesn't have an inverse is called noninvertible (or
singular). The inverse of a matrix A is donated by A 1 .
Example-14: Find the inverse of the following matrices
1 1 2 1
(a) A (b) B
0 1 5 3
Solution: (a) To find the inverse of A. We try to solve the matrix equation
AX I for X But , AX I
1 1 x11 x12 1 0
x x
0 1 21 22 0 1
x11 x21 x12 x22 1 0
x21 x22 0 1
96
Now, by equation the corresponding entries, we obtain the following two systems of linear
equations.
x11 x21 1 and x12 x 22 0
x21 0 x 22 1
x11 1, x21 0, x12 1 and x22 1
x x 1 1
x 11 12
x21 x22 0 1
1 1
Therefore, the inverse of A is A 1 x
0 1
b11 b12
(b) Suppose B 1 1
be the inverse of B then B B I 2 B B
1
But,
b22 b22
B B 1 I 2
2 1 b11 b12 1 0
b b 0 1
5 3 21 22
2b11 b21 2b12 b22 1 0
5b11 3b21 5b12 3b22 0 1
2b11 b21 1 and 2b12 b22 0
5b11 3b21 0 5b12 3b22 1
b11 3, b21 5, b12 1 and b22 2
b b 3 1
B 1 11 12 =
b21 b22 5 2
In fact, one can check that B B 1 I 2 B 1 B .
97
Remarks
1. Non square matrices do not have inverses. To see this, note that if A is of order mxn and B
is of order nxm (where m n) , then the products AB and BA are of different orders and
therefore could not be equal to each other.
1 2
2. Not all square matrices possess inverse. For example, the matrix doesn't have
1 2
inverse
3. We will see later that square matrix A is invertible if there is a square matrix B such that
either one of the two relations AB I or BA I holds, or then B is the inverse of A.
Theorem 2.7: Uniqueness of an Inverses Matrix
If A is an invertible matrix, then its inverse is unique
Proof: Since A is invertible, we know that it has at least one inverse B such that AB I BA.
Suppose that A has another inverse C such that AC I CA, then
B I B (CA) B
C ( AB); Why ?
CI j why ?
=C
B C And it follows that the inverse of a matrix is unique.
Theorem 2.8: Properties of Inverse Matrices
Let A be an invertible matrix, k N and C is a scalar then the following are true
(a) ( A1 ) 1 A
A
(b) ( Ak ) 1 1 1
A 1
A
k factors
(c) (cA) 1 c 1 A1 ; c 0
98
(d) ( At ) 1 ( A1 )t
Proof:
(a) Suppose A 1 A1 is the inverse of A
A1 A I AA1
the inverse of A1 is A ; by definition of an inverse
( A1 ) 1 A
(c) Since (cA)(c 1 A1 ) (cc 1 ) AA1 ; by property of scalar multiplication.
(1) I
I
And (c 1 A1 )(cA) (c 1c) A1 A (1) I I we have (cA)(c 1 A1 ) I (c 1 A1 )(cA)
And if follows that c 1 A1 is the inverse of cA .
(cA) 1 c 1 A1.
As an exercise show property b & d.
Note: For nonsingular matrices, the exponential notion used for repeated multiplication
of square matrices can be extended to include exponents that are negative integers. This may
be done by defying A k to be .
A k
A
1 1
A 1
A
k factors
With this convention we can show that the following properties.
(a) A j Ak A j k
(b) ( A j ) k A jk ) for any integers j and K .
Theorem 2.9: The inverse of a product
99
Let A and B be invertible matrices of order n, then AB is invertible and
( AB) 1 B 1 A1 .
Proof: Since ( AB)( B 1 A1 ) A( BB 1 ) A1
A( I ) A 1
( AI ) A 1
AA 1
I
And in a similar way we can show that
( B 1 A1 )( AB) I we have ( AB)( B 1 A1 ) I and hence we get B 1 A1 is the inverse of AB.
B 1 A1 ( AB) 1 and AB is invertible .
Remarks
1. The above Theorem says that the inverse of a product of two invertible matrices is the
product of their inverses taken in the reverse order. This can be generalized to include
the product of several invertible matrices.
( A1 A2 An ) 1 An1 An11 A31 A21 A11
2. The inverse of AB is usually not equal to A1 B 1.
Theorem 2.10: Cancellation Properties
Let C be an invertible matrix, then the following properties hold.
(a) If AC = BC, then A = B ------------- Right cancellation property
(b) If CA = CB, then A = B ------------- Left cancellation property
Proof: (a) Suppose AB = BC, then since C is invertible we have ( AC )C 1 ( BC )C 1
A(CC 1 ) B(CC 1 )
AI BI
AB
100
(b) Similar to (a)
Note If C is not invertible then cancellation is not usually valid and hence Theorem 2.16
can be applied only if C is an invertible Matrix.
Elementary Matrices and Non Singularity
Recall that an elementary matrix is nonsingular as the inverse of the elementary operation
1
Ri R j , Ri cRi and Ri cR j Ri are Ri R j , Ri Ri and Ri Ri cR j respectively
c
Theorem 2.11: Let A be an nxn matrix then A is row-equivalent to In if and only if A is
nonsingular.
row
Proof: () suppose A I n then by corollary 3.1 we get I n PA ; where P is a product of finite
number of elementary matrices.
A1 P
A is invertible or non singular.
row
() Suppose A is an invertible then by theorem 3.13 we have A B ; where B is a reduced
row-echelon matrix.
Claim B I n
Let B (bi j )nxn
If bi j 0 i 1, 2, , n then the structure of a matrix of reduced echelon form
guarantes that B I n .
If bi i 0 bi j 0 for some i and i is the first such element on the diagonal of B
Case-1 i n then the nth row is a row of zeros
Case-2 i n
101
Consider the (i 1)th row B
It has at lest i 1 zeros before the first non-zero entry then one of the rows after the ith row must
be a row of zeros, Hence, in both cases, we have at least one row of zeros in B. But B is
invertible and hence B 1 exists. Thus BB 1 I n has at least one row of zeros; which is
contradiction. Therefore, B I n .
Corollary: A property of Invertible Matrices
A square matrix A of order n is invertible if and only if it can be written as a product of
elementary matrices.
Proof: Exercise
Corollary: Let A be an nxn matrix. If A can be reduced to In by a sequence of elementary row
operations, then the same sequence of elementary row operations performed on In produces A-1 .
Proof: Exercise
Remark: Finding the Inverse of a Matrix by Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Let A be a square matrix of order n
1. Write the nx2n matrix that consists of the given matrix A on the left and the nxn
identity matrix I on the right to obtain A / I Note that we separate the matrices A and
I by a line. We call this process adjoining the matrices A and I.
2. If possible, row reduces A to I using elementary row operations on the entire matrix
A / I . The result will be the matrix I / A .
1
If this is not possible, then A is not
invertible.
3. Check your work by multiplying to see that AA1 I A1 A .
Example-5: Finding the Inverse of a matrix
1 1 0
A 1 0 3 .
6 2 3
102
Solution: We begin by adjoining the identity matrix to A to form the matrix
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
A I 1 0 1 0 RR1 R2 R3 6 R1 R3
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
6 2 3 0 0 1 0 4 3 6 0 1 0 4 3 6 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
R3 4 R2 R3 R3 R3
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 2 4 1 0 0 1 2 4 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 3 1
R3 R2 R3 R1 R2 R1
0 1 0 3 3 1 0 1 0 3 3 1 I A1
0 0 1 2 4 1 0 0 1 2 4 1
2 3 1
Therefore, A is invertible and its inverse is A 3 3 1 .
1
2 4 1
Activity:
1. Find the inverse of the following matrix by using Gauss-Jordan elimination
1 1 2 1
2 2 4 2
3 1 3 4 1
A 2 3 2 , B , C 3
2 2 3 3 1
1 1 1
1 2 3 1
2. Show that the following matrices have no inverses
1 2 0
3 1
A 3 1 2 , B
2 3 2 6 2
Note: - Using Gauss-Jordan elimination to find the inverse of a matrix works well (even
as a computer technique) for matrices of order 3x3or greater. For 2x2 matrices, however,
many people prefer to use a formula for the inverse, rather than find the inverse by Gauss-
Jordan elimination. The formula is given by:
103
1 d b a b
A1 where A with ad bc 0.
ad bc c a c d
Thus A is invertible if and only if ad bc 0. Why?
2.5 Determinant of a Matrix and Its Properties
Consider a system of linear equations
ax by e
cx dy f
You recall that, one of the methods available to us to solve such a system was the elimination
method. In this unit, using determinants, we shall exhibit a very efficient computational method
to solve system of linear equations. We first define determinant and study its properties.
Definition 2.19: To every square matrix A with elements from the set of real numbers there is
assigned a specific real number called the determinant of A. It is usually denoted by
de t ( A) or A .
a11 a12 a1n a11 a12 a1n
a a a a a a2n
Let A 21 22 2n
then det er min ant of A is denoted by 21 22
a n1 a n 2 a nn a n1 a n 2 a nn
Remarks:
(i). Observe that determinant is a function from the set of all square matrices to the set of real
numbers, and it is defined only for square matrix. In fact, if A (ai j ) is a square matrix over a
field F a ij F then A F . In particular for F The set of complex numbers then
det A . From now on wards unless we have stated we consider matrices over R.
(ii).The determinant of an nxn matrix is called determinant of order n. Before we go to the
definition of determinant of order n(n N ) we shall consider determinants of order 1, 2
and 3.
104
You recall that a single number a is considered as a 1x1 matrix. Hence if A=
a11 then det er min ant of A is defined to be the number itself. That is, det( A) a11 a11.
1) Determinant of order two
a b
Definition 2.20: The determinant of the 2x 2 matrix A is defined to be the number ad-
c d
a b
bc. That is, det A= ad bc
c d .
A convenient method for remembering the formula is to note that ad bc is just the difference
of the products of diagonally opposite entries.
a b
That is, A ad bc
c d
Example-1: Find the determinants of the following matrices
2 3 3 1 1 2
(a) A (b) B (c ) C
1 2 6 2 6 4
Solution:
2 3
(a) A (2) (2) (3) (1) 4 3 7
1 2
3 1
(b) B (3) (2) (6) (1) 6 6 0
6 2
1 2
(c) C (1) (4) (6) (2) 4 12 8
6 4
Remark: Note that the determinant of a matrix A can be positive, zero, or negative.
Definition 2.21 : Definition of Minors and cofactors of a matrix
105
Let A ai j be a square matrix then
1-The determinant of the matrix obtained by deleting or removing the i th row and j th column of
A is called the minor of the element ai j and it is denoted by M i j .
That is, M i j Ai j ; where Ai j is a matrix in which the i th row and j th column of A are
removed.
2- The product of the minor of the element ai j and the number (1) i j is called the cofactor of
ai j and it is denoted by Ci j , That is , Ci j (1) i j M i j (1) i j Ai j
21 0
Example-2: Find all the minors and cofactors of A 1 1 4
3 2 5
Solution: To find the minor M i j of ai j , we delete the i th row j th column of A and evaluate the
determinant of the resulting matrix
14
Minor of a11 M 11 A11 (1( (5) (2) (4) 3
25
1 4
Minor of a12 M 12 A12 (1( (5) (4) (3) 17,
3 5
1 1
Minor of a13 M 13 A13 (1( (5) (1) (2) (1) (3) 5,
3 2
1 0
Minor of a 21 M 21 A21 (1) (5) 0.2 5,
2 5
2 0
Minor of a 22 M 22 A22 (2) (5) 0(3) 10,
3 5
2 1
Minor of a 23 M 23 A23 (2) (2) (1) (3) 7,
3 2
106
1 0
Minor of a31 M 31 A31 (1) (4) (0) (1) 4,
1 4
2 0
Minor of a32 M 32 A32 (2) (4) (0) (1) 8,
1 4
2 1
Minor of a33 M 33 A33 (2) (1) (1) (1) 1,
1 1
Now, to find the cofactor Ci j of a i j , we multiply M i j with (1) i j
C11 (1)11 M 11 3 C21 (1) 21 M 21 5 C31 (1) 31 M 31 4
C12 (1)12 M 12 17 C22 (1) 22 M 22 10 C32 (1) 32 M 32 8
C13 (1)13 M 13 5 C23 (1) 23 M 23 7 C33 (1) 33 M 33 1
Remark
(i). The minors and cofactors of a matrix differ at most in sign. To obtain the cofactors of a
matrix, first find the minors and then apply the following checker board pattern of +‘s and –
‗s.
Sign Pattern for Cofactors
3x3 marix 4 x 4 matrix nxn matrix
Note that odd positions (where i+j is odd) have negative signs, and even positions (where i+j
is even) have positive signs.
ii) If A is an nxn matrix, then the order of Ai j is (n 1) x(n 1) )
2) Determinant of Order Three
107
Definition 2.22: The determinant of the 3x3 matrix
a11 a12 a13
A a 21 a 22 a 23 is defined to be the number A a11 C11 a12 C12 a13 C13
a31 a32 a33
= a11 (1)11 M 11 a12 (1)12 M 12 a13 (1)13 M 13
= a11 A11 a12 A12 a13 A13
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22
= a11 a12 a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a11a22a33 a12a23a31 a13a21a32 a11a23a32 a12a21a 33a13a22a31
Remarks: The formula used to compute determinants is known as expansion by a row
(column). Thus, if we consider the first row, then the determinant of A will be equal to the
sum of the products obtained by multiplying the elements of the first row by their respective
cofactors.
0 2 1
Example-3: Let A 3 1 2 , then A
4 0 1
(a) By expanding along the first row
(b) By expanding along the second row
(c) By expanding along the first column
Solution:
1 2 3 2 3 1
(a) c11 1 , c12 (5) 5 , and c13 4
0 1 4 1 4 0
Thus, A a11c11 a12c12 a13c13 , first row expansion
0(1) 2(5) 1(4) 14
108
2 1 0 1 0 2
(b) Since c21 2 , c22 4, and c23 (8) 8 we have
0 1 4 1 4 0
A a21c21 a22c22 a23c23 , second row expansion
= 3(-2)+(-1)(-4)+2(8)
= 14
1 2 2 1 2 1
(c) Since c11 1 , c21 2, and c31 5 we have
0 1 0 1 1 2
A a11c11 a21c21 a31c31 , first column expansion
= 0(-1)+3(-2)+4(5) = 14
As an exercise try some other possibilities to see that the determinant of A can be evaluated by
expanding by any row or any column. This result is stated formally called Lap lace‘s Expansion
of a determinant, after the French Mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827).
3) Determinant of order n
Definition 2.23: Definition of the Determinant of a Matrix
Let A be a square Matrix of order n where n>2, then the determinant of A is the sum of the
entries in the first row of A multiplied by their cofactors, That is,
n
A a1 j c1 j a11c11 a12c12 a1n c1n .
j 1
When this definition is used to evaluate a determinant, we say that we are expanding by
cofactors.
Theorem 2.12: Expansion by cofactor
Let A be a square matrix of order n, then the determinant of A is given
n
A ai j ci j ai1ci1 ai 2 ci 2 ai n ci n (ith row expansion) or
j 1
109
n
A ai j ci j a1 j c1 j a j 2 c2 j an j cn j (jth column expansion)
i 1
Proof: Exercise
Note: when expanding by cofactors we do not need to evaluate the cofactors of zero
entries, because a zero entry times its cofactor is zero. That is, ai j ci j (0)ci j 0 . Thus the
row (or column) containing the most zeros is usually the best choice for expansion by
cofactors.
1 2 3 0
1 1 0 2
Example-4: Find the determinant of A
0 2 0 3
3 4 0 2
Solution: Inspecting this matrix, we see that in third column of A we have more number of zeros
than the other rows and columns. Thus we can eliminate some of the work in the expansion by
using the third column.
Therefore,
A a13c13 a23c23 a33c33 a43c43
3c13 0(c23 ) 0(c33 ) 0(c43 )
3c13
But
1 1 2 1 1 2
c13 1
13
0 2 3 0 2 3
3 4 2 3 4 2
Again, expanding by cofactors in the second row we get
1 2 1 2 1 1
c13 (0)(1) 3 (2)(1) 4 (3)(1) 5
4 2 3 2 3 4
= 0 + 2(1)(-4) + 3(-1)(-7) = 13 .
110
Thus we obtain A 3(13) 39 .
Theorem 2.13: Determinant of a Triangular matrix
Let A ai j be a triangular matrix of order n, and then its determinant is the product of the
entries on the main diagonal.
Proof: We use mathematical induction to prove this theorem for the case in which A is an upper
triangular matrix. The case in which A is lower triangular can be proven similarly. If A has
order 1, then A a11 and the determinant is given by A a11 .
Assuming that the theorem is true for any upper triangular matrix of order k-1, we now consider
an upper triangular matrix A of order k. Expanding by the kth row, we obtain
A 0ck 1 0ck 1 0ck k 1 ak k ck k
a k k ck k
ak k 1 M k k ak k 1 M k k
k k 2k
ak k M k k
ak k Ak k
ak k a11a22a33 ak 1 k 1
since Ak k is order k-1we can apply induction assumption it
a11a22a33 ak k
This completes the proof.
1 0 0 0 0
0 3 0 0 0
Example-5 (a) Let A 0 0 2 0 0 and B I n .
0 0 0 4 0
0 0 0 0 2
Then since a diagonal matrix is both upper and lower triangular we have
111
A (1)(3)(2)(4)(2) 48 and B (1)(1) (1) 1 I n
Properties of Determinant
It should be clear that calculating the determinant of a large matrix from the definition can be
quite long and cumbersome. For instance, the determinant of a 6x6 matrix involves six 5x5
cofactors. Each of these in turn involves five 4x4 cofactors each of which involves four 3x3
cofactors for a total of 120x3x3 cofactors to be calculated. Consequently other methods are often
used to compute determinants. These methods depend on the properties of determinants which h
are stated as follows.
Property-1: Elementary Row Operations and Determinants
Let A and B be square matrices
(a) If B is obtained from A by interchanging two rows (or columns) of A, then B A .
(b) If B is obtained from A by adding a multiple of a row (or a column)of A to another row (or
column) A then the determinant is unchanged. That is, B A .
(c) If B is obtained from A by multiplying a row (or a column) of A by a non zero c constant c,
then B c A .
Proof: Exercise
Example-1: Show that the determinant of an elementary matrix E of
(i) First kind (add a multiple of one row to another) is 1
(ii) Second kind (row interchange) is -1
(iii) Third kind (multiply a row by anon zero constant c) is c
Solution: We know that I n 1. Thus, we have I n 1. Thus, we have
(i) E I n , by property 1 (b)
112
=1.
(ii) (i) E I n , by property 1 (a)
(iii) E c I n , by property 1 (c)
=c.1=c .
Activity: Evaluating a determinant using elementary Row operations.
2 3 10
Let A 1 2 2 then find determinant of A.
0 1 3
Note: In the above activity we should be change the given matrix in to triangular matrix.
Property-2: Determinant of a Transpose
If A is a square matrix, then A At A At
Proof: Exercise (Hint: use mathematical induction and Laplace‘s expansion of
determinant).
3 1 2
Example-2: Show that A A t
for the matrix A 2 0 0
4 1 5
Solution: We expand by cofactors along the second row to find A
113
3 2 4
A 1 0 1 We expand by cofactors down the second
t
To find the determinant of
2 0 5
3 2 4 1 1
column to get At 2 23 6
1 0 1 2 5
2 0 5
Thus , A 6 At A At .
Note: Let A is a square matrix of order n with columns A1, A2, A3… Aj…and An
And rows A1, A2, A3…A j…and An then we can also denote det (A) by
det (A1, A2, A3,…Aj,…, An) or det (A1, A2, A3…A j…, An)
Remarks - property-1 can be expressed as
(1) a. det (A1, A2, A3,…cAj,…, An) = c det (A1, A2, A3,…Aj,…, An)
b. det (A1, A2, A3…cA j…, An) = c det (A1, A2, A3…A j…, An) where c is a non zero
constant
(2) a. det (A1, A2, A3,…Ai,…, Aj,…, An) = - det (A1, A2, A3,…Aj,…Ai…, An)
b. det (A1, A2, A3…Ai,…,A j…, An) = - det (A1, A2, A3…A j,…,Ai,…, An)
(3) a. det (A1, A2, A3,…,cAj+ Ai,…, Aj,…, An)
= det (A1, A2, A3,…, Ai,…, Aj,…, An)
b. det (A1, A2, A3… cAj+ Ai,…,A j…, An) = det (A1, A2, A3… ,Ai,…,A j…, An) where c is
constant number.
Property-3: Linearity of Determinant
Let A be a square matrix of order n then
a. The function A is linear in the rows of the matrix . That is,
det (A1, A2, A3… cAi+ Ai‘|,…,A j…, An)
114
= c det (A1, A2, A3… Ai|,…,A j…, An) + det (A1, A2, A3… ,Ai‘|,…,A j…, An)
where c is a constant number.
b. The function A is linear in the columns of the matrix , That is,
det (A1, A2, A3… cAi+ Ai‘|,…,A j…, An)
= c det (A1, A2, A3… Ai|,…,A j…, An) + det (A1, A2, A3… ,Ai‘|,…,A j…, An)
where c is a constant number.
Proof: Exercise. Hint (use mathematical induction)
Property-4: Conditions that yields a Zero Determinant
Let A is a square matrix of order n and any of the following conditions is true, then A 0 .
(a) An entire row(or an entire column ) consists of zero
(b) Two rows (or columns) are equal.
(c) One row(or two columns) is a multiple of other row (column )
Proof: Let A be an nxn matrix with rows A1, A2, A3… Ai|,…, A j…, An
(a) Without loss of generality suppose that the first row of A is a row of zeros then
det (A)=det (0, A2, A3…A j…, An) = det (0.0, A2, A3…A j…, An)
=0 det (0, A2, A3…A j…, An) = 0
Hence,the proof.
(b) Without loss of generality assume that A1=A2 then
det (A)=det (A1, A2, A3…A j…, An) = det (A1-A2, A2, A3…A j…, An)
= det (0, A2, A3…A j…, An), as A1=A2
= 0, by (a)
(c) Without loss of generality assume that A1= cA2 then
det (A)=det (A1, A2, A3…A j…, An) = det (cA2, A2, A3…A j…, An)
= c det (A2, A2, A3…A j…, An) = c.0=0, by (b)
115
2 4 5 1 2 4 1 2 3
Example- 3: Let A 0 0 0 , B 0 1 2 , and c 2 1 6 then
3 5 2 1 2 4 2 0 6
(a) Since A2 is a row of zeros we have A 0
(b) Since B1=B3 we have B 0
(c) Since C3 = -3C1 we have C 0
Further Properties of Determinant
Theorem 2.14: Determinant of a scalar multiple of a matrix
If A is an nxn matrix and c is a scalar, then the determinant of cA is given by cA c n A .
Proof: cA det(cA) det cA1 , cA2 , cA3 ,..., cAn
c det A1 , cA 2 , cA 3 ,..., cA n
c 2
det A , A , cA ,..., cA
1 2 3 n
c3 det A , A , A ,..., cA
1 2 3 n
.
.
.
c n det A1 , A 2 , A3 ,..., A n
c det A
n
cn A
Example- 5: If A is a matrix of order 3 and At 50 then find determinant of 10A
Solution: 10 A 103 A 103 At 103 50 50000 .
Theorem 2.15: Let E be an elementary matrix and A be an arbitrary square matrix then
EA E A
In general, if E1, E2, E3… Ek are elementary matrix then
116
Ek ...E3 E2 E1 A Ek ... E3 E2 E1 A
Proof: If E is an elementary matrix obtained from identity matrix I by
I- interchanging two rows then
E I 1 and hence EA A , by property (1)
1 A E A , sin ce E 1
EA E A
II. By multiplying a row of I by a non zero content c then
E c and hence
EA c A , by property (1)
E A , sin ce E c
III. By adding a multiple of one row of I to another row of I, then E =1 and hence
EA c A , by property (1)
1A
E A , sin ce E 1
Theorem 2.16: Determinant of a matrix product
If A and B are square matrices of order n, then AB A B . In general,
A1 A2 Ak A1 A2 Ak .
Proof: Exercise
Theorem 2.17: Determinant of an Invertible Matrix
A square matrix A is invertible (non singular) if and only if A 0 .
Proof: Exercise
117
Theorem 2.18: Determinant of an Inverse Matrix
1
If A is invertible, then A1 .
A
Proof: Suppose A is invertible then AA-1 = I and
A 0 AA 1 I
A A 1 1
1
A 1
A
Example-6: Use a determinant to decide whether A is singular or non-singular. If A is invertible,
then find A1 .
0 2 1 1 0 3
a) A 3 2 1 b) A 3 2 1
3 2 1 3 2 1
Solution:
(a) Because A 0 we conclude that A has no inverse.
1 1
(b) Since A 4 0 A 4 0 we have A is invertible and A1 .
A 4
2.6 Solving System of Linear Equations
Definition 2.24: systems of Linear equations
A system of m linear equations in n variables is a set of m-equations, each of which is linear in
the same n-variables:
118
a11x1 a12 x2 a1n xn b1
a21x1 a22 x2 a2 n xn b2
(*)
am1 x1 am 2 x2 amn xn bm
Where aij , bi , i 1,2,, m, j 1,n, are constants.
Remark:
The double subscript notation indicates that ai j is the coefficient of x j in the i th equation.
Definition 2.25: A solution of the above system of linear equations is a sequence of numbers
t1 , t 2 , t3 , ... , t n that is a solution of each of the linear equations in the system.
It can happen that a system of linear equations has exactly one solution, an infinite number of
solutions, or no solution. A system of linear equations is called consistent if it has at least one
solution and inconsistent if it has no solution.
Note: Number of solutions of a system of linear equations
For a system of linear equations in n-variables, precisely one of the following is true.
(a) The system has exactly one solution (consistent system)
(b) The system has an infinite number of solutions (consistent system)
(c) The system has no solution (inconsistent system)
Notation: Matrix Notation of system of linear equations
One very common use of matrices is to represent a system of linear equations. Matrix notation
was introduced in the nineteenth century to provide a short-hand way of writing linear equations.
The system of m linear equations in n variables can be written in matrix notation as AX = b
Where
119
x1
a11 a12 a13 ...a1n x b1
2 b
a 21 a 22 a 23 .... a 2 n , X . , and 2 then
A b .
. .
a m1 a m 2 a m 3 ..a mn .
xn bm
b
a11 a12 a13 ...a1n x1 a11 x1 a12 x 2 a13 x3 ... a1n x n 1
x b2
AX a 21 a 22 a 23 .... a 2 n 2 a 21 x1 a 22 x 2 a 23 x3 ... a 2 n x n
. .
.
.
a m1 a m 2 a m 3 ..a mn . a m1 x1 a m 2 x 2 a m 3 x3 ... a mn x n
xn b m
a11 a12 a13 ...a1n
The matrix a 21 a 22 a 23 .... a 2 n is called the coefficient matrix of the system (*)
A
.
a m1 a m 2 a m 3 ..a mn
x1
The column matrix X x 2 is the matrix of unknowns.
xn
a11 a12 a13 ...a1n b1
The matrix a a 22 a 23 .... a 2 n b2 obtained by adjoining b to A is called the
[ A b] 21
.
a m1 a m 2 a m 3 ..a mn bm
augmented matrix of the linear system (*) .
Remark: If bi 0, i 1,2,...n then the linear system (*) is called Homogenous otherwise, non-
Homogenous.
Theorem 2.19: If [ A b] and [C d ] are row equivalent, then the systems AX b and CX d
have exactly the same solutions.
Remark: If A is an m by n matrix then the linear system AX 0 has trivial solution X 0 .
120
Theorem 2.20: If A is an m by n matrix then the equation AX 0 has nontrivial solution
only When rank ( A) n otherwise i.e. rank ( A) n then the trivial solution is unique.
Proof: Exercise
Theorem 2.21: Consider an m equations with n variables AX b then
a) If rank ( [ A b] ) =rank ( A ) r n then the system has unique solution.
b) If rank ( [ A b] ) =rank ( A ) r n then the system has infinitely many solutions.
c) If rank ( [ A b] ) rank ( A ) then the system has no solution.
To solve a linear system Ax b , we have the following Methods;
2.6.1 Gaussian’s Method
Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
(I) Gaussian Elimination
It is a procedure for solving a system of linear equations.
Rewriting a system of linear equations in row-echelon form usually involves a chain of
equivalent systems, each of which is obtained by using one of the three basic operations. This
process is called Gaussian elimination, after the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss
(1777-1855)
Theorem 2.22: Let AX = b be represent the system of linear equations and M A b be the
block matrix. If m ' A, b ', is row equivalent to
,
m then the solutions of A‗ x B ‗ are the same as those of Ax B.
Proof: Exercise
(II). Gaussian Elimination with Back Substitution
121
The general procedure for using Gaussian elimination with back substitution to solve a system of
linear equations is summarized as follows:
Step-1 Write the augmented matrix of the system
Step- 2 Use elementary row operations to rewrite the augmented matrix in
Row-echelon form
Step- 3 Write the system of linear equations corresponding to the matrix in
Row-echelon form, and use back-substitution to find the solution.
Example 1: Solve the following system using Gauss elimination method.
2 x3 3x 2 x3 5
4 x1 14 x 2 12 x3 10
6 x1 x 2 5 x 3 9
2 3 1 5
Solution: The augmented matrix of the system is 4 14 12 10
6 1 5 9
Applying, elementary row operations on this matrix to change into its echelon form.
2 3 1 5 R2 R2 2 R1 2 3 1 5 2 3 1 5
4 14 12 10 R3 R3 _ 3 R1 0 20 10 0 R R 12 R
0 20 10 0
3 3 2
6 1 5 9 0 10 2 6 0 0 3 6
Since rank ( [ A b] ) = rank ( A ) 3 n the solution exists and is unique.
Hence the above equation is reduced to
2 x3 3x 2 x3 5
20 x 2 10 x 3 0
3x3 6
From this we get x3 2 . And using back substitution we have x 2 1 and x1 0
Hence 0, 1, 2 is the solution of the system.
122
Example 2: Solve the following system by Gauss elimination method.
3x1 x 2 x3 6 x 4 14
x1 2 x 2 5 x3 5 x 4 7
4 x1 x 2 2 x3 7 x 4 17
3 1 1 6 14
The augmented matrix of the system is
1 2 5 5 7
4 1 2 7 17
R R 3R
3 1 1 6 14 1 2 5 5 7 2 2 1
R1 R2 R3 R4 4 R1
1 2 5 5 7 3 1 1 6 14
4 1 2 7 17 4 1 2 7 17
1 2 5 5 7
0 7 14 21 35
0 9 18 27 45
1
R R
2 7 2 1 2 5 5 7
1 2 5 5 7
R3 R3 R2 0 1 2 3 5
1
R R
3 9 3
0 1 2 3 5
0 1 2 3 5 0 0 0 0 0
Since rank ( [ A b] ) =rank ( A ) 2 n the system has infinitely many solutions.
The above equation is reduced to
x1 2 x2 5 x3 5 x4 7
x2 2 x3 3x4 5
x2 2 x3 3x4 5 and x1 2x2 5x3 5x4 7
Take x3 s and x4 t . Hence the solution set of the system is
S.S = (s t 3, 2s 3t 5, s, t ) : s, t
Exercise: Solve the following system using Gauss elimination method.
123
3x 4 y 2 z 11 x 2y z 4 x yz2 x yz2
a. 2 x 3 y z 4 b. x y z 2 c. x y z 2 d. x y z 2
5 x 5 y 3z 1 3x 3 y 3z 14 2 x 2 y z 4 2 x 2 y z 4
2.6.2 Gauss-Jordan Elimination
With Gaussian elimination, we apply elementary row operations to a matrix to obtain a row
equivalent row-echelon form. A second method of elimination called Gauss Jordan elimination
after Carl Gauss and Wilhelm Jordan (1842-1899), Continues the reduction process until a
reduced row-echelon form is obtained.
Gauss-Jordan Elimination with Forward Substitution
The general procedure for using Gaussian elimination with back substitution to solve a system of
linear equations is summarized as follows:
Step-1 Write the augmented matrix of the system.
Step- 2 Use elementary row operations to rewrite the augmented matrix in row-echelon form.
Step- 3 Write the system of linear equations corresponding to the matrix in row-echelon
form, and use forward-substitution to find the solution.
Note:
(1) If in the elimination process, you obtain a row with zeros except for the last entry, it is
unnecessary to continue the elimination process. You can simply conclude that the
system is inconsistent.
(2) If in the row-echelon form system the number of equations and the number of unknowns
are equal then the system will have a unique solution.
(3) Observe that if in the row-echelon form system the number of equations is less than the
number of unknown, then the system will have infinitely many solutions.
Definition 2.26: Homogeneous system of linear equations
A system of linear equations in which each linear equation is equal to zero is called a
homogeneous system and it is denoted by Ax 0.
124
It is easy to see that a homogeneous system must have at least one solution. Specifically, if all
variables in a homogeneous system have the value zero, then each of the equations must be
satisfied. Such a solution is called trivial or obvious.
Example1: Solve the following system by Gauss-Jordan elimination method.
2 x1 3x 2 4 x3 19
x1 2 x 2 x3 4
3x1 x 2 x3 9
2 3 4 19
Solution: The augmented matrix of the system is 1 2 1 4 .
3 1 1 9
2 3 4 19 1 2 1 4 R2 R2 2 R1 1 2 1 4
1 2 1 4 R 1 R2
2 3 4 19 R3 R3 3 R1
0 1 2 11
3 1 1 9 3 1 1 9 0 7 2 3
1 2 1 4 1 2 1 4
0 1 2 11 R 0 1 2 11
R 2 R2 3
R3 7R2 R3 16
1
3
R
0 7 2 3 0 0 16 80
1 2 1 4 1 0 5 26 1 0 0 1
R1 R1 5 R3
0 1 2 11 0 1 0 11
R1 R1 2R2
R2 R2 2 R3
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 5 0 0 1 5 0 0 1 5
Since rank ( [ A b] ) = rank ( A ) 3 n the solution exists and is unique.
Hence the above system is reduced to
x1 1
x2 1 This is the solution of the system.
x3 5
Example 2: Consider the following system of linear equations.
125
x yz 2
x y 2z 4
x y z 1
1 1 1 2
Solution: Then the reduced form of this matrix is 0 0 3 6 . Then by back substitution
0 0 0 1
x yz 2
we get 3z 6
0 1
Then from the last equation of this system of linear equations we can say that the given
system of linear equation has no solution. Or in terms of rank since the rank (A/b) is different
from the rank (A) we have that the system has no solution.
Exercise: Solve the following system by Gauss-Jordan elimination method.
4 x 2 y z 8 2 x 4 y z 1 x 2 y z 1 x 2 y 3z 1
a. y z 4 b. x 2 y 3z 2 c. x y z 4 d. x 2 y z 13
2z 4 x y z 1 x 2 y 4 z 8 3x 2 y 5 z 3
2 x 4 y 6 z 2 2x y z 7 x yz6 3x 3 y 6 z 6
e. x 2 y z 13 f. x 2 y 2 z 9 g. 2 x y z 3 h. 5 x 8 y 13z 7
2 x 4 y 7 z 11 3x y z 5 3x z 0 x 2y z 5
2.6.3 Cramer’s rule
Cramer‘s Rule, named after Gabriel Cramer (17 04- 17 52), is a formula that uses determinants
to solve a system of n linear equations in n-variables. This rule can be applied only to systems of
linear equations that have unique solutions.
Theorem 2.23: Cramer’s rule:
If AX b is a linear system of n equations in n unknowns, and if det A 0 , then the system
has unique solution which can be determined by.
126
det ( Ai )
xi , i 1,2,, n
det ( A)
When Ai is the matrix obtained from A when ith column of A is replaced by b .
Proof: Exercise
Example: Solve the following using Cramer‘s rule.
2 x1 5 x 3x3 9
3x1 x2 2 x3 3
x1 2 x2 x3 6
2 5 3 9
A 2(1 4) 5(3 2) 3(6 1) 30
Solution: Here A 3 1 2 and b 3 .
1 2 1 6
9 5 3 2 9 3 2 5 9
A1 3 1 2 , A2 3 3 2 , A3 3 1 3
6 2 1 1 6 1 1 2 6
9 5 3 2 9 3
3 1 2 3 3 2
A1 6 2 1 30 A2 1 6 1 60
x1 1, x2 2 ,
A 30 30 A 30 30
2 5 9
3 1 3
A3 1 2 6 30
x3 1
A 30 30
Thus the solution of the given system is xT (1, 2, 1) .
Exercise: Use rank of matrix to determine the values of a, band c, so that the following system
has: a) no solution b) more than one solution c) a unique solution and solve it.
127
x y bz 1
x 2 y 3z a x 2 y bz 3
i) 2 x 3 y az 3 ii) 2 x 6 y 11z b iii) ax 2 z 2 .
x ay 3 z 2 x 2 y 7z c 5x 2 y 2
2.6.4 Matrix inversion (Inverse matrix) Method
Thus far, we have studied three methods for solving linear systems: Gaussian elimination ,
Gauss–Jordan elimination and Cramer‘s rule. The following theorem provides a new method for
solving certain linear systems.
Theorem 2.24: If A is an invertible matrix, then for each matrix b, the system of
equations has exactly one solution, namely, .
Proof: Since A( A1b) b , it follows that x A1b is a solution of Ax b . To show that this is
the only solution, we will assume that x0 is an arbitrary solution and then show that x0 must be
the solution A1b . If x0 is any solution , then Ax0 b . Multiplying both sides by A1 , we obtain
x0 A1b .
Example: solve the following system of linear equation using inverse method
3x1 x2 6
x1 2 x2 2 x3 7
5 x1 x3 10
Solution: Okay, let‘s first write down the matrix form of this system.
3 1 0 x1 6
1 2 2 x 7
2
5 0 1 x3 10
Now, we found the inverse of the coefficient matrix by using methods of finding Inverses and is
the following;
128
2 1 2
3 1 0 3 3 3
A 1 2 2 , then A 1 3 1 2
10 5 7
5 0 1
3 3 3
The solution to the system in matrix form is
2 1 2 1
3 3
3 6
3
x A1b 3 1 2 7 5
10 5 7 25
10
3 3 3 3
Now since each of the entries of x are one of the unknowns in the original system above the
system to the original system is then,
1 25
x1 , x2 5 , and x3
3 3
2.7 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
Definition 2.27: Eigen value and Eigen vector
Let A be an nxn matrix over a field F, then the scalar is called an Eigen value of A if there is a
non zero vector v F n such that The vector is called an Eigen vector of A
corresponding to .
Remarks:
1. The term Eigen value is derived from the German word Eigen werte, meaning
"proper value"
2. An Eigen vector v cannot be zero. Allowing v to be the zero vector would render the
definition meaningless because A0 0 is true for all values of . An Eigen value
of 0 however, is possible.
129
3. A matrix can have more than one Eigen value.
2 0
Example-1: Let A then verify that v1 (1, 0) and v2 (0,1) are Eigen vectors of A
0 1
corresponding to the Eigen values 1 2 and 2 1 respectively.
2 0 1 2 1
Solution: Since Av1 2 2v1 , we have v1 (1, 0) is an Eigen vector of A
0 1 0 0 0
corresponding to the Eigen value 1 2 .
2 0 0 0 0
Also, since Av 2 1 1v2 ,
0 1 1 1 1
We have v2 (0,1) is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the Eigen value 2 1 .
Note
1. The sum of two Eigenvectors with the same Eigen value is also an Eigenvector
with Eigen value .
2. A nonzero multiple of an Eigenvector with Eigen value is also an Eigenvector with
Eigen value .
1 0
Example 2:- Find the Eigen values and corresponding Eigen spaces of A .
0 1
Solution:
1 0 x x x
i. Let v1 ( x, 0) then Av1 1 1v1
0 1 0 0 0
The eigenvectors corresponding to 1 1 are the nonzero vectors on the x-
axis and hence
A1 ( x, 0) : x 0 is Eigen space of A belonging to Eigen value 1 1 .
130
1 0 0 0 0
ii. Let v2 (0, y) then Av2 1 1v2
0 1 y y y
The eigenvectors on the corresponding to 2 1 are the non zero vectors on the y-
axis and hence
A2 (0, y) : y 0 is Eigen space of A belonging to Eigen value 2 1 .
iii. For v ( x, y) 2 , we have
1 0 x x
Av , which is a reflection in the y-axis.
0 1 y y
Thus, the Eigen space corresponding to 1 1 is the x-axis and the Eigen space corresponding
to 2 1 is the y-axis.
Activity: How do we determine Eigen values and the corresponding Eigen vectors of a matrix?
Theorem 2.25: Let A be an nxn matrix over a field F
1-Eigen value of A is a scalar such that
2-The Eigen vectors of A corresponding to are the non zero solutions x of .
Proof: Exercise
Note:
1. The equation A I n 0 is called the characteristic equation of A. And the matrix
A I n is called characterstic matrix of A.
2. The determinant polynomial A I n n cn1n1 c1 c0 is called the
characteristic polynomial of A and it is denoted A . This definition tells us that the
Eigen values of an nxn matrix A corresponds to the roots of the characteristic
polynomial of A. Because the characteristic polynomial of A is of degree n, A can
have at most n-distinct Eigen values.
131
3. For each Eigen value , the corresponding eigenvector is found by substituting
back in to the characteristic equation A I n 0 of A.
Example 3: Find the Eigen values and corresponding Eigen vectors of
2 0 12
1 6
a) A b) B 1 5 0
5 2 0 3 0
Solution:
(a) The characteristic equation of A is
A I 2 0
1 6 1 0
0
5 2 0 1
1 6
0
5 2
2 3 28 0
( 7)( 4) 0
7 or 4
The corresponding eigenvectors are now found
Let 7 then ( A 7 I 2 ) x 0
1 6 1 0 x 0
7
5 2 0 1 y 0
6 6 x 0 6 x 6 x 0
5 5 y 0 5x 5 y 0
yx
Hence, any vector of type (1,1) , where is a non zero scalar, is an Eigen vector
corresponding to Eigen value 7.
Let 4 then ( A 4I 2 ) x 0
132
1 6 1 0 x 0
4
5 6 0 1 y 0
5 6 x 0 5 x 6 y 0
5 6 y 0 5 x 6 y 0
5
y x
6
Hence, any vector of type (1, 5 ) ; where is a non zero scalar, is an eigenvector
6
corresponding to Eigen value 4 .
Try checking that Ax i x for the Eigen values and eigenvectors found in this example.
b) Left as an Exercise
Remark: Steps in Finding Eigen values and Eigen vectors
Let A be an nxn matrix over a field
Step-1: Form the characteristic equation A I n 0 . It will be a polynomial equation of
degree n in the variable .
Step-2: Find the real roots of the characteristic equation. These are the Eigen values of A.
Step-3: For each Eigen value i find the Eigen vectors corresponding to i by solving the
homogeneous system
( A i I n ) x 0. This may requires row-reducing an nxn matrix. The resulting reduced row-
echelon form must have at least one row of zeros.
2.8 Summary
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. The numbers in the array are called the entries in
the matrix.
133
Two matrices are defined to be equal if they have the same size and their corresponding
entries are equal. In matrix notation, if A [aij ] and B [bij ] have the same size, then A =B
if and only if ( A)ij ( B)ij , or, equivalently, aij bij for all i and j.
If A and B are matrices of the same size, then the sum A B is the matrix obtained by adding
the entries of B to the corresponding entries of A, and the difference A B is the matrix
obtained by subtracting the entries of B from the corresponding entries of A. Matrices of
different sizes cannot be added or subtracted.
If A is any matrix and c is any scalar, then the product cA is the matrix obtained by
multiplying each entry of the matrix A by c. The matrix cA is said to be a scalar multiple of
A.
If A is an m r matrix and B is an r n matrix, then the product AB is the m n matrix
whose entries are determined as follows. To find the entry in row i and column j of AB ,
single out row i from the matrix A and column j from the matrix B. Multiply the
corresponding entries from the row and column together, and then add up the resulting
products.
If A is any m n matrix, then the transpose of A, denoted by A t , is defined to be the n m
matrix that results from interchanging the rows and columns of A; that is, the first column of
A t is the first row of A, the second column of A t is the second row of A, and so forth.
If A is a square matrix, then the trace of A, denoted by tr(A) , is defined to be the sum of the
entries on the main diagonal of A. The trace of A is undefined if A is not a square matrix.
If R is the reduced row-echelon form of an n n matrix A, then either R has a row of zeros or
R is the identity matrix I n .
2.9 Review Exercises
1. Find the determinant of the following matrices:
0 0 0 1 0 1 2 3
2 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
(a) 4 3 5 (b) (c )
0 1 0 0 2 2 1 3
2 1 2
0 0 1 0 1 2 2 3
134
1 1 1 1
1 5 20 2 1 3 2
(d ) 0 4 8 ( e)
0 1 2 1
0 0 6
0 0 7 3
2. Let A and B be 3x3 matrices such that
det( A) 4 and det B 5 then find the value of :
(a) AB (c) 2 AB
(b) 3 A (d ) A 1 B
3. For each of the following compute A1
1 3 1 1 1 1
1 2
(a) A (b) 2 1 1 (c) A 0 1 1
3 1 2 2 1 0 0 1
4. Use Cramer‘s Rule to solve for each of the following systems
(a) x 2 y 3z 8 3x1 x2 6
2x y z 7 (b) x1 2 x2 2 x3 7
y z 1 5 x1 x3 10
a 1 1 1 1
1 a 1 1 1
5. Evaluate 1 1 a 1 1
1 1 1 a 1
1 1 1 1 a
2 2 4
6. a) Find the ad joint of 2 3 2
1 1 1
b) If A is a triangular matrix, then show that adj ( A) is also triangular
135
a b 0 0
c d 0 0
7. (a) Let A , then find rank ( A)
e f g h
x y z w
(b) Let A be a square matrix of order n, then show that A is invertible if rank (A) = n
1 0 0 0 a b c d
0 1 0 0 e f g h
9. Let A = B
a b c d 0 0 1 0
e f g h 0 0 0 1
Then prove that
c d a b d
a) det A b) det B
g h e f h
10. Let A and B square matrices of order n then prove or disprove the following
a) det ( A B) det ( A) det(B) .
det ( A B) .
b) det ( A B) 2
2
136
UNIT-THREE
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Unit-3: Limits and Continuity
Objectives:
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
Understand the formal definition of limit and continuity;
State some limit theorems;
Evaluate limits of functions;
Determine points of discontinuity of functions;
State Intermediate Value Theorem;
Introduction
The topic that we will be examining in this chapter is that of Limits. Limits are very important in
the study of calculus. We will be see limits in a variety of places once we move out of this
chapter. In particular we will see that limits are part of the formal definition of the other two
major topics. Here is a quick listing of the material that will be covered in this chapter.
3.1 Definitions of Limits
Definition 3.1: Let be defined on an open interval about except possibly at itself. If
gets arbitrarily close to (as close to L as we like) for all sufficiently close to we say
that approaches the limit as approaches and we write
which is read ―the limit of as approaches is ‖.
Essentially, the definition says that the values of ) are close to the number whenever x is
close to (on either side of ). This definition is ―informal‖ because phrases like arbitrarily close
and sufficiently close are imprecise: Their meaning depends on the context.
Example 1: The behavior of a function near a point.
137
How does the function behave near x = 1?
Solution: The given formula defines ƒ for all real numbers except (since we cannot
divide by zero). For any x we can simplify the formula by factoring the numerator and
canceling common factors:
The graph of ƒ is thus the line with the point (1, 2) removed. This removed point is shown as a
―hole‖ in Figure 3.1. Even though is not defined, it is clear that we can make the value of
ƒ as close as we want to 2 by choosing close enough to 1 and we say that approaches
the limit 2 as approaches 1 and we write,
The graph of is identical with the line except at where is not defined.
Example 2: The identity and constant functions have limits at every point. If is the identity
function , then for any value of (Figure 3. 2).
138
If is the constant function (function with the constant value k), then for any value of
(Figure 3.3)
Now that we have gained some insight into the limit concept, working intuitively with the
informal definition, we turn our attention to its precise definition. We replace vague phrases like
―gets arbitrarily close to‖ in the informal definition with specific conditions that can be applied
to any particular example. With a precise definition we will be able to prove conclusively the
limit properties given in the preceding section, and we can establish other particular limits
important to the study of calculus.
To show that the limit of ) as equals the number L, we need to show that the gap between )
can be made ―as small as we choose‖ if x is kept ―close enough‖ to arbitrary number.
139
Definition 3.2 (Formal Definition of Limits) : Let be a function defined at each point of some
open interval containing possibl at itself,then umber L is the limit of as approaches
(or is the limit of f at ) if for every number there is a number such that
| | | | .
If is the limit of ) as approaches then we write
If such an can be found we say that the limit of at exists or that has a limit at or that
exists.
Let us look at the following graph and let us also assume that the limit does exist
What the definition is telling us is for any number that we pick we can go to our graph and
sketch two horizontal lines at as shown on the graph above. Then somewhere
out here in the world is another number 0. Which we will need to determine that will allow
us to add in two vertical lines to our graph at . Now, if we take any in the
vertical strip, between , then this will be close to than either of
and or| | . If we now identify the point on the graph that our choice of gives,
then this point on the graph will lie in the intersection of the horizontal and vertical strip. This
means that, this functional value of will be close to than either of and
140
or| | . So, if we take value of in the horizontal strip then the graph for those values
of will lie in the vertical strip.
Notice that there are actually an infinite number of ‘s that we can choose. In fact, if we go back
and look at the graph above it looks like we could have taken slightly large and still gotten the
graph from that horizontal strip to be completely contained in the vertical strip.
Example 1: Use the definition of limit to prove the following limit
Solution: We need to show that given then there exists such that
| | | |
To choose an appropriate we start with | | then we have
|5x- | | |
Now we can choose
Assum | | and we have
| | | | =5| 2|
| |
Therefore,
Example 2: Show that
Solution: Let be given we need to find a such that
| | | |
Equivalently,
if | | then | |
⁄
It is enough to let because
| | ⁄ ⁄
if then | | |x|2 2
141
This proves that
Example 3: Prove that
Solution:
I. Guessing a value for .
Let be given, we have to find a number a >0 such that
if | | then | |
To connect | | with | | we write | | | | Then we want
if | | then | || | .
Notice that if we can find a positive constant C such that | | then
| || | | |
And we can make | | by taking | | . We can find such a number if
we restrict to lie in some interval centered at 3. Infact, since we are interested only in values of
that are close to 3, it is reasonable to assume that is within a distance 1 from 3, that is ,
| | then so Thus we have | | , and so is a
suitable choice for the constant But now there are two restrictions on | | namely
| | and | |
To make sure that both of these inequalities are satisfied , we take to be the small of the two
numbers 1 and . The notation for this is , -
II. Showing that this works .
Given , let , - . If | |
Then | | | | (as in part I). We also have | | , so
| | | || |
This shows that
142
Example 4: Show that
Solution: Referring to the quarter of the unit circle in figure 3.5, along with the accompanying
line segments, we see that | | . So that
| | | | for .
Since and hence | | | | it follows that | | | | for
.Consequently
| | | | …………………… (1)
Now let , let be any positive number less than both and . From (1), it follows that
if | | , then | | | | .
We conclude that
To show that , observe form figure 3.5 that
| | | | | | | | For . Since , it follows that
| | | | for ….…………………. (2)
Now let , let be any positive number less than both and . From (2) we find, if
| | , then | | | | . We conclude that
143
Next, we present an example of a function that does not have a limit at a certain point. For a
function f not to have a limit at a means that for every real number L, the statement ― is the
limit of at ‖ is false. What does it mean for that statement to be false?
Definition 3.3 (Negation of the Existence of a Limit)
― is the limit of at ‖ means that for every there is a number such that
if | | then | |
For this statement to be false there must be some such that for every it is false that
if | | then | |
But to say that ( ) is false is the same, as to say that there must be a number such that
| | then | |
Thus to say that the statement is false is the same as to that there is some
such that for every there is a number satisfying
| | then | |
Example 5: Let be defined by
has no limit at 0.
Solution: Let be any number. We will prove that the statement ― is the limit of at ‖ is false
by letting and showing that for any there is an satisfying
| – | and | – |
Let be any positive number. If – , then we let and note that so that
| | | | | |
If then we let ⁄ and note that so that
144
| – | | | | || | | |
In either case we have shown that for any there is an satisfying
| – | and | – |
Therefore has no limit at .
Exercise
1. Use definition proves the following limits.
a)
b) √ =3 f)
c) √ √ If g)
d). h)
| |
i) * |√ √ | +
√ √
2. Find the number such that
a) If | | , then | | where
b) Repeat part (a) with
3.Let { . Prove that does not exist.
3.2 Basic Limit Theorems
Even if we have developed important techniques of solving limit problems by using the formal
definition, by now we have realized that it is not that easy to use this definition to solve each and
every problem. Nevertheless, the student had encountered in his or her earlier studies of calculus
rather easy ways of evaluating limits by the help of different rules. Here we state and prove some
of them by using definition 3.2 and use those to evaluate more complex limit cases.
Theorem 3.1:
145
i. If the limit of a function at exists, then this limit is unique.
ii. If and are both limits of at then
Theorem 3.2: Assume that l exists and c is any constant. Then
1. [ ]
2. [ ]
3. .
4.
5. If exist then .
6. [ ] [ ] where n is a positive integer.
7.
8.
9. , where n is a positive integer
10. √ =√ where n is positive integer (if n is even. We assume that a>0)
11. √ √ , where n is positive integer (if n is even. We assume that
Proof: We are going to proof only the first one the other properties are left as an exercise to the
reader.
Let
[ ]
Let given. We want to find a positive number such that for all
| | |[ ]|
Regrouping terms, we get
|[ ] | | |
146
| | | |
By triangle inequality. Since there exists a number such that for all x
| | then | |
Similarly, since , there exists a number such that for all x
| | then | | .
Let { } the smaller of if | | | |
So, | | and | | hence | | . Therefore,
| | .
This shows that [ ]
Example 1: Evaluate the following limits and justify each step.
a. b.
Solution: By law 1 and 2
=2 by 3
by 9,7 and 7
b. (by law 5)
(By 1, 2 and 3)
(By 9, 8 and 7)
Direct Substitution Property
If is a polynomial or a rational function and is in the domain of . Then
147
A function with the direct substitution property is called continuous at However, not all limits
can be evaluated by direct substitution as the following examples show.
Example 2: Find
Solution: Let ⁄ . We can‘t find the limit by substitution because
isn‘t defined nor can we apply the quotient rule because the limit of the denominator is 0.
Instead, we need to do some preliminary algebra. We factor the numerator as a difference of
square:
The numerator and denominator have a common factor of . When we take the limit as
approaches 1, we have and so . Therefore, we can cancel the common factor
and compute the limit as follows:
Example 3: Find where
Solution: Here is defined at and but the value of a limit as approaches 1
does not depend on the value of the function at 1, since
for , we have
148
Example 4: Evaluate the following limits.
a. √
Solution: a. by the sum theorem, we have
b. From the constant multiple theorems we find that.
√ √ √
c. By the product theorem and we conclude that
d. By the quotient Theorem along the results of part (a)and(c), we find that
Activity : Evaluate the following limits.
b) c) d)
Note:
Another widely used form equivalent to is
149
(1)
and this is obtained by replacing by .
Using the sum and constant multiple theorems and (1) we can show that the sine cosine functions
have limits at any number.
Example 5: Show that for any number a, and
Solution: Using the trigonometric identities
(2)
(3)
We will prove that and beginning with the sine
function, from (2) it follows that
For the cosine function we use (3) and find that
The other trigonometric functions also have the property that the limit at a point in the domain
by evaluating the function at . Thus
Although the quotient theorem does not guarantee the existence of , when
, sometimes it is still possible to evaluate such limits.
150
Theorem 3.3 (Substitution Theorem for limits)
Suppose for all in some open interval about with the
possible exception of itself. Suppose also that exists. Then
( ) .
Proof: Let Suppose =L, then there is a such that
if | | Then | | (1)
Since , there is a such that
if | | , then | |
By hypothesis, may be chosen so small that if | | , then f
Thus,
if | | | | .
Hence by (1) | ( ) |
Consequently ( )
Example 6: Find √
Solution: Let y is the expression since approaches 1 as x approaches 0, it follows
those y approaches 1, and we have
√ = √ 1.
Example 7: Find
Solution: Let y is the expression . Since approaches as x approaches . It
follows that y approach , so we have
⁄ )= ⁄ = ⁄ =0 .
151
Activities :
Find the following limits
⁄ b) ⁄ √ c) √
Theorem 3.4 (squeezing theorem)
Assuming that for all x in the some open interval I about a except possible
itself. If , Then exists .
Example 8: Show that .
Solution: We can consider as product of and , but we cannot use product rule
because does not exists, since the value of the function lies in the interval
[ ] it follows that
for
Multiplying by non negative number yeild
Let , and . Now,
and .
152
That is
Hence by Squeezing Theorem the limit of exists and
Therefore,
Example 9: Show that 1.
Solution: Using figure 3.8 we obtain the following equations which are valid for .
Area of triangle OPA | || | .
Area of sector OPA (area of circle) .
Area of triangle OAT | || |
It is geometrically clear that
Area of triangle OAP area of sector OAP area of triangle OAT
Thus
so that
Separately, the first and the second inequalities yield
and (1)
Combining the inequality in (1) and use the fact that
and
153
we obtain
, for | |
Since it follows from the squeezing theorem that
exists and 1
Exercises
1. Given that
Find the limits if exist. If the limit does not exist, explain why.
a) [ ] d)
b) e) √
c) √ f)
2. Evaluate the limit and justify each step by indicating the appropriate limit laws.
154
√
a) e) √
b) f)
c) g) √
d) ( √ )
3. Evaluate the limit if it exists.
a) e)
b) f) √
c) g) ( )
√
d) h)
4. Find the limit, if it exists. If the limit does not exist, explain why.
a) | | e) ( | |
)
b) f) | |
| |
c) ( ) g) | |
and | |
| |
| |
d) h) | |
5. Let {
a) Find and
b) Does exist?
6. Let | |
. then find and
7. Use the squeeze Theorem to show that
√ b) c) =0.
155
3.3 One Sided Limits
To have a limit L as approaches , a function f must be defined on both sides of and its
values f(x) must approaches L as approaches from either side. Because of this,ordinary,
limits are called two-sided.
If fails to have a two-sided limit at , it may still have a one sided limit, that is ,a limit if the
approaches is only from one side. If the approaches is from the right, the limit is right-hand limit.
From the left, it is a left-hand limit.
Example 1: The domain of √ is [-2,2], its graph is the semicircle in figure 3.9, we
have
√ and √
The function does not have a left hand limit at a right hand limit at x It does not
have ordinary two sided limits at either -2 or 2.
Definition 3.4: a) Let be defined on some open interval A number L is the limit of
as approaches from the right (or the right-hand limit of at ) if for every there is a
number such that
then | | .
In this case, we write .
156
b) Let be defined on some open interval A number L is the limit of ) as approaches
a from the left (or the left-hand limit of at ) if for every there is a number such
that
if – then | |
In this case we write
Thus the symbol and means that we consider only
respectively.
Example 2: Prove that √ =0
Solution: Let be given, here xo 0 and L 0, so we want to find a such that for all
implices |√ |< or
then √
Squaring both sides of this last inequality gives if
If we choose we have implices √ or implices that
|√ |
157
According to definition, this shows that √ =
Example 3: Show that ⁄ has no limit as approaches zero from either side.
Solution: As approaches zero its reciprocal, ⁄ , grows without bound and the values
of ⁄ cycle repeatdly from to . There is no single number L such that function`s
values stay increasing close to approaches zero. This is true even if we restrict to positive
values or to negative values. The function has neither a right-hand limit nor a left-hand limit
at
From figure 3.12 we see that ⁄ has neither a right-hand nor a left-hand limit as
approaches zero.
Theorem 3.5: Let be defined on an open interval about except possible at it self. Then
if and only if both one sided limits, exists
and .
158
In this case
Example 1: Show that | |
Solution: Recall that
| | ,
Since | | | |
For , we have | | and so | |
Therefore, by Theorem 3.5
| |
Example 2: Let { find .
Solution: since and by theorem 3.9 we have
Hence =5 .
| |
Example 3: Prove that does not exist.
| | | |
Solution : . And .
159
Since the right and the left limits are different, it follows that from theorem 1.9 that
| |
does not exist.The graph of the function | |⁄ is shown in Figure 3.14
supports the one-sided limits that we found .
Note: The greatest integer function is defined by ⟦ ⟧ the largest integer that is less
than or equal to .
Example 1: ⟦ ⟧ ⟦ ⟧ ⟦ ⟧ ⟦√ ⟧ ⟦ ⟧ ).
Example 2: Show that ⟦ ⟧ does not exist.
Solution: The graph of the greatest integer function is shown in Figure 3.15
For we have.
⟦ ⟧
Since ⟦ ⟧ for we have ⟦ ⟧ .
Because of one side limits are not equal. ⟦ ⟧ does not exist .
160
Exercises
1. Let {
Then evaluate the limit,if it exists.
a) b) c)
d) f
2. If n is an integer ,evaluate.
a) ⟦ ⟧ b) ⟦ ⟧ c) ⟦ ⟧
3. Which of the following statements about the function sketched in figure 3.16 are true,
and which are false?
e) i)
f) j)
c) exists g) k) does not exist.
d) h) l)
161
3.4 Infinite limits, limit at infinity and asymptotes
3.4.1 Limit at Infinity
Now we consider the limit of as becomes larger and larger in absolute value. Here we see
precise definition of limit.
Definition 3.6
a) if for every there is a number M such that
if then | | .
b) if for every 0 there is a number N such that
if , | | .
The symbol for infinity does not reprsent a real number. We use to describe the behavior
of a function when the values in its domain or range out grow all finite bounds. For example, the
function ⁄ is define for all (Figure 3.17). When is positive and becomes
increasingly large, ⁄ becomes increasingly small. When is negative and its magnitude
becomes increasingly large. ⁄ again becomes small. We summarize these observation by
saying ⁄ at infinity and negatve infinity.
Example 1: Show that ⁄ b ⁄
Solution: a. Let be given. We must find a number M such that for all ,
162
implices ⟨ ⟨ ⟨ ⟨
The implication will hold if ⁄ or any large positive number.This proves
b. Let be given. We must find a number N such that for all implices ⟨ ⟨
⟨ ⟨ This implication will hold if ⁄ or any less than ⁄ . This prove
⁄ .
Example 2: Show that and
Solution: Let To show that we must find an M such that
If then ⟨ ⟨ ⟨ ⟨ , but then if then
√
Therefore we let and conclude that
√
To show that we simple choose then and thus
√
if then ⟨ ⟨ ⟨ ⟨
This proves that
Definition 3.7: Horizontal Asymptote
A line is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function if either
or
In the above examples that is the horizontal asymptote of the graphs of ⁄ and ⁄ .
Example 3: Let‘s begin by investigating the behavior of the function defined by .
As grows larger and larger you can see that the values of get closer and closer to 1 (figure
3.18). In fact ,it seems that we can make the values of as close we like 1 by taking
sufficient large.This situation is expressed symolically by writing
163
The curve illustrated in Figure 18 has the line as a horizontal asymptote because
Theorem 3.6: If is a rational number, then
if is a rational number such that is defined for all , then
To determine the limit of a rational function as , we can divide the numerator and
denominator by the highest power of in the denominator.Then depends on the degrees of the
polynomails involved. Example 4 Numerator and denominator of the same degree.
Example 4: Evaluate
and indicate which properties of limits are used at each stage.
Solution: To evaluate the limit at infinity of any rational function ,we first divide both the
numerator and denominator by the highest power of that occurs in the denominator. (We may
164
assume that , since we are interested only in large values of ). In this case the highest
power of in the denominator is , so we have
( )
(by limit law 5)
( )
(by limit laws1,2 and 3)
Example 5: Evaluate
(√ )
Solution: Because both √ and are large when is large, it is difficult to see what
happens to their difference, so we use algebra to rewrite the function. We first multiply
numerator and denominator by the conjugate radical.
√
(√ ) (√ )√
√ √
now divide numerator and denominator by √ for
√ √
165
Theorem 3.7
If L, M and K are real number and and , then
1. Sum Rule:
2. Difference Rule:
3. Product Rule:
4. Constant Multiple Rule:
5. Quotient Rule: , M
6. Power Rule: if r and s are integers with no common factors,s .then
⁄ ⁄
⁄
provided that is real number.(If s is even we assume that .)
Example 6:
a. Sum rule
known limits
√
b. √
√ product rule
166
3.4.2 Infinite Limits at Infinity
The notation is used to indicate that the values of become large as
becomes large. Similar meanings are attached to the following symbols.
Example 7: Find and .
Solution: When x becomes large, also becomes large, For instance.
In fact ,we can make as big as we like by taking large enough.
Therefore we can write
Similarly, when is large negative, so is . Thus .
Definition 3.7: Let be a function defined on some interval . Then
Means that for every positve number M there is a corresponding positve number N such that
If
Similar definition apply when the symbol is replace by
167
3.4.3 Infinite Limits
Infinite limits can also be defined in a precise way. Let us look again at the function as
the values of grow with out bound, that is
And as , the values of become negative, that is
Example 8: Find and
Solution: The graph of is the graph of shifted 1 unit to the right (see
Figure 3.21) therefore be haves near 1 exactly the way y behaves near 0.
Example 9: discuss the behavior of th functions
a. near
b. near
168
Solution:
a. As appraoches zero from either side,the values of are positive and become
arbitrarily large.We write
b. The graph of is the graph of shifted 3 units to the left (Figure
3.22).Therefore behaves near exactly the way behaves near 0.
Instead of requiring to lie arbitrarily close to a finite for all sufficiently close to , the
definition of infinte limits require to arbitrarily far from the origin. Except for this change,
the langauge is identical with what we have seen before.
Definetion 3.8 (Precise definition of infinite limits).
Let be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number except possible at
itself. Then
means that for vevery positve number M there is positve number such that
whenver | | .
169
This says that the values of can be made arbitrarily large (larger than any given
Number taking close to (within a distance , where depends on , but with
). A geometric illustration is shown in Figure 3.23.
Given any horizontal line , we can find a number such that if we restrict to lie in the
interval but , then the curve lies above the line . You can
see that if a larger is chosen, then a smaller may be required.
Example 10: Use the definition to prove that
Solution: 1. guessing a value for . Given that , we want to find such that
Whenever | |
That is whenever | |
or | | whenever | | work
√
This suggests that we should take ⁄√ .
2. Showing that this works. If is given. Let ⁄√ . If | |
Then | |
Thus Whenever | |
170
Therefore, .
Definition 3.9: Let be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number
except possibly at itself. Then
Means that for every negative number here is a positive number such that
Notice that the distance between a point on the graph of ⁄ and the y-axis approaches zero
as the point moves vertically along the graph and away from the origin
We say the line is the vertical asympote of the graph of ⁄ .
Definition 3.10: A line is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function if
either or .
Remark: If a function has a vertical asymptote at then is not continuous at
Exercises
1. Determine the infinite limit.
171
b) c)
e) f) ⁄
i)
√
√
( √ )
2. Let P and Q be polynomials. Find
a) If the degree of P is less than the degree of Q
b) If the degree of P is greater than the degreeof Q
3. Use the definition to prove that
4. Find all vertical asymptotes .
a) f b) f
√
d) f e) f f)
3.5 Continuity; one- sided continuity
We noticed that the limit of a function as approaches can often be found simply by
calculating the value of the function at . Functions with this property are called continuous at .
We will see that the mathematical definition of continuity corresponds closely with the meaning
of the word continuity in everyday language. (A continuous process is one that takes place
gradually, without interruption or abrupt change).
Definition 3.11: A function is continuous at a number if
Notice that definition 3.11 requires three properties if is continuous at
1. is defined (that is , is in the domain of )
172
2. exists.
3.
If a function is not continuous at a point c, we say that is discontinuous at c and c is a point
of discontinuos of .
A function is right-continuous (continuous from the right) at point in its domain if
. It is left-continuous(continuous from the left )
at c if . Thus a function is continuous at a left end point of its domain
if it is right -continuous at and continuous at a right end point of it is domain if it is left
continuous at A function is continuous at an interior point of its domain if and only if it is
both right-continuous and left-continuous at .
Example 1:
The function √ is continuous at every point of its domain , [ ] ,including
. Where is right-continuous, and where is left-continuous.
173
Figure 3.26 shows an example of function that is continuous at every point on its domain
Example 2: Figure 3.27 shows the graph of a function at which number is discontinuous?
Solution: It looks as if there is a discontinuity where because the graph has a break there.
The main reason that is discontinuous at 1 is that is not defined.The graph also has a
break when , but the reason for the discontinuity is different. Here, is defined , but
does not exist (because the left and right limits are different). So is discontinuouts
at 3. What about Here, is defined and exist (because the left and right
limits are the same). But, So is discontinuous at 5.
Activity: Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?
a. b. { if c. {
Definition 3.12 (One Sided Continuity)
i. A function is continuous from the right at a number f .
ii. A function is continuous from the right at a number f .
Example 3: At each integer n, the function ⟦ ⟧ is continuous from the right but
Definition 3.13: A functions is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in
the interval. (If is defined only on one side of an end point of the interval, we understand
continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous from the right or continuous from the left ).
174
A continuous functions need not be continuous on every interval. For example ⁄ is not
continuous on [-1,1] (Figure 3.28), but it is continuous at its domain .
The function ⁄ is continuous at every values of except . It has a point of
discontiniuty at .
Theorem 3.8: properties of continuous function at
If the functions and are continuous at then the following combinations are continuous
at
1. Sum:
2. Differences:
3. Product:
4. Constant multiple: for any number k
5. Quotients : ⁄ provided
⁄
6. Power: , provided it is defined on an open interval containig c, where
and are integer.
Proof: by the limit rules
To proof the sum property we have
sum rule theorem.
= continuity of at
175
=
This show that is continuous.
It follows from theorem 3.8 and definition 3. 13 that if and are continuous on an intervals,
then so are the functions if g is never zero 0) ⁄
Theorem 3.9
a. Any polynomial is continuous every where, that is continuous on
b. Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined, that is continuous on its
domain.
Proof:
a. A polynomail is a function of the form:
are constants. We know that
(by law 7)
And
(by law 9)
This equation is precisely the statement that the function is a continuous
function. Thus by part 3 of theorem 3.8 the function is continuous.Since is a
sum of function of this form and a constant funcition. It follow from part 1 of the theorem 3.8
that is continuous.
b) A rational function is a function of the form
where P and Q are polynomails.The domain of is { | }. We know from
part ( a) that P and Q are continuous every where. Thus, by part 5 of Theorem 3.8 is
continuous at every number in D.
176
Example 4: Find
Solution: The function
is rational, so by theorem 3.9 it is continuos on it domain, which is , | -.
Another way of combining continuous functions and to get a new continuous function is to
form the composite function this fact is a consequence of the following Theorem.
Theorem 3.10 If is continuous at and
Theorem 3.24 tells us that the composite of two continuous functions at a given number is
continuous.
Theorem 3.11
If 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎 and 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑔 𝑎 , then the composite 𝑓𝑜𝑔 given
by 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 is continuous at 𝑎
Example 5: where are the following functions continuous?
a) b)
Solution: a. Let and , we have
Now is continuous on since it is polynomial and is continuous everywhere. Thus
is continuous on by theorem 3.11.
b. We know from theorem 3.9 that is continuous and (because
and continuous). Therefore by Theorem 3.11 is continuous,
where it is defined. Now is defined when . So it is undefined when
and this is happened when . Thus is discontinuous when is an
odd multiple of and is continuous on the intervals between these values.
177
Definition 3.25
a) A function is continuous on ,if it is continuous at every point in
b) A function is continuous on [ ], if it is continuous on , and is also continuous
from the right at and continuous from the left at b.
Exercises
1.Write an equation that expresses thefact that a function if continuous at the number 4.
2. If is continuous on ,what can you say about its graph?
3. a) From figure 3.29. State the number at which is discontinuous and explain why.
b) For each of the numbers stated in part (a) determine whether is continuous from the right,
or from the left ,or neither.
4. Determine whether is continuous or discontinuous at .if is discontinuous, determine
whether is continuous from the left at , is continuous from the right at .
√ √
| |
{
178
5. Find the values for the constant k, that makesthe following functions are continuous at
or continuous every where.
a) { b) {
{ d) {
e) {
6. If and are continuous functions with and [ ] then find
g(3)
3.6 Intermediate value theorem
Functions that are continuous on intervals have properties that make them particularly useful in
mathematics and its applications. One of these is the Intermediate Value Property. A function is
said to have the Intermediate Value Property if whenever it takes on two values, it also takes on
all the values in between.
Theorem 3.12 (Intermediate Value Theorem)
Suppose that is continuous on the closed interval [ ] and let N be any number between
,where . Then there exists a number c in such that .
The intermediate value Theorem states that a continuous function takes on every intermediate
value between the functional values and It is illustrated by Figure 3.30 below. Note
that the value N can be taken on once [as in part (a)] or more than once [as in part (b)].
If we think of a continuous function as a function whose graph has no hole or break, then it is
easy to believe that the intermediate value theorem is true. In geometric terms it says that if any
horizontal line is given between and as in Figure 1.32, then the
graph of cannot jump over the line.it must intersect somewhere.
179
The intermediatevalue theorem is not true in general for discontinuous functions.
One use of the intermediate value theorem is in locating roots of equations as in the following
example.
Example1: Show that the expression has at least one root between 1 and 2.
Solution: Let we are lookig for a solution of the given equation ,
that is a number c between 1 and 2 such that . Therefore ,we take and
by the theorem, we have
180
Thus ; that is is a number between .Now is continuous
since it is polynomial, so the intermediate value theorem says there is a number c between 1 and
2 such that .
In other words, the equation has at least one root c in the
interval .
3.7 Summary
I. Let be a function defined at each point of some open interval containing possibly at
itself, then a number L is the limit of as approaches (or is the limit of at ) if for
every number there is a number such that
| | then | | .
If is the limit of ) as approaches then we write
If such an L can be found we say that the limit of at exists or that has a limit at or that
exists.
II. For real number and and function
, right-hand limit
, left-hand limit
If , then it is said that has limit at or the
limit of exists at and is expressed as
If the limit of a function exist, then it unique.
III. Limit at and infinite limit
limit at infinity
In this case, the line is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of
, infinite limit
181
In this case, the line is a vertical asymptote of the graph of If , we have
, and
IV. A function is continuous at a point if:
V. If is continuous on[ ], and have opposite signs, then there is at least
one number such that
3.8 Review Exercises
1. Using Prove the following limits
a) b) c)
d) If then e) ( √ )
f)
√
2. Find the limits of the following.
a) Where and and where
b) c)
d) e) (√ √ )
√
f) g) (√ )
h)
3. Find two function and such that does not exist but
exists.
4. [ ] [ ] Then find [ ],
provided that the limits exist at
182
5. Explain why the function is discontinuous at the given number
a) | |
b) {
c {
6. Show that the number at which the function
is discontinuous?At which of these points is continuous from the right, from the left.
7. For what value of the constant c is the function continuous on (
8. Find the values of and that make continuous every where.
{
9. Show that is continuous on (
a) {
√
b) {
10.Use the intermedaite value Theorem to show that there is a root of the given equation in the
specified interval.
a) b) c) ,
183
d) √ e)
184
UNIT-FOUR
DERIVATIVES AND APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
Unit-4: Derivatives and Application of Derivatives
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
Define the derivative and differntiability of a function;
Find the slope and the equation of the tangent line to the graph of a given function at a
given point;
State and prove some techniques of differntiation;
Compute the derivative of a given function;
To find higher order of derivative of functions.
Introduction
In this chapter,we will discuss the concept of tangent line and normal line to graph of a
function at a given point. With the concept of geometric interpretation of tangent line to a
curve at a point,we will see the formal definition of the derivative of a function at point
,which will be followed by the derivative of a function at any point along with the usual
notations for the derivative. We will also duscuss the concept of differentiablility and its
relationship to continuity. We will also develop the Chain Rule to find the derivative of
composition of functions. We will also emphasize the application of the derivative to
graphing functions. We will learn how to determine where the graph of a differentiable
function rise and where it falls: where it has peak and where it has valleys: where it curves
upward and where it curves downward. The concepts we will introduce have application not
only to graphing functions but also to problems in such widely varying areas.
4.1 Definition of derivatives; basic rules
Definition 4.1: Let be a number in the domain of a function If
185
(1)
exists, we call this limit the derivative of at and write it , so that
(2)
If the limit in (2) exists, we say that has a derivative at and is defferentiable at or that
exists.
The derivative of a function at a point can also be defined as
if this limit exists.
Formula (3) is obtained by replacing by and by in formula (2).
Example 1: Find the derivative of the function at a number
Solution: From definition of the derivative, we have
[ ] [ ]
Differentaible Functios
The derivative of function may or may not exist at particular point . If the limit in (3) fails to
exist, say at we say is not differentaible at
186
Definition 4.2: Let a function be defined in open interval containig the point c. The function is
differentaible at c if and only if the derivative exists. If is differentaile at every point of
its domain we say simply that is differentaible.
Example 2: Let Then determine the set of values of for which is differentaible.
Solution: Let
Since this expression is defined for every real number , is defferentaible in the whole real
line.
Theorem 4.1: If differentaible at point , then it is continuous at
Proof: To prove that is continuous at , we have to show that .
We do this by showing that the difference approaches 0.
The given information is that is differentiable at , that is
exists. Now divide and multiply by (which we can do when )
Taking the limit on both side of equation, we get
[ ]
Therefore, is continuous at .
187
The converse of this theorem is not true ; that is ,there are functions that are continuous at a point
but not differentaible at that point.
Example 3: Show that the function | | is continuous at 0, but not differentiable at .
Solution: The function | | continuous at 0, since
| | | |
If we compute the derivetive, we obtain
| |
For
| |
And for
| |
| |
does not exists, because the right and the left hand side limits are not equal.
Therefore, is not differentaible at
Note: Alternative notations for of a function , ,
etc.
Exircses
1. Find
a) b) c)
d) e) f) f(x
g)
√
h) √
188
2. Each limit represents the derivative of some function at some number . State such an and
in each case.
√
a) b) c) ⁄
d) e) f)
3. Determine whether
4. Given {
Show that :
a) is continuous for all values of
b) is differentiable for all value of
c) is not continuous at
Tangent Lines
Activity
Q1.What is a tangent line? a normal line?
Q2. Is any line that touches a curve at one point a tangent line?
For circle, tangency is striaght forward. A line L is tangent to a circle at a point P if L passes
through P perpendicular to the raduis at P (Figure 4.1). Such a line just touches the circle. But
what does it mean to say that a line L is tangent to some other curve C at a Point P? Generalizing
from the geometry of the circle, we might say that it means one of the following:
1. L passes through P perpendicular to the line from P to the center of C.
2. L passes through only one point of C, namely P.
189
3. L passes through P and lies on one side of C only.
L Passes through P perpendicular to radius OP.
Most curves do not have centers, and a line we may want to call tangent may intersect C at other
points or cross C at point of tangency (Figure 4.2).
In this section, we make use of limit concept to find the equation of a line tangent to the graph of
a function at a given point.
Definition 4.3: The tangent line to the curve at the point is the line through p
with slope
(4)
provided that this limit exists.
Example 1: Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola at the point .
Solution: Here we have and , so the slope is
190
Using the point slope form of the equation of the line, we find that an equation of the tangent line
at is or .
There is another expression for the slope of tangent line that is sometimes easier to use.
Let so that
So the slope of the secant line PQ is
See Figure 4.3 where the case is illustrated and Q is to the right of P. If it happened
that However, Q would be to the left of P.
Notice that as approaches approaches (because so that the expression for the
slope of the tangent line in definition 4.4 becomes
191
Example 2: Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola ⁄ at the point
Solution: Let ⁄ . Then the slope of tangent at is
Therefore, the equation of the tangent at the point (3,1) is
which simplifies to .
Definition 4.4: The slope of the line tangent to the graph of the function at is
equal to the derivative of at
192
The geometric interpretion of a derivative is shown in Figure 4.4.
If we use the point - slope form of the equation of a line, we can write an equation of the tangent
line to the curve at the point (
Example 3: Find the equation of the tangent line to the parabola at the point
(3,-6).
Solution: We know that the derivetive of at the number is
. Therefore, the slope of the tangent line at (3,-6) is
Thus, the equation of the tangent line to the parabola is:
Definition 4.5: Let be continuous at . If
Then we say that the graph of has a vertical tangent line at . In that case the vertical
line is called the line tangent to the graph of at .
193
⁄
Example 4: Let . Show that the graph of has vertical tangent line at and find
an equation for it.
Solution: We observe that is continuous at 0 an d that
⁄
⁄
By definition 2.6 the graph has a vertical tangent line at and an equation of the tangent is
Normal Lines
Definition 4.6: A line is said to be normal to a curve at point P, if it is perpendicular to the
tangent line at P.
If the tangent line has slope then the normal line will have slope , and the equation of
the normal line to the curve at is given by
It is clear that if the tangent line is horizontal then the normal lne will be vertical, and vice varsa.
Example 5: Find the equation of the normal line to the function at
Solution: Let us compute the slope of the tangent line to the curve at . This is done in the
following ways.
194
= .
That is , so the normal line is will have slope , hence the equation of
normal line is
Or
Execises
1. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point
a) using definition 1
b) using equation 3
2. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve given point.
a) ,
b) √ ,
c) ⁄ , (3,2)
d) ⁄ ,
3. a) Find the slope of the tangent to curve ⁄ at the point .
b) Find the slope of the tangent lines at the point whose x-coordinates ar
195
, and
4. Compute tangent line if it exists for each curve at the given value of a.
⁄
a) b) c) any
d) any e) f)
5. Find the equation of tangent line if it exists to the given curve at given point .
a) , b) , c) ,
d) √ , e) | |, f)
√
g) ,( )
6. Explian why there is no tangent line to the given curve at the given point.
| | ⁄
a) , b) √ , c)
d) | | e) | | f) ,
7. Find the equation for the normal line to the given curve at the given point.
⁄
a) , ( ⁄ ⁄ ) b) , c) √ , (
d) , e) ( f) √ , (√ √ )
Basic Rules of Derivatives
Here, we will discuss rules stated as theorems that help us differentiate combinations of
functions. The proofs of these theorems depend mainly on the appropriate limit theorems.
Rule1: Derivative of Constant function
If has the constant value , then
196
Example 1: Let .
Similarly, .
Rule2: Power Rule
If n is nonnegative integer and , then is defferentaible on the set of real numbers
and is given by
Proof: when , then thus is constant function , and
When n is any positive integer ,then we have form the definition of derivative
By the binomial expansion theorem, we have
so that [ ]
[ ]
[ ]
197
Therefore
Example 1: Let Then find .
Solution: By the power rule we obtain .
The power rule (general version)
If n is any real number , then .
Activities: Differentiate the following functions.
a. b. √ c. d)
√
Rule3: The Constant Multiple
If c is a constant and is differentaible function, then [ ] .
Proof: Let , then
[ ]
Example 2:
Rule4: Sum Rule
If the functions and are differentiate at a point a, then so are and and
1 sum rule
difference rule
Proof
1. Using the limit theorem , we find that
198
Proof of 2 is similar with that of 1.
This can also be extended to finite number differetaible function as:
Activities: Find the derivative of
a. b. c.
Rule5: The Product Rule
If are differentaible, then the product is differentailble, and
Proof: Let . We need to show that F is differentaible by finding its derivative.
Now, and
Since is differentaible it is continuous so
Therefore by limit theorem ,we have +
Example 3:
a) Let then find
199
b) then find ,
Solution: a) Let and so that
By product rule, we have
+h = 2x
4 + =6
b) By product rule we have
Rule 6: The Quotient Rule
If are differentaibe at , and then ⁄ is differentaible at
⁄
[ ]
Proof : Since exists by hypothesis, it follows that is continuous at so that
, because by hypothesis.
Therefore, ⁄ is defined throught some open interval about , and the following limits exist:
⁄ ⁄
⁄
200
. / . /
[ ] [ ] [ ]
Therefore,
⁄
[ ]
Example 4: . Then find .
Solution:
( )
Rule7: Reciprocal Rule
If is differentaible function, then is differentaible whenever it is defined, and
[ ]
Activities:
Differentaite the following function.
a. b. c.
We smmarize the differentiation formulas we have learned so far as follows.
201
1. 4. ( 7.
2.( 5. ( )
3.( f 6.
Exercises
1. Find the derivative of in two ways: by using the product Rule and
performing the multiplication first. Do your ansewrs agree?
2. Find the derivative of the function
√
√
In two ways:by using the Quotient Rule and by simplifing first. Show that your answers are
equivalent.Which method do you prefer?
3. Differentiate.
a) f)
b) g)
c) h) ( )
d) √ i) ( √)
e) j)
4. Suppose that , and then find the following values.
a) b) ⁄ c) ⁄
5. Suppose that . Find if
a) c)
202
b) d)
6. If , where ,Find .
7. If and find ( )⟨
8. Find equation of the tangent line and normal line to the given curve at the specified point.
√
a) , b) , (
9. If f is a differentiable function, find an expression for the derivative of each of the following
functions.
a) c. b) d)
√
10. Let and ⁄ ,where F and G are the functions whose
graphs are shown.
Then find;
a) b)
11. Find equations of the tangent lines to the curve
That are parallel to the line .
12. a)Use the poduct Rule twice to prove that if and are differentiable,then
203
b) Taking in part (a), show that
[ ] [ ]
Derivative of Polynomial Functions
The constant multiple rule, sum rule the difference rule can be combined with the power rule to
find any polynomial, as the following example.
Example 1: Given the polynomial function , its derivative
is given as
Example 2: Find the horizontal tangents of the curve
Solution: The horizontal tangent, if any, occurs at the points where
Now solve the equation
Thus, has any horizontal tangent at
the corresponding points on the curve are (0.2),(1,1) and (-1,1) see Figure 2.8.
204
Derivative of Rational Functions
The Quotient Rule and the other differentiation formulas enable us to compute the derivative of
any rational function, as the next example illustrates.
Example 3: Let . Then
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Activity
1. State and describe the basics of derivatives of trignometric functons.
2. Show that the derivative of is .
In this discussion, we will find the derivatives of all the trignometric functions. There are six
important formulas for differentiating trignometric functons.
205
Theorem 4.2: The trignometric functons are differentiable whenever they are defined and
1. 4.
Proof:
1. Using the definition of derivative, we have ,
Notice that and
Therefore,
2. To show (3), we make use of the definition and the quotient rule.
206
3. similar with the proof of (3).
4. To prove (5),we use the fact that , and along with the reciprocal rule
( )
5. This can be shown in a similar manner as that of (5).
Example 4: Differentiate the following functions.
a. b.
Solution:
a. Using the sum and product rule,we get,
(x)=2x
b. Use the product and the quotient rule , we have,
Exercises
1-24 Differentiate the given functions.
1. 2.
4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
10. √ 11. 12.
13. 14 . 15.
207
16. 17. 18.
19. 20 . 21.
22. f(x)= 23. 24. √
25. prove that . 26. prove that .
27. prove that .
28. prove ,using the definitionof derivative,that if . Then
29-32 Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the given point.
29. , ⁄ 30. , 31. ,
32.
33. Let
a) Use the Quotient Rule to differentiate the function
b) Simplify the expression for f(x) by write it in terms of and and then find
c) Show that your answers to parts (a) and (b) are equivalent.
34. Suppose ⁄ and ⁄ and. Let and
. Then find ⁄ and ⁄ .
35. For what values of x does the graph of f have a horizontal tangent?
Derivatives of Exponential Functions
Let us try to find the derivative of the exponential function using the definition of a
derivative .
208
The factor does not depend on h, so we take it infront of the limit :
Notice that the limit is the value of derivative of at 0 . That is,
, we have shown that the exponential function is differentiable at 0, and it
is differntaible every where and
Example 5: Differentiate
Solution: Here the inner function is and the outer function is the exponential
function . So by Chain Rule ,
( )
We can use chain Rule to differentiate an exponential function with any base
let then and Chain Rule gives
( )
Because is a constant, we have the formula
Derivatives of Logarthmic Functions
209
In this section, we use implicit differentaition to find the derivatives of the logarithmic function
and in particular, the natural logarithmic function .
Proof: Let then Differentiating this equation implicity with
respect to and using formula (1) we get
and so
If we put in formula 1, then the factor on the right side becomes and we get
the formula for the derivative of the natural logarithmic function
By comparing formula 1 and 2 ,we see one of the main reasons that natural logarithms
(logarithms with base e) are used in calculus : The differentiation formula is simplest when
become In general , if we combine formula 2 with the chain rule we get
[ ]
Example 6: Differentiate
Solution: let and now by formula (3) we have
[ ]
Example 7: Find .
Solution: Using (3),we have
210
Example 8: Differentiate
Solution: Using formula 1 with , we have
Example 9: Find (x) if | |
Solution : Since {
It follows that
Thus (x) for all .
The result is
| |
Logarithmic Differentiation
The calculation of deravative of complicated functions involving product, quotient, or power can
often be simplified by taking logarithms. The method used in the following example is called
logarithmic differntiation.
⁄ √
Example 10: differentiate
Solution : We take logarithms of both sides of the equation and use the law of logarithms to
simplify:
211
Diffentiating implicity with respect to gives
Solving for ⁄ , we get
( )
Because we have an explicit expression for , we can substitute and write
⁄
√
( )
Steps in logarithmic differentiation:
1. Take natural logarithms of both sides of an equation and use the laws of
logarithms to simplify;
2. Differentiate with respect to ;
3. Solve the resulting equation for
The Power Rule:
If n is any real number and , then
(x)
Proof: Let and use logarithmic differntiation:
| | | | | |
Therefore
Hence
212
Remark: You should distinguish carefully between the Power Rule [ ] where the
base is variavble and the exponent is constant, and the rule for differentiating exponential
functions [ ] where the base is constant and the exponent is variable.
In general there are four cases for exponent and bases:
1. (a and b are constants)
2. [ ] [ ] (x)
3. [ ]
4. To find [ ] , logarithmic differentiation can be used, as in the next example.
Example 11: Differenttiate √ .
Solution: Using logarithmic differentiation , we have
√
√
√
√
(√ ) √ (√ )
√ √
√ √
Another method is to write ( )
( √ ) ( √ ) √ (√ )
√ ( )
√
Activity:
⁄
Show that
213
Note:
If we put ⁄ in the above limit, then as and so an alternative expression
for is
( ) .
The Chain Rule
Suppose you are asked to differentiate the function
The differentiation formulas that we have learned so far do not enable us to calculate .
Observe that F is a composite function. In fact if we let and
and . We know how to differentiate both and , so it would be useful to
have a rule that tells us how to find the derivative of in terms of the
derivatives of and .
Theorem 4.3 (The chain rule)
214
If is differentiable at and is differentiable at . Then is differentiable at , and
( )
The chain rule can be written in the form
( ( )) ( )
Example 1: Let . Find a formula for .
Solution: Let and Then , since and
we conclude that
Example 2 Find a formula for √ .
Solution: Let √ , √ and , so and
. By chain rule
√
√ ( ) √ √
.
Activity: Differentiate a) √ b) ( ) c)
The chain rule assumes a very suggestive form in the Leibniz notation. Suppose the function
and in the chain rule are already given and let and . Then
( ) and .
Therefore
( ( ))
215
Or more concisely, (8)
If [ ] then we can write where . By using the chain rule
and the power rule we get
Therefore [ ]
If n is any real number and is differentiable then
(9)
Example 3: Let Find .
Solution: Put and . Then from (8), it follows that
Example 4: Find if .
√
⁄
Solution: Let and √ . So, and
Then from (8) it follows that
( ) √
⁄
( )
⁄
( )
⁄
.
216
Example 5: Suppose the radius of a ballon varies with respect to time according to the
equation . Find the rate of change of the billon's volume with respect to time.
Solution: Let be the volume, then , while by assumption
Therefore (8) tells us that
The compound chain rule
Activity: Find where √
Let ( ) and is differentiable at , differentiable at
and differentiable at . Since
first application of the chain rule yields
But
So,
Therefore,
(10)
In the formula, the derivative of at the number appears first, then the derivative of
at the number and finally the derivative of at the number .
Example 6: Let . Find and calculate ⁄
217
Solution: Let and then ,
From (9) we have
( )
In particular,
( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
√ √
⁄ ( ) .
Exercises
1. Find the derivative of the function
⁄ ⁄
a. d) √
b. √ e)
√
c. f)
2. Write the composite function in the form . Then find
⁄
a. d)
√
b. e) √
c. √
3. Write the composite in the form of ( ) . Then find
⁄
a.
b.
c. √
4. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at the given point
a. at the point (0,1)
218
b. √ , find
5. If , where f'(5)=32 and g'(5)=6,
2 find
6. If ( ) where and
6 find .
7. If √ where and find
4.2 Derivatives of Inverse Functions
In pre-calculus mathematics courses we defined a function f as a relation in which no two
elements of the relation have the same first coordinate. Also we have seen that for same of the
functions the relation that is found by interchanging the entries of the ordered pairs can be again
a function and we called such a function the inverse of the original function. In this section we
discuss general properties of inverses and their derivatives.
Inverse Functions
In order to define the inverse of a function, it is essential that different numbers in the domain
always give different values of f. Such functions are called one-to-one functions.
Definition 3.7: A function f with domain D and range R is one-to-one function if whenever a ≠
b in D, then f (a) ≠ f (b) in R.
Note from Definition 3.1 we see that every strictly increasing function is one-to-one, because if a <
b, then f (a) < f (b) , and if b < a, then f (b) < f (a) in short if a ≠ b , then
f (a) ≠ f (b) . Similarly, every strictly decreasing function is one-to-one. We now give the
definition of inverse functions in terms of one-to-one function.
Definition 3.8: Let f be a one-to-one function with domain D and range R. A function g with
domain R and range D is the inverse function of f, provided the following condition is true for
every x in D and every y in R: y = f (x) if and only if x = g( y) .
219
−1
If a function f has an inverse function g, we often denote g by f . Of course we must note here that
−1
almost always f is different from 1/f. If f is a one-to-one function with domain D and range R, then
for each number y in R, there is exactly one number x in D such that y = f (x) . Since x is unique, we
may define a function g from R to D by means of the rule x = g(y). g reverses the correspondence
given by f. We call g the inverse function of f. In summary, a function f has an inverse if and only if
it is one-to-one. This conclusion is especially easy to apply to differentiable functions whose domains
are intervals. We know that a function f is strictly increasing on I (and hence has an inverse) if f '(x)
0 for all x in I or if for all x in I and for at most finitely many values of
x. Similarly, f is strictly decreasing on I (and hence has an inverse) if f '(x) < 0 for all x in I or if
for all x in I and f '(x) = 0 for at most finitely many values of x.
Example 1 Let f (x) = 2 + 3 + 6x − 4 then since f '(x) = 14 +15 + 6 0 f is
strictly increasing consequently it is invertible.
Definition 4.9: If the functions and satisfy the two conditions
( ) for every in the domain of
( ) for every in the domain of
then we say that and are inverse functions. Moreover, we call an inverse of and an
inverse of .
domain of = range of
ranges of = domain of
Theorem 4: (The Derivative Rule for Inverses). If ƒ has an interval I as domain and exists
and is never zero on I, then is differentiable at every point in its domain. The value of
at a point b in the domain of is the reciprocal of the value of at the point
220
or
df 1 1
dx x b
df
dx x f 1 ( b )
Example 1: Finding a Value of the Inverse Derivative
Let . Find the value of ⁄ at without finding a formula for
Solution: ⟨ |
⟨
⟨
Example 2: Let .Find (−2).
Solution: In order to use (1), we must first find the value of a for which – . But
f(0) = –2, so a = 0. Since , it follows that f '(0) = 4. Thus we
conclude that
(−2) = = .
THEOREM 5: (Horizontal Line Test). A function has an inverse if and only if its graph is cut
at most once by any horizontal line.
Exercise : Find and ⁄ at for the following functions
1.
2.
3.
4.
221
4.2.1 Derivatives of Inverse of Trigonometric functions
1)
√
2)
√
3)
4)
√
5)
√
6)
Example: Find the derivative of arcsin
Solution: (arcsin =
√ √
Activity: Differentiate the following functions
4.2.2 Hyperbolic and Inverse hyperbolic Functions
Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions
Certain combinations of exponential functions and occur in advanced application of
calculus. Their properties are similar in many ways to those of and , they have the
same relationship to the hyperbola that the trigonometric function have to the circle. For this
reason they are collectivelly called hyperbolic functions and individually called hyperbolic sine
and hyperbolic cosine and so on. We also define the rest of the hyperbolic functions interms of
these functions.
Definition 4.10:
222
The graphs of hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine can be sketched using graphical addition
as in the Figure belows.
Note that has domain and range . While has domain and range [ ]
The hyperbolic functions satisfy a number of identities that are similar to well - known
trigonometric identities. We list some of them here and leave most of the proof as an exercises.
Hyperbolic Identities
4.
Proof:
1. Trivial!
2. By definition, we have
223
( ) ( )
3. Trivial!
4. Left as an exercise
Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
We list the differentiation formula for the hyperbolic functions below. We prove (1) and (2). The
remaining proof are left as exercise.Obserbe that the analogy with the differentiation formulas
for trigonometric functions, but be aware that the signs are different in some cases.
1. 4.
2. 5.
3. 8.
Proof:
( )
( )
Inverse of Hyperbolic Functions
It can be seen from their graphs that and are one-to-one functions and so they have
inverse functions denoted by and . But, is not one –to-one. However, when
restricted to the domain [ ] it become one-to-one. The inverse hyperbolic cosine function is
defined as the inverse of this restricted function.
iff
iff
224
iff
The remaining invese hyperbolic functions are defined similarly. We can sketch the graphs of
, .
Since the hyperbolic functions are definded in terms of exponential funfions ,it is not surprising
to learn that the inverse hyperbolic functions can be expressed in terms of logarithms. In
particular,we have :
Theorem 4.6:
1. ( √ )
2. ( √ )
3. | |
√
4. ,
Proof: To pove (1):
In order to derive a formula for we note that ,then by definition
225
Our aim now is to write as a function of x. Using the quadratic formula and the fact that
,we deduce that
√
√
We can find by taking natural logarithms in ( ) this yeilds
( √ )
Thus our formula for is
( √ )
The remaining proofs are left as an exercise.
Exercises
1. Differentiate the following function.
a) b) c)
d) e) ( ) f) √
g) h) √ i) [ ]
2. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the given point.
a) b) ,
3. find the numerical value of the expression.
a) b) c). d)
e) f) g) ( √ )
4.Prove following function:
(a). (b)
226
(c). (d)
4.3 Higher Order Derivatives
If the derivative of a function is itself differentiable, then the derivative of is
denoted by and is called the second derivative of . As long as we have differentiability,
we can continue the process of differentiating derivatives to obtain third, fourth, fifth and
even higher derivatives of . The successive derivatives of are denoted by
These are called the first derivative, the second derivative, the third derivative and so forth.
The notation of a derivative of arbitrary order is
and is read as order derivative.
Activity: Find
a. , where
⟨ , where
Example1:If . Find the successive derivatives of
Solution:
.
.
.
227
.
Example 2: Find a general formula for if and and are
differentiable at .
Solution: using the product rule differentiate
( )
Therefore,
.
Successive derivatives can also be denoted as follows:
[ ]
[ [ ]] [ ]
[ [ ]] [ ]
In general, we write
[ ] (11)
which is read "the nth derivative of with respect to . "
When a dependent variable is involved, say Then the successive derivatives can
be denoted by writing
or more briefly
228
Example 3: Find the 27th derivative of .
Solution: the first few derivative of are as follows:
We see that the successive derivatives occur in a cycle of length 4 and, in particular
whenever n is a multiple of 4. Therefore
and , differentiating three more times, we have
.
Exercises
1. Show that satisfies
2. Show that if , then satisfies the equation
3. find and
a)
b)
c)
d)
4. a) Use the Quotient Rule to differentiate the function
229
b) Simplify the expression for by writing it in terms of and nd
then find
c) show that your answers to part (a) and (b) are equivalent.
5. Suppose ( ⁄ ) and ( ⁄ ) and let and
find a) ( ⁄ ) ⁄ .
4.4 Implicit Differentiation
Up to now, we have been concerned with differentiating functions that are expressed in the
form , that is, functions that can be expressed in one variable explicitly. Because
the variable appears alone on one side of the equation. However, sometimes functions are
defined by equations in which is not alone on one side: For example, the equation
is not of the form . However, this equation still defined as a function of since
it can be rewritten as
Thus, we say that (1) defines implicitly as a function of , the function being
The method of implicit differentiation consists of differentating both sides of the equation
with respect to and then solving the resulting equation for . In the examples and
exercises of this section it is always assumed that the given equation determines implicitly
as a differentable function of so that the method of implicit differentation can be applied.
Example 1:
a) If find
b) Find an equation of the tangent to the circle at the point (3, 4)
Solution:
230
a) Differentiate both sides of the equation
Remembering that is a function of and using the chain rule, we have
Thus,
Now we solve this equation for
b) At the point ) we have and , so
An equation of the tangent to the circle at (3,4) is therefore
or
Alternatively, solving the equation , we get √ . The point (3,4)
lies on the upper semicircle √ and so we consider the function
√ . Differentiating using the Chain Rule, we have
⁄
√
So,
and an equation of the tangent is
231
Example 2: Use implicit differentiation to find if
Solution:
( )
Solving for we obtain
Activity:
a. Use implicit differentiation to find for the equation .
b. Find an equation for the tangent line to the equation at the point .
Example 3: Using implicit differentiation, find if
Solution: Differentiating both sides of with respect to x implicitly yields
Again applying implicit differentiation for the second time, we get
Example 4: Use implicit differentiation to find if
232
Solution: Differentiating both sides of implicitly yields
from which we obtain
(1)
Differentiating both sides of (1) implicitly yields
⁄
(2)
Substituting (1) into (2) and simplifying using the original equation, we obtain
⁄
.
Example 5: Find if .
Solution: Differentiating implicitly we get
Exercises
1. Find
a) d)
233
b) e) √
c) √ f) √
2. Find by implicit differentiation.
a) f)
⁄
b) g)
c) h)
d) √ i) √
e)
3. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve at the given points in two ways: first
by solving for interns of and differentiating and then by implicit differentiation.
a) ( )
√ √ √ √
b)
4. Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola
at the point
5. Find the value of a and b for the curve if the point (1,1) is on its
graph and the tangent line at (1,1) has the equation
4.5 Applications of Derivatives
In this section, we will give emphasize the application of the derivative to graphing
functions. We will learn how to determine where the graph of a differentiable function rise
and where it falls: where it has peak and where it has valleys: where it curves upward and
where it curves downward. The concepts we will introduce have application not only to
graphing functions but also to problems in such widely varying areas.
234
4.5.1 Extreme Values of Functions
Some of the most important applications of differential calculus are optimization problems,
on which we are required to find the optima (best) way of doing something.
Definition 4.11: A function is said to have an
a. Absolute maximum (or global maximum) at the point on an interval if is
the largest value of on : that is . The number is called the
maximum value of on .
b. Absolute minimum (or global minimum) at the point on if is the smallest
value of on : that is for all in . The number is called the
minimum value of on .
If has either an absolute maximum or absolute minimum on at , then is said to have
an absolute extreme on at .
As it is illustrated in figure 4.12, there is no guarantee that a function will have absolute
extrema on given interval.
235
Part (a)-(e) of figure 4.12 show that a continous function may or may not have relative
maximum or minimum on an infinite interval or on a finite open interval. However, theorem
4.14 will show us that a continous function must have both an absolute maximum and an
absolute minimum on every finite closed interval(see part (f) of figure 4.12)
Definition 4.12: A function has a local maximun (or relative maximum) at if
when is near [this means that for all in some open interval
containing ]. Similarly, has local minimum at if when is near .
Example 1. If then because for all therefore is
the absolute (and local) minimum value of . this corresponding to the fact that the origin is
the lowest point on the parabola (see figure 4.13) however, there is no highest point
on the parabola and so this function has no maximum value.
Figure 4.13 shows an example of a function which has minimum value and no maximum
value.
236
Example 2: The function is continous, and hence is guaranteed to have both
an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on every finite closed interval and, in
particular, on the interval [ ] the absolute minimum occures at and the absolute
maximum occurs at at which points the absolute minimum and maximum values are
and .
Finding absolute extrema on finite closed intervals:
The Extreme Value Theorem is an example of what mathematicians call an existence
theorem. Such theorems state conditions under which something exists, in this case absolute
extrema. However, knowing that something exists and finding it are two separate things, so
we will now address the problem of finding the absolute extrema.
Theorem 4.9: (The Extreme Value Theorem)
If is continuous on a closed interval[ ], then attains an absolute maximum value
and an absolute minimum value at some numbers and in [ ].
Definition 4.13: A critical number of a function is a number in the domain of such that
or doesn‘t exist.
Example 3: Find the critical number of .
Solution: . Now,
.
Thus, is the only critical number of the given function.
Theorem 4.10: If has an absolute extremum on an open interval then it must occur
at a critical point of .
Steps to find the extreme value of a function on an interval (a, b):
1. Compute the value of at all the critical points in
2. Compute the value of at the end points and .
3. Compare the results in and . The largest of those values is the
maximum value of on [ ] the smallest of those values is the minimum
value of on [ ].
Example 4: Let . Find the extreme value of on [ ] and determine at
which numbers in [ ] they occur.
237
Solution: First we find the critical point has extreme values because it is continuous on
[ ], since is differentiable,
√
.
√ √
Since is not in the interval [ ], the only critical number in our focus is .
We compute the corresponding value of ,
√
( ) √
Consequently, the minimum value of on [0,1] is 0 and it occurs at 0 and 1. The maximum
√
value of f on [0,1] is √ and it occurs at .
Example 5: Let Find the extreme value of on [2,4] and determine at
which numbers in [2,4] they occur.
√
Solution: From example 4, the critical point is , therefore for all in .
Hence the extreme value of on [2, 4] must occur at the end points of the interval.
Since , we conclude that is the maximum value and occurs at ,
whereas is the minimum value and occur at .
Example 6: Find the extreme value of , on [ ]
Solution:
or
238
or
But is not in [ ] so
We compute the corresponding value of
So, the maximum value of on [ ] is , and it occurs at and the minimum value
of on [ ] is , and it occurs at .
Activity
⁄
a. Find the critical number of the function: .
b. Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum value of f on the given interval
[ ].
Example 7: A landowner wishes to use mile of fencing to enclose a rectangular region of
maximum area, what should the lengths of the sides be?
Solution: Any rectangular region the landowner could enclose must have a length and
width (figure 4.14)
since the perimeter is to be (miles), we have Rectangle with 2 miles
perimeter
for and .
Figure 4.14
Therefore, , so the area of the rectangle can be written as a function of alone.
for
The problem has been reduced to finding the maximum value of on [ ], since
and thus only when , can have its maximum value on
[0,1] only at 0, or 1. But
( ) and
239
Thus the maximum value of occurs for (mile) (see figure 3.4 ); since the
value of y corresponding to is also (mile). Consequently, the fence should enclose a
square region of area ( ) (square miles).
Exercise
1. Find all critical points (if any) of the given function
a) d)
b) e)
c) f)
2. Find all extreme values (if any) of the given function on the given interval.
Determine at which number in the interval these value occur
a) [ ]
b) [ ]
c) [ ]
d) [ ]
⁄
e) [ ]
3. If a and b are positive number , find the maximum value of
4. Assume that is defined on [ ] and that . prove that is the maximum
value of on [ ] if and only if is the minimum value of on [ ]
4.5.2 Mean - Value Theorem
Theorem 4.11: (Rolle’s Theorem)
Let be continuous on [a, b], and differentiable on . If then there is a
number c in (a, b) such that
240
Theorem 4.12: (The Mean Value Theorem)
Let be a function that satisfies the following:
1. is continuous on the closed interval [ ]
2. is differentiable on the open interval
Then there is a number in such that
(1)
or, equivalently,
(2)
Proof: We introduce an auxiliary function that allows us to simplify the proof by using
Rolle‘s Theorem. The function is defined by
* +
(see figure 4.15), now is continuous on [ ] and differentiable , since is a
simple combination of , constant functions and a linear functions. Substituting in the
equation above, we find that
So, that by Roll‘s Theorem there is a number c in such that
241
However, for and thus
Solving for , we obtain
Example 1: Let . Find a number c in (-1,3) such that
Solution: since
We see a number c in (-1, 3) such that . But
So that,
Since , we conculude that .
Application of the Mean Value Theorem
The Mean Value Theorem is one of the most important results in calculus. We will use it
now to prove two very different theorems; the first implies that if two functions have
identical slopes at each number in an interval; then the functions differ by a constant on that
interval.
Theorem 4.13:
a) Let be contionous on an interval . If for each interior point of , then is
constant on .
242
b) Let and be contionous on an interval . If for each interior point
of , then is constant on . In other words, there is a constant such that
for all in
Proof: To prove (a), let and be arbitrary numbers in with . By the Mean Value
Theorem there is a number in such that
(1)
by assumption and thus (1) reduce to
Therefore, .
It follows that assigns the same value at any two points in , so is constant on .
To prove (b), notice that
So satisfies the conditons of point (a). consequently is constant on . in other
words, there is a constant such that for all in . If is a function
defined on an interval , then any function such that for each in is
called an antiderivative of ( since f is the derivative of on ).
Example 2: Find the antiderivatives of the function .
Solution: tan x is an antiderivative of , so the antiderivatives of have the form
, where c is any constant.
Example 3: Let be suchthat and . Determine the function .
243
Solution: Since and are both antiderivatives of , by theorem () (b) there is a
constant such that
For the appropriate constant c. to determine c, we use the assumption that , which
yhields
therefore 2 and hence
Exercises:
1. Let , where A, B, and C are costants with . Show that for
any interval [a, b], the number c guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem is the mid
point of [a, b].
2. Let | |. Show that , but there is no number c in (-2, 2) such that
. Does this result contradict Rolle‘s Theorem? Explain.
Increasing and decreasing Functions
The main singificance of the Mean Value Theorem is that it enables us to analyze the nature
of graphs of functions. Our immediate use of this principle is to prove the basic fact
concerning increasing and decreasing functinos. But, before stating the theorem let us see
the following definitions.
Definition 4.15: A function is said to be increasing on an interval provided that
whenever and are in I and
The function is strictly increasing on I provided that whenever x and z are in I
and .
244
Definition 4.16: A function is said to be decreasing on an interval provided that
whenever and are in I and
The function is strictly increasing on I provided that whenever x and z are in I
and .
Theorem 4.14: Let be continuous on an interval and differentiable at each interior point
of
a. If at each interior point of then is increasing on . Moreover, is
strictly increasing on I if for at most a finite number of points in I.
b. If at each interior point of then is decreasing on . Moreover, is strictly
decreasing on I if for at most a finite number of points in I.
Definition 4.17: A function is either increasing or decreasing is called monotonic
function.
Example 1: Let On which interals is strictly increasing and
strictly decreasing.
Solution: For all x, we have
Thus, is positive except for . It follows that is strictly increasing on
.
Example 2: Let . On which interval is incerasing and on
which it is decerasing.
Solution: For all x, we have
Using sign chart Method to know where and where .this depends on
the sign of the three factors of , namely, .
245
From the sign chart, we conclude that decreasing on and and increasing
on .
-1 0 2
x+1 - - - + + + + + + + + +
12x - - - - - - + + + + + +
x-2 - - - - - - - - - + + +
f '(x) - - - + + + - - - + + +
Figure 4.15
Exercises:
Find the intervals on which the given function is strictly increasing and those on which it is
strictly decreasing.
1.
2.
3.
4.
4.5.3 The First and Second Derivative Tests
i. If a continuous is increasing on the portion of an interval I to the left of c and
decreasing on the portion to the right of c, then is the maximum value of
on I.
ii. If a continuous is decreasing on the portion of an interval I to the left of c and
increasing on the portion to the right of c, then is the minimum value of
on I.
First Derivative Test
The derivative changes from positive to negative at c if there exists some number
such that for all in and for all in . The
246
definition of changes from negative to positive at c, results from replacing by
and vice versa.
⁄ ⁄
Example 1: Let . Determine where changes from positive to
negative and where it changes from negative to positive.
Solution: First we find the derivative of f
⁄ ⁄
Since when and doesn‘t exist when or . To determine
where changes sign, we assemble the chart
0 4 6
1
3
x - - - + + + + + + + + +
4-x + + + + + + - - - - - -
2
(6 x ) 3
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
f '(x) - - - + + + - - - - - -
Figure 4.16
Consequently, changes from negative to positive at 0 and from positive to negative at 4.
But at 6 the sign doesn‘t change (negative to negative) .
Theorem 4.15 (First Derivative Test)
Suppose that is a critical number of a continuous function on an interval
a. if changes from positive to negative at , then has a relative maximum at
b. If changes from negative to positive at , then has a relative minimum value at .
c. If doesn‘t change sign at , (that is is positive on both sides or negative on both
sides), then has no relative maximum or minimum at .
Example 2: Let . Show that has a relative maximum at -2
and a relative minimum value at .
247
Solution: First we find the derivative of
( )
To determine where changes the sign
-2 1
2
x+2 - - - + + + + + +
x- 1 - - - - - - + + +
2
f '(x) + + + - - - + + +
Figure 4.17
Consequently, changes frome positive to negative at -2 and frome negative to positive at
⁄ . Thus the first derivative test implies that f has a relative maximum value at ,
similarly, has a relative minimum value at ⁄ .
Together, the First Derivative Test and theorem (4:15) can help us sketch the graph of a
function . The procedure is as follows. We compute the derivative of and examine it:
1. From theorem 4.14, if for all in an interval , then is increasing on ,
whereas if for all in an interval then is decreasing on the interval
(figure 4.18(a))
2. From the First Derivative Test, if changes from positive to negative at , then
has a relative maximum value at , if changes from negative to positive at ,
then has a relative minimum value at . (figure 4.18(b)).
248
Example 3: Let . Sketch the graph of .
Solution: First we find the derivative of
[ ]
Since when or we determine the sign change at each of these
points.
1 2 3
x-1 - - - + + + + + + + + +
x-2 - - - - - - + + + + + +
x-3 - - - - - - - - - + + +
f '(x) - - - + + + - - - + + +
Figure 4.19
From figure 4.19, is strictly increasing on the interval [ ] and [ and strictly
decreasing on the intervals ] and [ ]. We also find that changes from negative to
positive at 1 and 3 and from positive to negative at 2. As a result, the first derivative test
249
implies and are relative minimum value and is relative
maximum value. Figure 4.20 shows the graph of .
Theorem 4.16 (Second Derivate Test )
Assume that
a. If then is a relative maximum value of .
b. If then is a relative minimum value of .
If then from this test alone we cannot draw any conclusion about a
relative exterme value at .
Example 4: Let . Using the Second Derivative Test, find the relative
exteme value of .
Solution: By differentiation we obtain
and
Therfore when or . Since
an
We know from the second derivative test that is a relative maximum value of ,
whereas is relative minimum value of .
Example 5: Use the Second Derivative Test to determine the relative extreme values of the
function
Solution: Differentiating with respect to we get
250
and
Now,
Thus is the only critical number of . More over, . Therefore, by the
Second Derivative Test relative maximum value.
⁄ ⁄
Example 6: Sketch the graph of the function
Solution: changes from negative to positive at 0, is a relastive minimum.
⁄
Since changes from positive to negative at 4, is a relative maximum. The
sign of doesn‘t change at 6, so there is no minimum or maximum there.
⁄
And ⁄ ⁄
, for all we have for and
0for all .
Figure 4.21
Exercise
1. Determine the value of c at which changes from positive to negatiove or frome
negative to positive.
251
a.
b.
c.
d.
2. Use the first derivative test to determine the relative extreme values(if any) of
the function
a.
b.
c.
e.
3. Use the second derivative test to determine the relative extreme value of the
function
a.
b.
d.
c.
4. Suppose is contionous on
a. If and . What can you say about ?
b. If and . What can you say about ?
Application of extreme Values
To solve many applied problems, one needs to find a maximum or minimum value of a
suitable function on an interval I. Recall from the Extreme Value Theorem that if is
continuous on a closed, bounded interval [ ], assumes a maximum and a minimum
value. Moreover thes values can be assumed only at the end points a and bof the interval or
at critical points in . The following examples illustrate this idea.
252
Example 1: A farmer has 2400 ft of fencing and wants to fence off a rectangular field that
borders a straight river. He needs no fence along the river. What are the dimensions of the field
that has the largest area?
Solution: In order to get a feeling for what is happening in this problem, let‘s experiment with
some special cases.
We see that when we try shallow, wild fields or deep, narrow fields, we get relatively small
areas. It seems plausible that there is some intermediate configuration that produces the largest
area. Figure 4.22 shows the general case. We wish to maximize the area A of the rectangle. Let
and be the depth and width of the rectangle in feet. Then we express A in terms of and :
We want to express A as a function of just one variable, so we eliminate by expressing it in
terms of x. To do this we use the given information that the total length of the fencing is 2400 ft.
Thus
From this equation, we have , which gives
Figure 4.22
Note that and (otherwise A < 0). So the function that we wish to maximize is
253
The derivative is , so to find the critical numbers we solve the equation
Which gives . The maximum value of A must occur either at this critical number or at
an end point of the interval. Since , , and , the closed
interval method gives the maximum value as .
Therefore, the rectangular field should be 600 ft deep and 1200 ft wide.
Example 2: Find the two nonnegative numbers whose sum is 18 and whose product is as large as
possible.
Solution: Let and be positive numbers such that with
. Let the product be . Then,
Now, is the critical number of A. From this we have
and
Thus, by the closed interval method, we have that is the largest possible product
of the numbers and
Related Rates
In this subtopic, we are going to study problems involving variables that are changing with
respect to time. If two or more such variables are related to each other, then their rates of change
with respect to time are also related.
For instance, suppose that and are related by the equation . If both variables are
changing with respect to time then their rates of change will also be related by the equation
Example 3: Given .Find
a. The rate of change of with respect to
254
b. The rate of change of with respect to .
Solution:
a. In this case we assume is differentiable with respect to .
Thus,
b. Similarly
Example 4: A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides
away from the wall at a rate of 1 ft per second, how fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the
wall when the bottom of the ladder is 6 ft from the wall?
Solution:
255
We first draw a diagram and label it as in the figure. Let feet be the distance from the bottom
of the ladder to the wall and y feet the distance from the top of the ladder to the ground. Note that
x and y are both functions of time t measured in seconds.
We are given that ⁄ and we are asked to find when . In this problem, the
relationship between x and y is given by the Pythagorean Theorem:
Differentiating each side with respect to t using the chain rule, we have
and solving this equation for the desired rate, we obtain
When , the Pythagorean Theorem gives and so, substituting these values we have
⁄ ⁄ .
The fact that is negative means that the distance from the top of the ladder to the ground
is decreasing.
Example 5: A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius 2m and
height 4m. If water is being pumped in to the tank at a rate of 2 ⁄ , find the rate at which
the water level is raising when the water is 3m deep.
Solution:
256
Let V, r, and h be the volume of the water, the radius of the surface, and the height of the water
at a time t, where t is measured in minutes.
We are given that 2 ⁄ and we are asked to find when h is 3m. The given
quantities are related by the equation
V=
Now, implies that . Thus,
V= ( ) .
Now we can differentiate each side with respect to t:
so
Substituting h = 3 and 2 ⁄ , we have
The water level is rising at a rate of ⁄ .
Example 6: Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon at the rate of 4.5 ⁄ . Find the
rate of change of the radius when the radius is 2cm.
Solution: Let r be the radius of the sphere, then the volume V of the sphere is given by
257
Example 7: The radius r of a circle is increasing at a rate of 3cm/min. Find the rate of change of
the area when r = 8cm.
Solution: If A is the area of the circle and r is its radius, then
A=
Exercises
1. Find two real numbers whose difference is 16 and whose product is as small as possible.
2. Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a semicircle.
3. A metal box (without top) is to be constructed from a square sheet of metal that is 10m on
a side by first cutting square pieces of the same size from each corner of the sheet and
then folding the sides. Find the dimensions of the box with largest volume.
4. A cylindrical can is to be made to hold 1 L of oil. Find the dimensions that will minimize
the cost of the metal to manufacture the can.
5. A ladder 5m long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides away
from the wall at a rate of 0.25m/sec, how fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the
wall when the bottom of the ladder is 3m from the wall?
4.5.4 Concavity and Inflection Points
Definition 4.17: Let be differentiable at and let be the line tangent to the graph of
at ( )
a. The graph of is concave upward at ( ) if there is an open interval about c
such that if is in and then lies above .
b. The graph of is concave downward at if there is an open interval
about c such that if is in and , then lies below .
258
c. The graph of a function is concave upward (respectively concave downward) on
an open interval I if it is concave upward (respectively concave downward) at
for each in I.
Notice from figure 4.25 (a) that the graph of lies below all its tangents and the slopes of
the tangents decrease from left to right. Thus, the graph is concave down ward. Similarly,
the graph of in figure 4.25 (b) lies above all its tangents. Thus it is concave upward.
A point where a curve changes its direction of concavity is called an inflection point.
Theorem 4.18 (concavity test)
Assume that exist on an open interval I
a. If for all in , then the graph of is concave upward on .
b. If for all in , then the graph of is concave downward on .
Example 1: Let . Find the interval on which the graph of is concave
upward and those on which it is concave downward. Then sketch the graph of f.
Solution:
259
and that is a relative minimum value of f. Now we determine the sign of
.
0 2
3
x - - - + + + + + +
x- 2 - - - - - - + + +
3
f ''(x) + + + - - - + + +
Figure 4.26
From figure 4.26 and theorem 4.27 we deduce that the graph of is concave upward on
and ⁄ and is concave downward on ⁄ . From this information we
conclude the graph of is as shown in figure 4.27.
Activity: Discuss the curve with respect to concavity, inflection point
and relative maximum and minimum. Use this information to sketch the curve.
Assume that exists and is continuous on an interval containing c. Assume also that the
graph of f has an inflection point at ( ) there is a change of concavity at ( ).
260
Because of the continuity of it is possible to show that . Thus we are led to the
following method of finding inflection points:
1. Find the values of c for which .
2. For each value of c found in step 1, determine whether changes sign at c.
3. If changes sign at c, the point ( ) is an inflection point.
Example 2: Let . Find the inflection points of the graph of .
Solution: The derivatives of are
Since and changes sign at 0, the point ( ) is the only
inflection point of the graph of f.
Exercises
1. Find the interval on which the graph of the function is concave upward and
those on which it concave downward. Then sketch the graph of the function.
a.
b.
c.
d. √
e.
2. Find the interval of concavity and the inflection points
a.
b.
c.
261
3. Let with . Show that the graph of f has
exactly one inflection point and find it.
4. Suppose is continuous on
a. If and . What can you say about ?
b. If and . What can you say about ?
5. Suppose the derivative of function is
.
On which interval is f increasing?
Curve Sketching
As we have seen throughout chapter three, knowledge of derivatives is very important in
sketching graphs of functions. In this section we collect the method we have encountered for
sketching graphs and we illustrate their uses.
Table 4.1 lists the items that are must important in graphing a function.
Table 4.1
Property Test
has intercept
has intercept
Graph of is symmetric with
respect to {
has a relative maximum value at
{
has a relative minimum value at
{
is strictly increasing on an open for all except finitely many in
interval
262
for all except finitely many in
is strictly decreasing on an open
interval
for all in
Graph is concave upward on an
open interval
for all in
Graph is concave downward on
an open interval
changes sign at ( and usually )
is an inflection point of
the graph of
has a vertical asymptote or
has a horizontal asymptote or
Example 1: Let . Sketch the graph of
Solution:
intercept
, so the y –intercept is 2.
intercept
it is false for all so has no intercept.
Symmetry:
so the graph of is symmetric with respect to −axis.
Extreme
and
Since for all and for all , it follows that is
strictly increasing on and strictly decreasing on , so that
is the maximum value of .
Concavity
263
Now we display the sign of
1 1
3 3
3 3
3x 1 - - - + + + + + +
3x 1 - - - - - - + + +
f ''(x) + + + - - - + + +
Figure 4.28
From figure 4.28 , the graph is concave upward on √ and on √ and it is
concave downward on ( √ ) and √ .
Asymptote
Which means that - axis is a horizontal asymptote of the graph.
We are now ready to sketch the graph of shown in figure 3.20
Activity: Skecth the graph of .
Exercises
1. Skecth the graph of the given function noting all relevant proberties listed in
table3.1.
a.
b.
264
c.
d.
2. Skecth the graph of the given equation
a.
b. c.
4.6 Summary
The function is said to have a derivative at point if
or exists.
The slope of a function means the derivative of a function.
The equation of a tangent line to the curve at a point is
where is the slop.
If the derivative of a function is exist at each point in its domain then we
say that a function is differentiable.
If is differentiable at then f is contionous.
A function is differentiable on [ ] if it is differentiable on and if
the left and right sided limit are exist.
Differentiation rule: if and are differentiable function and c be any
constant number then:
( )
265
A function is said to have an absolute maximum on an interval at the
point if , is called the maximum value of on .
A function is said to have an absolute minimum on an interval at the
point if , is called the minimum value of on
If has either an absolute maximum or minimum at then is said to have
an absolute extremum on at .
A function is called increasing on an interval if whenever
in .
A function is called decreasing on an interval if whenever
in .
A function is monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing function.
A critical number of a function is a number in the domain of such that
doesn‘t exist.
If on an interval then is increasing on .
If on an interval then is decreasing on .
If changes from positive to negative at , then has a relative maximum
at Were c is a critical number.
If changes from negative to positive at , then has a relative minimum
value at . Where c is a critical number.
If then is a relative maximum value of . Where c is a
critical number.
If then is a relative minimum value of . Where c is a
critical number.
If for all in , then the graph of is concave upward on .
If for all in , then the graph of is concave downward on .
4.7 Review Exercises
1. Find the derivative of the following function at
⁄
a. √ c. ⁄
266
b. d.
2. Find
a. √ c.
b. √ d.
3. Find the equation of the tangent line at the given point.
⁄
a. c.
b.
c. {
4. Find by implicit differentiation
a. (√ )
b.
c. √ √
5. Assume that and are differentiable function of . find in terms of and
a. b.
6. Let be differentiable at and let . Show that
7. What is the equation of a tangent line to the parabola at
8. If √ , find
9. If , find
10. If find
11. Find the relative extreme value of the function on the given interval. Determine
at which numbers in the interval they are assumed.
a. [ ]
b. √ [ ]
⁄
c. [ ]
267
d. [ ]
12. Find the critical points of the given function
a. √
⁄
b.
13. Use the first derivative test or the second derivative test to determine the relative
extreme value of the function
a.
b.
c. √ √
d. √
14. For what value of the constant and is a point of inflection of the
curve ?
15. Determine the intervals on which f is increasing and those on which f is
decreasing,
a.
⁄
b.
c.
16. Let
a. Show that , but that there is no number c in
such that
b. Why does this not contradict Rolle’s Theorem
17. Determine the intervals on which the graph of f is concave upward and the
intervals on which the graph is concave downward
a. √
b.
c.
268
18. Sketch the graph of the function, indicating all relevant properties listed in
table3.1
a. d.
b. e.
c. √
19. Suppose the distance a car can travel on one tank of gas at a velocity of v
miles per hour is given by
√ ⁄ ⁄
for
What velocity maximizes (and hence minimizes fue)
20. Evaluate the limit
a.
b.
c.
21. A 10 cm ladder is leaning against a house. The base of the ladder is pulled away
from the house at a rate of 0.25m/sec. How fast is the top of the ladder moving
down the wall when the base is
a. 6 m from the house
b. 8 m from the house
c. 9 m from the house
22. A water tank is in the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius 3m and
height 5m. If water is being pumped in to the tank at a rate of 2 , find
the rate at which the water level is raising when the water is 3m deep.
23. Find assuming that y is differentiable wrt x and x is differentiable wrt
y.
24. The radius r of a sphere is increasing at a rate of 3cm/min. Find the rate of
change of the volume when
a) r = 2 cm b) r = 3 cm.
269
UNIT-FIVE:
INTEGRATION
Unit-5: Integration
UNIT OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this unit each student will able to:
Identify anti-differentiation.
Understand indefinite and definite integrals.
Realize and apply techniques of integration.
Understand the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
Define properties of indefinite and definite integrals.
Learn about improper integrals.
Understand the application of integration.
Introduction
In this chapter we will look integrals. As with derivatives, this chapter will be devoted almost
exclusively to finding and computing integrals. Applications will be given in the following
chapter. There are really two types of integrals that we‘ll be looking at in this chapter : Indefinite
Integrals and Definite Integrals. The first half of this chapter is devoted to indefinite integrals and
the second half is devoted to definite integrals. As we will see in the second half of the chapter if
we don‘t know indefinite integrals we will not be able to do definite integrals.
5.1 Antiderivatives; indefinite integrals
In the past chapter we‘ve been given a function, and asking what the derivative of this function
was. Starting with this section we are not going to turn things around. We now want to ask what
function we differentiated to get the function.
270
Definition 5.1: Suppose we have a function of time, f t . This function might represent a
voltage, for example. Suppose we can find a second function of time, F t , whose derivative
dF t
with respect to time is f t : f t
dt
Then F t is called an anti-derivative of f t .
1
Example: f t t 2 . Someone suggests that an anti-derivative is F t t 3 . We don‘t need to
3
take their word for it. We can check to see if the proposed F t satisfies the defining relation
dF t
f t :
dt
1
Check:
dF t
d t3
3 1d t
3
1
3t 2 t 2 f t
dt dt 3 dt 3
1
From this check, we conclude that F t t 3 is, indeed, an anti-derivative of f t t 2 .
3
dF t
From the relation, f t , note that from the perspective of analytic geometry, the slope
dt
of the anti-derivative, F t , is just the original function, f t .
Note that if F t is an anti-derivative of f t , then F t plus any constant, K , is also an anti-
derivative:
d F t K dF t dK dF t dF t
0 f t
dt dt dt dt dt
In fact, it turns out that if we can find one anti-derivative, then we can find every possible anti-
derivative by adding a constant to the anti-derivative that we‘ve already found. Because any
value of the constant is possible, each function, f t , has a limitless number of anti-derivatives.
271
The process of finding an anti-derivative, F t , of a time function, f t , is called integration,
and we denote this process as follows:
F t f t dt K
where the symbol f t dt indicates the integration of f t and the arbitrary constant K is
called the constant of integration. Note that F t is an anti-derivative of f t for any and every
choice for the value of K .
Because the process of finding it is called integration, the anti-derivative, F t , is frequently
called the integral of f t . The form F t f t dt K is called the indefinite integral of
f t because the value of K is not specified. The name indefinite integral also distinguishes
this kind of integral from the closely related definite integral that comes up later in the study of
integral calculus.
Note that we integrate f t to obtain F t and that we differentiate F t to recover f t .
Thus, integration and differentiation are in some respects inverse processes because one can
undo the results of the other.
Definition 5.2: If F(x) is any ant-derivative of f(x) then the most general anti-derivative of f(x) is
called an indefinite integral and denoted,
f ( x)dx F ( x) k , k is any cons tan t
In this definition the is called the integral symbol, f(x) is called the integrand , x is called the
integration variable and the "k" is called the constant of integration .
Note that often we will just say integral instead of indefinite integral (or definite integral for that
matter when we get to those). It will be clear from the context of the problem that we are talking
about an indefinite integral (or definite integral). The process of finding the indefinite integral is
called integration or integrating f(x). If we need to be specific about the integration variable we
will say that we are integrating f(x) with respect to x.
272
Example 4: Evaluate the following indefinite integral.
x 3x 9 dx
4
Solution:
Since this is really asking for the most general anti-derivative. The indefinite integral is,
1 5 3 2
x 3x 9 dx x x 9x c
4
5 2
A couple of warnings are now in order. One of the more common mistakes that students make
with integrals (both indefinite and definite) is to drop the dx at the end of the integral. This is
required! Think of the integral sign and the dx as a set of parenthesis. You already know and are
probably quite comfortable with the idea that every time you open a parenthesis you must close
it. With integrals, think of the integral sign as an ―open parenthesis‖ and the dx as a ―close
parenthesis‖.
If you drop the dx it won‘t be clear where the integrand ends. Consider the following variations
of the above example.
1 5 3 2
x 3 x 9 dx
x x 9x c
4
5 2
1 5 3 2
x 3x dx 9 5 x 2 x c 9
4
1 5
x dx 3x 9 5 x c 3x 9
4
You only integrate what is between the integral sign and the dx.
Knowing which terms to integrate is not the only reason for writing the dx down. In the
substitution rule section we will actually be working with the dx in the problem and if we aren‘t
in the habit of writing it down it will be easy to forget about it and then we will get the wrong
answer at that stage. The moral of this is to make sure and put in the dx! At this stage it may
seem like a silly thing to do, but it just needs to be there, if for no other reason than knowing
where the integral stops.
273
On a side note, the dx notation should seem a little familiar to you. We saw things like this a
couple of sections ago. We called the dx a differential in that section and yes that is exactly what
it is. The dx that ends the integral is nothing more than a differential. The next topic that we
should discuss here is the integration variable used in the integral. Actually there isn‘t really a lot
to discuss here other than to note that the integration variable doesn‘t really matter. For instance,
1 5 3 2
x 3x 9 dx x x 9x c
4
5 2
1 3
t 3t 9 dt t 5 t 2 9t c
4
5 2
1 5 3 2
w 3w 9 dw w w 9w c
4
5 2
Changing the integration variable in the integral simply changes the variable in the answer. It is
important to notice however that when we change the integration variable in the integral we also
changed the differential (dx, dt, or dw) to match the new variable. This is more important that we
might realize at this point.
Another use of the differential at the end of integral is to tell us what variable we are integrating
with respect to. To see why this is important take a look at the following two integrals.
2xdx and 2tdt .
The first integral is simple enough.
2 xdx x c
2
The second integral is also fairly simple, but we need to be careful. The dx tells us that we are
integrating x‘s. That means that we only integrate x‘s that are in the integrand and all other
variables in the integrand are considered to be constants. The second integral is then,
2tdx t c
2
So, it may seem silly to always put in the dx, but it is a vital bit of notation that can cause us to
get the incorrect answer if we neglect to put it in.
274
Now, there are some important properties of integrals that we should take a look at.
Properties of the Indefinite Integral
1. kf ( x)dx k f ( x)dx where k is any number. So, we can factor multiplicative constants out
of indefinite integrals.
2. f ( x)dx f ( x)dx . This is really the first property with k = -1 .
3. f ( x) g ( x)dx f ( x)dx g ( x)dx . In other words, this integral of a sum or difference of
functions is the sum or difference of the individual integrals. This rule can be extended to as
many functions as we need.
Not listed in the properties above were integrals of products and quotients. The reason for this is
simple. Just like with derivatives each of the following will NOT work.
f ( x) f ( x)dx
f ( x) g ( x)dx f ( x)dx g ( x)dx and dx
g ( x) g ( x)dx
With derivatives we had a product rule and a quotient rule to deal with these cases. However,
with integrals there are no such rules. When faced with a product and quotient in an integral we
will have a variety of ways of dealing with it depending on just what the integrand is.
We can now answer this question easily with an indefinite integral.
f ( x) f ' ( x)dx .
Example 1: If f ' x x 4 3x 9 then find f x
Solution: By this point in this section this is a simple question to answer.
1 5 3 2
f ( x) f ' ( x)dx x 4 3x 9 dx x x 9x c
5 2
Example 2: Find the general indefinite integral for the following integrals
275
cos t 2 2t 4
x sec 2 x dx sin 2 d t 4 dt
4
a) b) c)
Solution:
x
sec 2 x dx x 4 dx sec 2 xdx
4
a)
x5
tan x c
5
you should check this answer by differentiating it.
cos 1 cos
b) sin 2
d d
sin sin
csc cot d csc c
t 2 2t 4
c)
1
t 4 dt t 2 2 dt t 2 dt
2
t 1 1
2t c 2t c
1 t
Activity:
1. Evaluate each of the following indefinite integrals
5x 4 1
100 x 6 4 dx x x 8 dx c) 34 x 3
4 8
a) b) 5
dx
x 6 x
t t 4 t dt
6 x 50 4 x 4 15 x 2
d ) d e) 3 2
f) dx
x3
2. Evaluate each of following integrals
sin
e 5
10 sec 2 x 5 cos x dx cos d c) 2 sec t tan t
x
a) b) dt
2
4t
276
5.2 Techniques of integration
Over view: In this section, we are going to discuss Integration by substitution, by parts and by
partial fraction, Trigonometric integrals, Integration by trigonometric substitution. That is we develop
techniques for using the basic integration formulas.
To obtain indefinite integrals of more complicated functions. Integration is not as
Straightforward as differentiation; there are no rules that absolutely guarantee obtaining an indefinite
integral of a function. Therefore we discuss a strategy for integration.
5.2.1 Integration by substitution, by parts and by partial fraction
Integration by Substitution
Our anti-differentiation formulas don‘t tell us how to evaluate integrals such as 2 x x 2 1 dx ,
sin 3x dx but powerful method for changing the variable of integration so that these integrals
(and many others) can be evaluated by using the basic integration formulas.
Theorem 4.1: (The substitution Rule)
If u g ( x) is a differenti at function whose range is an interval I and f is continuous on I , then
f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x)dx f (u)du .
Example1: Evaluate the following integrals
1 y 2 .2 ydy 4t 1dt x
2
a) b) c) sin( x 3 )dx
Solution:
277
du
a) 1 y 2 .2 ydy u . dy
dy
let u 1 y 2 , du
dy
2y
1
u 2 du
1 1
u 2
c
1 1
2
2 2
u 3 c Simpler
3
2
3
2
1 y2 3 c Re place u by 1 y 2
1 1 du
b) 4t 1dt
4
4t 1.4dt u . dt
4 dt
Let u 4t 1 , du
dt
4
1 12
4
u du With the1/4 out front the integral is now in standard form
3
1 u 2
. c
4 3
2
1 3
u 2 c Simpler form
6
4t 1 2 c
1 3
Re place u by 4t 1
6
x sin( x 3 )dx sin( x 3 ).x 2 dx
2
c)
1
sin u. du Let u x 3 , du 3 x 2 dx , 1 du x 2 dx
3 3
1
sin udu
3
1
( cos u ) c Integrate with respect to u
3
1
( cos x 3 ) c Re place u by x 3 .
3
278
The success of the substitution method depends on finding a substitution that changes an integral
we cannot evaluate directly into one that we can. If the first substitution fails,try to simplify the
integrand further with an additional substitution or two.
Activity: Evaluate the following indefinite integrals
a. sin( x)cos( x) 3 dx. b.
5 x2
x 3 1 dx c.
ex 1
2e x 2 x dx. d. x 2
x
1
3
ln( x 2 1) 2 dx.
Integration by Parts
If we try to evaluate integrals of the type xe x dx , and ln x dx by using the method of
substitution we obviously fail. But don‘t worry the next theorem will enable us to evaluate not
only these, but also many other types of integrals.
Every differentiation rule has a corresponding integration rule. For instance, the Substitution
Rule for integration corresponds to the Chain Rule for differentiation. The rule that corresponds
to the Product Rule for differentiation is called the rule for integration by parts.
Integration by parts is a technique for simplifying integrals of the form f xg xdx . It is
useful when ƒ can be differentiated repeatedly and g can be integrated repeatedly without
difficulty.
Theorem 4.2: (Integration by parts)
If and are differentiable and f ' and g ' are continuous then
f ( x) g ' ( x)dx f ( x) g ( x) f ' ( x) g ( x)dx
In particular, it is usual to rewrite this equation by letting
u=f(x) , du=f '(x)dx
v=g(x) , dv=g'(x)dx
This yields the following alternative form for
279
udv uv vdu
which is called the formula for integration by parts .
Example: Evaluate the following integrals
a. ln xdx x e dx x ln xdx d . cosx exp x dx e. cos n x dx
2 x n
b. c.
Solution: a) Since ln xdx can be written as ln x.1dx , we use the formula
udv uv vdu with
u = lnx Simplifies when differentiated dv = dx East to integrate
Then
1
ln xdx x ln x x. x dx x ln x dx x ln x x c .
Sometimes we have to use integration by parts more than once.
b) With u x 2 , dv e x dx , du 2 xdx , and v e x , we have
x e dx x e 2 xe x dx .
2 x 2 x
The new integral is less complicated than the original because the exponent on x is reduced by
one. To evaluate the integral on the right, we integrate by parts again with
u x , dv e x dx .Then du dx , and v e x , and
xe dx xe e dx .xe ex c .
x x x x
Hence,
x e dx x e 2 xe x dx
2 x 2 x
x 2 e x 2 xe x 2e x c .
280
x e dx in which n is a positive integer ,
n x
The technique of this example works for any integral
becuase differentiating x n will eventually lead to zero and integrating e x is easy .
Similarly,
c) x ln x dx n 1 ln x dx
n 1 n1 1 n1
n 1
x ln x x n1d ln x
1 n1
n 1
x ln x x n1 1
dx
x n 1
1 n1
x ln x x n dx
x n1 ln x x n1
c
n 1 n 12
281
d) cosx exp x dx exp x d sinx sin x exp x sin x d exp x
sin x exp x sin x exp x dx
sin x exp x exp x d cos x
sin x exp x cos x exp x cos x d exp x
sin x exp x cos x exp x cos x exp x dx
2 cos x exp x dx sin x exp x cos x exp x
cos x exp x dx
1
sin x exp x cosx exp x c
2
cos x dx cos x cosx dx cos x d sin x
n n 1 n 1
e)
cos x sin x sin x d cos x
n 1 n 1
cos x sin x sin x n 1 cos x sin x 1dx
n 1 n2
cos x sin x n 1 cos x sin x dx
n 1 n2 2
cos x sin x n 1 cos x 1 cos x dx
n 1 n2 2
cos x sin x n 1 cos x dx n 1 cos x dx
n 1 n2 n
n cos x dx cos x sin x n 1 cos x dx
n n 1 n2
x dx cos x sin x n 1 cos n2 x dx
n 1
cos n
n n
As n is even, for example, n 2 ,
cos 21 x sin x 1
cos x dx cos 22 x dx
2
2 2
cos x sin x 1
1dx
2 2
cos x sin x x
c
2 2
282
By deduction, the other integrals can be obtained similarly.
As n is odd, for example, n 3 ,
cos 31 x sin x 3 1
cos x dx cos 32 x dx
3
3 3
cos 2 x sin x 2
cos x dx
3 3
cos x sin x 2 sin x
2
c
2 3
By deduction, the other integrals can be obtained similarly.
Activity: Show that
exp ax
a) sin bx exp ax dx a sinbx b cosbx c
a 2 b2
exp ax
b) cosbx exp ax dx a cosbx b sinbx c
a 2 b2
x exp x exp x
c) x 1
2
dx
x 1
c , c c
Integration by Partial Fraction
An expression for rational function is called a proper fraction if the degree of the
numerator is strictly less than the degree of the denominator; otherwise it is called an
improper fraction. In case of improper fraction we actually divide the numerator by the
denominator and the improper fraction is expressed in terms of a polynomial and a proper
fraction. For example,
2x 1 7 4 x 3 3x 2 2 x 1 34 x 26
2 and 4x 3 2
x3 x3 x 9
2
x 9
P ( x)
Ler us consider a proper fraction where P and Q are polynomials in x, then it can be proved
Q( x)
that
283
P( x)
F1 F2 ... Fr
Q( x )
Such that each term Fr of the sum has one of the forms
A Ax B
or
(ax b) n
(ax bx c) n
2
For real numbers A and B and a nonnegative integer n, where ax 2 bx c is irreducible in the
sense that this quadratic polynomial has no real zero (that is, b 2 4ac 0 ). In this case
ax 2 bx c cannot be expressed as a product of two first degree polynomials with real
coefficients.
The sum F1 F2 ... Fr is the partial Fraction decomposition of P(x)/Q(x), and each Fk is a
partial fraction. We state guidelines for obtaining this decomposition.
Guidelines for partial fraction decompositions of P(x)/Q(x)
1. If the degree of P(x) is not lower than the degree of Q(x), use long division to obtain the
proper form.
2. Express Q(x) as a product of linear factors ax+b or irreducible quadratic factors
ax 2 bx c , and collect repeated factors so that Q(x) is a product of different factors
of the form (ax b) n or (ax 2 bx c) n for a non negative integer n.
3. Apply the following rule.
Rule a for each factors (ax b) n with n 1 then the partial fraction decomposition contain a
sum of n partial fraction of the form
A1 A2 An
...
ax b (ax b) 2
(ax b) n
Where each numerator Ak is a real number.
284
Rule b for each factor (ax 2 bx c) n with n 1 , and with ax 2 bx c irreducible, the partial
fraction decomposition contains a sum of n partial fractions of the form
A1 x B1 A2 x B2 An x Bn
... , Where each Ak and B k is a real
ax 2 bx c (ax 2 bx c) 2 (ax 2 bx c) n
number.
4 x 2 13x 9
Example1 Evaluate x 3 2 x 2 3x
dx
Solution: we may denominator of the integrand as follows:
x 3 2 x 2 3x x( x 2 2 x 3) x( x 3)( x 1)
Each factor has the form stayed in Rule (a) of the guide line, with n-1. Therefore the partial
fraction decomposition has the form
4 x 2 13x 9 A B C
.
x( x 3)( x 1) x x 3 x 1
Multiplying by the LCM of the denominators gives us
4 x 2 13x 9 A( x 3)( x 1) Bx( x 1) Cx( x 3). (*)
In a case such as this, in which the factors are linear and no repeated, the values of A,
B and C can be found by substituting values for x that make the various factors zero. If
we let x = 0 in (*), then
-9 = -3A or A = 3
Letting x=1 in (*) gives us
8=4C, C=2.
Finally, if x=-3 in (*), we have
-12=12B, or B=-1
The partial fraction decomposition is, therefore,
285
4 x 2 13x 9 3 1 2
.
x 2 x 3x x x 3 x 1
3 2
Integrating and letting C denote the sum of the constants of integration we have
4 x 2 13x 9 3 1 2
x 2 x 3x
3 2
dx dx
x x3
dx
x 1
dx.
3 ln x ln x 3 2 ln x 1 C
ln x 3 ln x 3 ln x 1 C
2
x 3 ( x 1) 2
ln C
x3
3x 17
Example 2: Find dx .
x 2x 3
2
x 2 2 x 3 ( x 3)( x 1) Using the Linear Factor Rule, we get
3x 17 3x 17 A B
3x 17 A( x 1) B( x 3) after
x 2 x 3 ( x 3)( x 1) x 3 x 1
2
multiplying by ( x 3)( x 1) . If we let x 3 , then 8 4 A A 2 ; if we let
3x 17
x 1 , then 20 4B B 5 . Thus, dx =
x 2x 3
2
3x 17 1 1
dx 2 dx 5 dx 2 ln x 3 5 ln x 1 C .
( x 3)( x 1) x 3 x 1
3x 4
Example 3: Find dx .
x 4x 4
2
x 2 4 x 4 ( x 2)( x 2) ( x 2) 2 by the Linear Factor Rule, we get
3x 4 3x 4 A B
3x 4 A( x 2) B after multiplying
x 4 x 4 ( x 2)
2 2
x 2 ( x 2) 2
by ( x 2) 2 . If we let x = 2, then 2 B ; if we let x = 3, then 5 A B A 2
286
3x 4 1 1 2
A 3 . Thus, dx 3 dx 2 dx 3 ln x 2 C .
x 4x 4
2
x2 ( x 2) 2
x2
4x 2 x 2
Example 4: Find dx .
x3 x 2
x 3 x 2 x 2 ( x 1) using the Linear Factor Rule with both x2 (multiplicity of
4x 2 x 2 4x 2 x 2 A B C
linear factors) and x – 1, we get 2 2
x x
3 2
x ( x 1) x x x 1
4 x 2 x 2 Ax( x 1) B( x 1) Cx 2 after multiplying by x 2 x 1 . If we let
x = 0, then 2 B(1) B 2 ; if we let x = 1, then C 3 ; and, if we let x = 2,
then 16 2 A B 4C 2 A 2 12 2 2 A A 1 . Thus,
4x 2 x 2 1 1 1 2
dx dx 2 dx 3 dx ln x 3 ln x 1 C .
x3 x 2 x x2 x 1 x
x 1
Example 5: Find dx .
x2 1
x 1 x 1 1 2x 1
dx dx dx dx dx
x2 1 x 1
2
x 12
2 x 1
2
x 1
2
1
ln x 2 1 arctan x C . [Note: This problem doesn‘t really illustrate the
2
Quadratic Factor Rule, but it does illustrate how to split a fraction with a linear numerator and
a quadratic denominator into the sum or difference of two fractions with the same quadratic
denominator.]
7x2 x 2
Example 6: Find dx .
( x 1)( x 2 1)
Using both the Linear Factor Rule and the Quadratic Factor Rule, we get
287
7x2 x 2 A Bx C
2 7 x 2 x 2 A( x 2 1) ( Bx C )( x 1)
( x 1)( x 1) x 1 x 1
2
after multiplying by ( x 1)( x 2 1) . If we let x 1 , then 10 2 A A 5 ;
if we let x 0 , then 2 A C 5 C C 3 ; and if we let x 2 , then 32 =
7x2 x 2
5 A 2B C 25 2B 3 2B 4 B 2 . Thus, dx =
( x 1)( x 2 1)
5 2x 3 1 2x 1
dx dx 5 dx 3 dx
x 1 x2 1 x 1 x 1
2
x 1
2
5 ln x 1 ln x 2 1 3 arctan x C .
5 x 2 11
Example 7: Find dx .
( x 2 1)( x 2 4)
5 x 2 11 Ax B Cx D
2 2 5 x 2 11 ( Ax B)( x 2 4)
( x 1)( x 4) x 1 x 4
2 2
(Cx D)( x 2 1) after multiplying by ( x 2 1)( x 2 4) . If we let x = 0, then
11 4B D ; if we let x 1 , then 16 5 A 5B 2C 2D ; if we let x 1 ,
then 16 5 A 5B 2C 2D ; and if x 2 , then 31 16 A 8B 10C 5D .
If we add the equations 16 5 A 5B 2C 2D and 16 5 A 5B 2C 2D ,
we get 32 10B 4D combining this equation with 11 4B D , we get
B 2 and D 3 . If we subtract the equations 16 5 A 5B 2C 2D and
16 5 A 5B 2C 2D , we get 0 10 A 4C 2C 5 A combining this
equation with 31 16 A 8B 10C 5D , B 2, and D 3 , we get 31 = 16A +
5 x 2 11 1
16 25 A 15 A 0 C 0 . Thus, dx 2 dx
( x 2 1)( x 2 4) x 1
2
288
1 3 x
3 dx 2 arctan x arctan C .
x 4
2
2 2
1
Example 7: Find dx .
x x2
4
1 1 A B Cx D
2 2 2 2 1 Ax ( x 2 1) B( x 2 1)
x x
4 2
x ( x 1) x x x 1
(Cx D) x 2 after multiplying by x 2 ( x 2 1) . If we let x 0 , then 1 B. If we
let x 1 , then 1 2 A 2B C D 2 A C D 1. If we let x 1 , then
1 2 A 2B C D 2 A C D 1 Adding this equation to the equation
2 A C D 1 , we get D 1 . If we let x 2 , then 1 10 A 5B 8C 4D
0 10 A 8C . Taking the equations 0 10 A 8C and 2 A C 0 , we obviously
get that A 0 and C 0 . Thus,
1 1 1 1
dx dx dx arctan x C .
x x2
4
x2 x 1
2
x
Exercise
I- Evaluate the following integrals using integration by substitution
a.
1
1 ln x4 dx b. tan x dx
x
c. sec x dx
II- Evaluate the following integrals using integration by Parts
a. xe x dx b. x tan x sec xdx c. x2 x dx d . 2 x sin 2 xdx
III- Evaluate the following integrals using integration by Partial fractions
289
x2 1 x 1 sin 2 x cos x
a. x 3 3x 4dx b. x 1 dx ; ( H int : Substitute u x ) c. sin 2 x 1 dx
ex dx
d. dx e. tan 3 xdx f.
1 e3 x 1 3e x 2e 2 x
5.2.2 Trigonometric Integrals
Trigonometric integrals involve algebraic combinations of the six basic trigonometric
functions. In principle, we can always express such integrals in terms of sines and cosines,
but it is often simpler to work with other functions, as in the integral
sec xdx tan x C
2
The general idea is to use identities to transform the integrals we have to find into integrals that a
re easier to work with.
Products of Powers of Sines and Cosines
We begin with integrals of the form:
sin
m
x cos n xdx
Where m and n are nonnegative integers (positive or zero). We can divide the work into three
cases.
Case 1: If m is odd, we write m as 2k+1 and use the identity sin 2 x 1 cos 2 x to obtain
sin m x sin 2k 1 x (sin 2 x) k sin x (1 cos 2 x) k sin x (1)
Then we combine the single sin x with dx the integral and set sinxdx equal to - d(cosx).
sin
m
Case 2: If m is even and n is odd in x cos n xdx we write n as 2k+1 and use the identity
cos 2 x 1 sin 2 x to obtain
cos n x cos 2k 1 x (cos 2 x) k cos kx (1 sin 2 x) k cos x.
290
We then combine the single cosx with dx and set cosx dx equal to d(sinx)
Case 2: If both m and n are even in sin m x cos n xdx , we substitute
1 cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x
sin 2 x , cos 2 x (2)
2 2
to reduce the integrand to one in lower powers of cos 2x. Here are some examples illustrating
each case.
. Examples
1. Find
sin 2 x dx . Method 1(Integration by parts):
sin 2 x dx
sin x (sin x dx) .
Let
u sin x and dv sin x dx du cos x dx and v
sin x dx
cos x . Thus,
sin 2 x dx (sin x)( cos x) cos 2 x dx sin x cos x
(1 sin 2
x) dx sin x cos x 1 dx sin 2 x dx sin x cos x x
1 1
sin 2 x dx 2 sin 2 x dx sin x cos x x sin 2 x dx sin x cos x x C .
2 2
1 1 1
Method 2(Trig identity): sin 2 x dx (1 cos 2 x) dx x sin 2 x C .
2 2 4
1 1
Method 3(Reduction formula): sin 2 x dx sin x cos x 1dx
2 2
1 1
sin x cos x x C
2 2
291
3
2. Find cos x dx . Use the reduction formula:
1 2
cos 3 x dx cos 2 x sin x cos x dx
3 3
1 2 1 2 1
cos 2 x sin x sin x C sin x(1 sin 2 x) sin x C sin x sin 3 x C .
3 3 3 3 3
3 2
3. Find sin x cos x dx .
sin x cos x dx sin
3 2 2
x sin x cos 2 x dx
(1 cos x) cos x sin xdx
2 2
(cos 2 x cos 4 x)(sin x dx) . Let u cos x du sin x dx . Thus,
1 1
(cos 2 x cos 4 x)(sin x dx) (u 2 u 4 ) du u 3 u 5 C
3 5
1 1
cos 3 x cos 5 x C .
3 5
4. Find
sin 2 x cos 2 x dx .
1 cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x 1
sin 2 x cos 2 x dx dx (1 cos 2 2 x) dx
2 2 4
1 1 1 cos 4 x 1 1 1 1
sin 2 2 x dx dx 1 dx cos 4 x dx x sin 4 x C .
4 4 2 8 8 8 32
Example 2: Evaluate sin 3 x cos 2 xdx
sin x cos 2 xdx sin 2 x cos 2 x sin xdx (1 cos 2 x) cos 2 x(d (cos x))
3
(1 u 2 )(u 2 )(du) u cos x
292
(u 4 u 2 )du
u5 u3
C
5 3
cos 5 x cos 3 x
C
5 3
cos
5
Example 3: evaluate xdx.
Solution:
cos xdx cos 4 x cos xdx (1 sin 2 x) 2 d (sin x)
5
(1 u 2 ) 2 du , u=sinx
(1 2u 2 u 4 )du
2 3 1 5 2 1
u u u C sin x sin 3 x sin 5 x C
3 5 3 5
Example 4: Evaluate sin 2 x cos 4 xdx.
1 cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x
2
Solution: sin x cos xdx
2 4
dx
2 2
1
8 (1 cos 2 x)(1 2 cos 2 x cos 2 2 x)dx
1
(1 cos 2 x cos 2 2 x cos 3 2 x)dx
8
1 1
x sin 2 x (cos 2 2 x cos 3 2 x)dx
8 2
2
For the term involving cos 2 x we have
1
cos 2
2 xdx (1 cos 4 x)dx
2
1 1
x sin 4 x
2 4
293
Omitting the constant of integration until the final result.
For the cos 3 2 x term we have
cos 2 xdx (1 sin 2 2 x) cos 2 xdx
3
u=sin2x
1 1 1
2 (1 u 2 )du (sin 2 x sin 3 2 x)
2 3
du = 2cos2xdx Again omitting C .
Combining everything and simplifying we get
1 1 1 3
sin x cos 4 xdx x sin 4 x sin 2 x C
2
16 4 3
Integrals of power of tanx and secx
We know how to integrate the tangent and secant and their squares. To integrate higher powers
we use the identities tan 2 x sec 2 x 1 and tan 2 x 1 sec 2 x , and integrate by parts when
necessary to reduce the higher powers to lower powers.
Products of sines and cosines
The integrals
sin mx sin nxdx, sin mx cos nxdx, and cos mx cos nxdx , arise in many places
where trigonometric functions are applied to problems in mathematics and science. We can
evaluate these integrals through integration by parts, but two such integrations are required in
each case. It is simpler to use the identities
1
sin mx sin nx [cos(m n) x cos(m n) x]
2
1
sin mxconnx [sin(m n) x cos(m n) x]
2
1
cos mx cos nx [cos(m n) x cos(m n) x
2
These come from the angle sum formulas for the sine and cosine functions.
They give functions whose anti-derivatives are easily found.
294
5. Find sin 4 x cos 3x dx . Method 1(Integration by parts): Let u sin 4 x and dv cos 3x dx
du =
1
4 cos 4 x dx and v sin 3x . Thus, sin 4 x cos 3x dx
3
1 4 1 4
(sin 4 x) sin 3x cos 4 x sin 3x dx sin 4 x sin 3x cos 4 x sin 3x dx .
3 3 3 3
Find cos 4 x sin 3x dx . Let u cos 4 x and dv =
1
sin 3x dx du 4 sin 4 x dx and v cos 3x . Thus,
3
1 4
cos 4 x sin 3x dx cos 4 x cos 3x sin 4 x cos 3x dx . Returning to
3 3
1
the original integral, sin 4 x cos 3x dx = sin 4 x sin 3x
3
4 1 4 1
cos 4 x cos 3x sin 4 x cos 3x dx sin 4 x sin 3x
3 3 3 3
4 16 7
cos 4 x cos 3x sin 4 x cos 3x dx sin 4 x cos 3x dx
9 9 9
sin 4x cos 3x dx
1 4
sin 4 x sin 3x cos 4 x cos 3x
3 9
3 4
= sin 4 x sin 3x cos 4 x cos 3x C .
7 7
sin x sin 7 x dx 1 cos x
1 1
Method 2(Trig identity): sin 4 x cos 3x dx cos 7 x C .
2 2 14
II. Integrating Powers of the Tangent and Secant Functions
A. Useful trigonometric identity: tan x 1 sec x
2 2
295
B. Useful integrals
1.
sec x tan x dx sec x C 2.
sec x dx tan x C
2
3.
tan x dx ln sec x C ln cos x C 4.
sec x dx ln sec x tan x C
C. Reduction formulas
sec n2 x tan x n 2 tan n 1 x
1.
sec n x dx
n 1
n 1
sec n2 x dx 2.
tan n x dx
n 1
tan n2 x dx
D. Examples
1. Find
tan x dx .
2
tan 2 x dx
(sec 2 x 1) dx
sec 2 x dx 1 dx tan x x C .
2. Find
tan xdx .
3
tan 2 x 1
tan 3 xdx tan x dx tan 2 x ln sec x C .
2 2
3. Find
sec xdx .
3
sec x tan x 1 1 1
sec 3 x dx sec x dx sec x tan x ln sec x tan x C .
2 2 2 2
4. Find
tan x sec x dx .
2
1 2 1
Let u tan x du sec xdx
2
tan x sec 2 x dx udu u C tan 2 x C .
2 2
5. Find
tan x sec x dx .
4
296
tan x sec x dx tan x sec x sec x dx tan x(1 tan x) sec x dx
4 2 2 2 2
tan x sec 2 x dx
tan 3 x sec 2 dx . Let u tan x du sec 2 x dx . Thus,
1 1 1 1
tan x sec 4 x dx udu u 3 du u 2 u 4 C tan 2 x tan 4 x C .
2 4 2 4
6. Find
tan x sec 3 x dx .
tan x sec x dx sec x (sec x tan x dx) . Let u sec x du sec x tan xdx .
3 2
1 1
Thus, tan x sec 3 x dx u 2 du u 3 C sec 3 x C .
3 3
7. Find
tan x sec x dx .
2 3
tan 2 x sec 3 x dx
(sec 2 x 1) sec 3 x dx
sec 5 x dx sec 3 x dx . Using
1 3
the reduction formula, sec 5 x dx sec 3 tan x sec 3 x dx . Thus,
4 4
1 3
tan 2 x sec 3 x dx sec 5 x dx sec 3 x dx sec 3 x tan x sec 3 xdx
4 4
1 1 1 1
sec 3 x dx sec 3 x tan x sec 3 x dx sec 3 x tan x sec x tan x
4 4 4 8
1
ln sec x tan x C .
8
8. Find
tan x sec 4 x dx .
tan x sec 4 x dx
tan x sec 2 x sec 2 x dx
tan x (1 tan 2 x) sec 2 xdx .
297
Let u tan x du sec 2 x dx
tan x sec 4 x dx
tan x sec 2 x dx
1 5 2 3 2 7
tan x tan 2 x sec 2 x dx u 2 du u 2 du u 2 u 2 C
3 7
2 3 2 7
(tan x) 2 (tan x) 2 C .
3 7
9. Find
sec x tan x dx . Let u sec x u 2 sec x 2udu sec x tan xdx u 2 tan xdx
2udu 2
tan x dx du .
u2 u
2
Thus, sec x tan x dx u du 2 1du 2u C 2 sec x C .
u
Exercise:
1) Evaluate the following integrals
a. sin 5 x cos 6 xdx b. sin x cos
3
xdx c. (tan x cot x) 2 dx
3
d . sin 5 x sin 3xdx e. tan x sec 2
xdx f . cos x cos 5 xdx g. tan 6 xdx
1 n 1
2) Prove the reduction formula: sin n x dx sin n1 x cos x sin n2 x dx
n n
sec n2 x tan x n 2
(3) Prove the reduction formula:
sec n x dx
n 1
n 1
sec n2 x dx
tan n1 x
(4) Prove the reduction formula:
tan n x dx
n 1
tan n2 x dx
5.2.3 Integration by Trigonometric Substitution
I. Integrals of the Form a2 x2
298
Suppose that you have an integral of the form a 2 x 2 where a is a positive constant. As
expressed in Table 5.1, if you make the substitution x a sin , where , then
2 2
a 2 x 2 a 2 a 2 sin 2 a 2 (1 sin 2 ) a 2 cos 2 a cos because
cos 0 since . Also, dx a cos d . Also, x a sin
2 2
x x
sin arcsin .
a a
x a
s
sin y s and r = a
a
a2 s2
x 2 s 2 a 2 x a 2 s 2 cos .
a
Example: Find
4 x 2 dx .
Let x 2 sin where . Then 4 x 2 2 cos and dx 2 cos d .
2 2
4 x 2 dx (2 cos )(2 cos d ) 4 cos 2 d
1 1 2
4 sin cos C 2 2 sin cos C = x
2 2
x x 4 x
2
2 arcsin 2 C =
2 2 2
299
x x 4 x
2
2 arcsin + C.
2 2
d x x 4 x
2
Let‘s check this answer. 2 arcsin
dx
2 2
2x
1 1 x2
4 x2
1 2
2 x
1 x
2
2 2 2
2 4 x
2
4 x 2
2 4 x 2
4 x 2 4 x 2 4 x 2 2(4 x 2 )
4 x 2 and so it checks.
2 2 4 x 2
2 4 x 2
II. Integrals of the Form a2 x2
Suppose that you have an integral of the form a 2 x 2 where a is a positive
constant. If you make the substitution x a tan , where , then
2 2
a 2 x 2 a 2 a 2 tan 2 a 2 (1 tan 2 ) a 2 sec 2 a sec because
sec 0 , since . Also, dx a sec 2 d . Also, x a tan
2 2
x x
tan arctan .
a a
s
tan y s and x = a
a
a
a2 s2 r 2 r a2 s2 .
Example: Find
x 2 4 dx . Let x 2 tan , where
2
2
. Then x 2 4 2 sec
and
300
dx = 2 sec 2 d .
x 2 4 dx (2 sec )(2 sec 2 d ) 4 sec3 d
1 1
4 sec tan ln sec tan C 2 sec tan 2 ln sec tan C =
2 2
x 2 4 x x2 4 x
2 2 ln C
2 2 2 2 x
x x2 4
2 ln x2 4 x C .
2 2
d 1
Let‘s check this answer. x x 4 2 ln x2 4 x
2
dx 2
1 2x 1 2 1 2x x2
x x 4 2 1
2 x2 4 2 x 4 x 2 x 4
2 2
x2 4
x2 4
2
1
x x2 4 x2 x2 4 4
2x 2 8
x2 4
x 2 4 and
2 x 4 x
2
x 4
2
2 x 4
2
2 x 4
2
x 4
2
so it checks.
III. Integrals of the Form x2 a2
Suppose that you have an integral of the form x 2 a 2 where a is a positive constant. If you
make the substitution x a sec , where 0 or 3 ,
2 2
then x 2 a 2 a 2 sec 2 a 2 a 2 (sec 2 1) a 2 tan 2 a tan because
tan 0 for 0 or 3 . Also, dx a sec tan d . Also,
2 2
301
x x
x a sec sec arc sec .
a a
s
Consider sec where 0 s 0
a 2
x
x = a and r = s a y s y s a .
2 2 2 2 2
s
Consider sec where 3 s 0 a
a 2
x a and r s a y s y s a .
2 2 2 2 2
x2 4
Example: Find dx .
x
Let x 2 sec where 0 or 3 2 . Then x 2 4 2 tan and
2
2 tan 2 sec tan d
x2 4
dx 2 sec tan d . Thus, dx
x 2 sec
2 tan 2 d 2 (sec 2 1) d 2 tan 2 C x
x2 4
2 2arc sec x C = 2
2 2
x
x 2 4 2arc sec C . This answer does check.
2
IV. Integrals of the Form a 2 u 2 , a 2 u 2 , and u2 a2
A. Sometimes, you should make a u–substitution before you make a trigonometric
substitution.
9 4x2
Example: Find 2
dx . Let u 2 4 x 2 u 2 x du 2dx . Also, a 2 9 a 3 .
x
302
9 4x2 9 4x 2 9 u2
dx = 2 2 dx 2 du . Let u 3sin where
x2 4x 2 u2
. 9 u 2 3 cos and du 3 cos d
2 2
3 cos (3 cos d )
9 u2
2 du 2 2 cot 2 d
u2 (3 sin ) 2
2 (csc 2 1) d 2 cot 2 C
9 u2
2 2 arcsin u C u 3
u 3
9 4x 2
2 2 arcsin 2 x C =
2x 3
9 4x 2 2x
2 arcsin C .
x 3
B. Sometimes, you have to complete the square before making a u–substitution or a
trigonometric substitution.
1
Example 1: Find dx .
4 x 8 x 13
2
Complete the square for 4 x 8x 13 :
2
4 x 2 8x 13 4( x 2 2 x ) 13
= 4( x 2 2 x 1) 13 4
= 4( x 1) 2 9
Let u 2 4( x 1) 2 u 2( x 1) du 2dx . Also, a 9 a 3 .
2
1 1 1 1
Thus, dx dx du
4 x 8 x 13
2
4( x 1) 9
2
2 u 9
2
303
1 1 u 1 2( x 1)
arctan C arctan C.
2 3 3 6 3
Example 2: Find
15 6x 9x 2
dx .
Complete the square for 15 6 x 9 x 2 :
15 6 x 9 x 2 9 x 2 6 x 15
2
9 x 2 x 15
3
2 1
9 x 2 x 15 1
3 9
16 (9 x 2 6 x 1) 16 (3x 1) 2
Let u 2 (3x 1) 2 u 3x 1 du 3dx . Also, a 2 16 a 4 .
16 u
1 1
Thus, 15 6 x 9 x 2 dx 16 (3x 1) 2 3dx 2
du . as expressed in Table
3 3
5.1, Let u 4 sin where . Then, 16 u 2 4 cos and du 4 cos d .
2 2
1
16 u 2 du =
3
1 16 8 8
3 (4 cos )(4 cos d ) cos 2 d sin cos C
3 3 3
u 8 u 16 u
2
8
arcsin C
3 4 3 4 4
3x 1 (3x 1) 15 6 x 9 x
2
8
arcsin C . u 4
3 4 6
304
Table 5.1: Trigonometric Substitutions
Expression Substitution Identity
a2 x2 1 sin 2 cos 2
x a sin ,
2 2
1 tan 2 sec2
a2 x2 x a tan ,
2 2
3 sec2 1 tan 2
x2 a2 x a sec , 0 or
2 2
Exercise
Evaluate the following Integrals
x2 x2 1
1) dx 2) 2
dx 3) dx
25 4 x 2 x 2 x 10 x 2 2
4x 9
3 3
1 1
4) dx 5) dx 6) 9 x 2 dx
2
x 2x 5 15 2 x x 2
1 3
1
x x 2 1 dx e 1 e 2 x dx
x
7) dx 8) 9)
3
x 4
2
x u2 a2 9 x 2 25
10) 7 6x x2
dx 11) u2
du 12) x2
dx
305
5.3 Definite Integrals; Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Over view: In this section we will formally define the definite integral and give many of the properties of
definite integrals, then we will present Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which is central theorem of integral
calculus. Let‘s start off with the definition of a definite integral.
Definite Integral
Definition5.3:-If is a continuous function defined for , we divide
the interval [ ]into n subintervals of equal width .
We let (=a ) be the endpoints of these subintervals and we let
1 , 2 ,..., n be any sample points in these subintervals, so i lies in the ith subinterval [ ].
Figure 5.1: Sample Points Partitions in Solving Area
Then the definite integral of f from a to b is
n
f ( x) dx lim ( xi xi 1 ) f (i )
b
a n
i 1
Because we have assumed that is continuous, it can be proved that the limit in the above
Definition always exists and gives the same value no matter how we choose the sample points i
. If we take the sample points to be right endpoints, then i xi and the definition of an integral
becomes
306
∫ ∑
Remark: For equal width, i.e. divide [ a, b] into n equal subintervals of length,
ba
i.e. h ,
n
n n
ba
f ( x) dx lim f (i )h lim f (i )
b
we have a n
i 1
n
i 1 n
.
Choose i xi and xi a ih
n
ba
f ( x) dx lim f (a
b
a n
i 1 n
i) h
n 1
ba
f ( x) dx lim f (a
b
OR a n
i 0 n
i) h
Note! The symbol was introduced by Leibniz and is called an integral sign. It is an elongated S and
b
was chosen because an integral is a limit of sums. In the notation f ( x)dx , f (x) is called the
a
integrand and the number ―a‖ that is at the bottom of the integral sign is called the lower limit of the
integral and the number ―b‖ at the top of the integral sign is called the upper limit of the integral.
Also, despite the fact that a and b were given as an interval the lower limit does not necessarily need to
be smaller than the upper limit. Collectively we‘ll often call a and b the interval of integration.
The symbol dx has no official meaning by it self ; f ( x)dx
a
is all one symbol. The procedure of
calculating an integral is called integration.
Note! The definite integral f ( x)dx
a
is a number; it does not depend on x. In fact, we could use any
b b b
letter in place of x without changing the value of the integral: f ( x)dx f (t )dt f (r )dr
a a a
Properties of Definite Integral
307
Suppose that f(x) and g(x) are integrable functions and c is any arbitrary number and also a and b are
numbers, then the following holds true.
b a
1. f ( x)dx f ( x)dx. We can interchange the limits on any definite integral, all that we
a b
need to do is tack a minus sign onto the integral when we do.
2. f ( x)dx 0 . If the upper and lower limits are the same then there is no work to do, the integral is
a
zero.
b b
3. cf ( x)dx c f ( x)dx , where c is any number. So, as with limits, derivatives, and indefinite
a a
integrals we can factor out a constant.
b b b
4. ( f ( x) g ( x))dx f ( x)dx g ( x)dx . We
a a a
can break up definite integrals across a sum or
difference.
b c b
5. f ( x)dx f ( x)dx f ( x)dx , where c is any number. This property is more important than we
a a c
might realize at first. One of the main uses of this property is to tell us how we can integrate a function
over the adjacent intervals [a, c] and [c, b].
Note however that c doesn't need to be between a and b.
b b
6. f ( x)dx f (t )dt. The point of this property is to notice that as long as the function and limits are
a a
the same the variable of integration that we use in the definite integral won't affect the answer.
7. cdx c(b a) , c is any number.
a
8. if f ( x) 0 for a x b , then f ( x)dx 0 .
a
308
b b
9. if f ( x) g ( x) for a x b , then f ( x)dx g ( x)dx .
a a
10. if m f ( x) M for a x b , then m(b a) f ( x)dx M (b a) .
a
b b
11.
a
f ( x)dx f ( x) dx .
a
Example 1: Evaluate each of the following.
0 2
a) ( x 1) dx
2
b) (10 x 2 10) dx
2 0
Solution: All of the solutions to these problems will rely on the fact we proved in the first example.
Namely that.
2
14
(x 1) dx
2
0
3
(x 1) dx . In this case the only difference the two is that the limits have interchanged. So, using
2
a)
2
the first property gives.
0 2
( x 1) dx (x 2 1)dx
2
2 0
14
3
(10 x 10)dx . For this part notice that we can factor a 10 out of both terms and then out of the
2
b)
0
integral using the third property.
309
2 2
(10 x 10)dx 10( x 2 1)dx
2
0 0
2
10 ( x 2 1)dx
0
14
10
3
140
.
3
Example 2: Evaluate the definite integral.
x x sin( x) cos( x)
150 3
150
x 2
1
dx
Solution: There really isn't anything to do with this integral once we notice that the limits are the same.
Using the second property this is,
x x sin( x) cos( x)
150 3
150
x2 1
dx 0
10 10 5
Example 3: Given that
12
f ( x)dx 6 ,
100
f ( x)dx 2 , and f ( x)dx 4
100
determine the value of
12
f ( x)dx .
5
Solution:
12 100 12
5
f ( x)dx
5
f ( x)dx
100
f ( x)dx
100 10 12
5
f ( x)dx
100
f ( x)dx f ( x)dx
10
310
5 10 10
f ( x)dx f ( x)dx f ( x)dx
100 100 12
4 2 6
12
Activity:
1. Evaluate the following inegrals
x4 2
1 3
a) x sin xdx
0
b) 5x 5 2 xdx
2
c)
2
x 2 50 dx
10 6 6
2. Given that
6
f ( x)dx 23 and g ( x)dx 9 determine the value of 2 f ( x) 10 g ( x)dx .
10 10
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I
If f(x) is continuous on [a, b] then,
x
g ( x) f (t )dt
a
is continuous on [a , b] and it is differentiable on [a , b] and that ,
g ' ( x) f ( x) .
An alternative notation for the derivative portion of this is
x
d
dx a
f (t )dt f ( x) .
Example -1: Differentiate each of the following
t4 1
x 1
a) g ( x) e 2t cos 2 (1 5t )dt b) 2 t 2 1dt
4 x
Solution:
x
a) g ( x) e 2t cos 2 (1 5t )dt .
4
311
This one is nothing more than a quick application of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
g ' ( x) e 2 x cos 2 (1 5x) .
t4 1
1
b) 2 t 2 1dt .This one needs a little work before we can use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
x
The first thing to notice is that the FTC requires the lower limit to be a constant and the upper limit to
be the variable. So, using a property of definite integrals we can interchange the limits of the integral
we just need to remember to add in a minus sign after we do that. Doing this gives,
d t 1
2 2
d t4 1 d t4 1
1 x 4 x
dx x2 t 2 1 dx 1 t 2 1 dx 1 t 2 1
dt dt dt
The next thing to notice is that the FTC also requires an x in the upper limit of integration and we've
got x 2 . To do this derivative we're going to need the following version of the chain rule.
d
g u d g u du where u f (x)
dx du dx
So, if we let u x 2 we use the chain rule to get,
x2
d t4 1 d t4 1
1
dx x2 t 2 1 dx 1 t 2 1
dt dt
d t 4 1 du
u
du 1 t 2 1 dx
dt where u x 2
u4 1
2 (2 x)
u 1
u4 1
2 x 2
u 1
The final step is to get everything back in terms of x.
d t4 1
1
x2 4
1
dx x2 t 2 1
dt 2 x
x2 2
1
x 1
8
2 x .
x4 1
312
Using the chain rule as we did in the last part of this example we can derive some general formulas for
some more complicated problems.
First,
u ( x)
d
dx f (t )dt u' ( x) f (u( x))
a
This is simplest the chain rule for these kinds of problems.
Next, we can get a formula for integrals in which the upper limit is a constant and the lower limit is a
function of x. All we need to do here is interchange the limits on the integral (adding in a minus sign of
course) and then using the formula above to get,
b v( x)
d d
dx v ( x )
f (t )dt
dx f (t )dt v' ( x) f (v( x))
b
Finally, we can also get a version for both limits being functions of x. In this case we‘ll need to use
Property 5 above to break up the integral as follows,
u ( x) a u ( x)
f (t )dt f (t )dt f (t )dt
v( x) v( x) a
We can use pretty much any value of a when we break up the integral. The only thing that we need to
avoid is to make sure that f (a) exists. So, assuming that f (a) exists after we break up the integral we
can then differentiate and use the two formulas above to get.
d
u ( x) a u( x)
d
f (t ) dt f (t ) dt f (t )dt
dx v ( x ) dx v ( x ) a
v' ( x) f (v( x)) u ' ( x) f (u ( x))
Example -2: Differentiate the following integral
3x
t sin(1 t 2 )dt
2
Solution: This will use the final formula that we derived above.
313
x sin1 x 33x sin1 3x
3x
d 1 12
dx x
2 2
2 2 2 2
t sin(1 t )dt x
2
1
2
x sin 1 x 27 x 2 sin 1 9 x 2
Computing Definite Integrals
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II
Suppose f(x) is a continuous function on [a, b] and also suppose that F(x) is any anti-derivative for f(x)
. Then,
f ( x)dx F ( x) F (b) F (a)
b
a
a
Example: Evaluate each of the following integrals
100
2x5 x 3
1 0 2
a) 6 x 5x 2 dx t t 2dt c) du
2
b) dx d)
3 4 1
x2 25
Solution: a) 6 x 5 x 2 dx
2
3
There isn't a lot to this one other than simply doing the work.
1
3 5 2
1
36 x 5x 2 dx 2 x 2 x 2 x 3
2
5 45
2 2 54 6
2 2
84
0
b) t t 2dt
4
Recall that we can't integrate products as a product of integrals and so we first need to multiply the
integrand out before integrating , just as we did in the indefinite integral case.
314
0 0
t t 2 dt t
3 1
4 4
2
2t 2 dt
0
2 5 4 3
t 2 t 2
5 3 4
5 5 4 3
0 4 2 2 2
2 3
32
15
Similarly, c and d left as an exercise.
Exercise
1. In each part, evaluate the integral, given that
2 x , x 1
f ( x)
2 , x 1
1 1 10 5
a) f ( x)dx
0
b) f ( x)dx
1
c) f ( x)dx
1
d)
1
f ( x)dx
2
2. Let F ( x)
2
3t 2 1 dt . Find a) F (2) b) F ' (2) c) F ' ' (2)
3. Evaluate the following definite integral
e
ln x
a)
1
x
dx b) tan 1 xdx
5.4 Improper Integrals
Over view: In this section we will formally define the improper integral and evaluate improper integrals.
Integrals with Infinite Limits of Integration: Consider the function y e x on the interval [a, )
where a > 0. We know this function is continuous and non-negative on the interval. As the graph
shows, the function is asymptotic along the positive x-axis.
315
Figure 5.2: Proper Integral with Infinite Limits
We would like to know if the area under the curve for x a has a finite value or an infinite value.
One way to check this is to find the area using a definite integral. It should be e x dx . However, we
a
cannot use infinity as a limit because we cannot evaluate the definite integral as we have previously
done.
As we have done before, we will try to adjust the problem to be more like something we are familiar
with. In this case, we use a temporary variable for the upper limit. t is the most common one to use.
t
Our integral changes to e x dx . That may not seem like much of an improvement, but it really is.
a
Now we have a parameter that is considered a constant. We can take the limit of the problem as the
parameter increases without bound. We are able to write the results in this manner:
t
a
e x dx lim e x dx
t a
We can take the anti-derivative of the integral and evaluate it at the limits.
t
lim e x dx lim e x lim et e a
t
t a t a t
Applying the limit, we get 0 e a e a . Since the result was a finite value, we say the improper
interval converged. We can use this same reasoning on any function that has an infinite interval.
Improper Integrals with Infinite Limits of Integration
Case 1: Limit to Positive Infinity. If f ( x) is continuous on [a, ) , then
316
f ( x)dx lim f ( x)dx Provided the limit exists.
a
t
a
Case 2: Limit to Negative Infinity. If f ( x) is continuous on (, a) , then
a a
f ( x)dx lim
t f ( x)dx
t
Provided the limit exists.
Case 3: Limits to Infinity on both sides. If f ( x) is continuous on (, ) , then
a t
f ( x) dx lim f ( x) dx lim f ( x) dx .
t t t a
1
Example 1: Determine if the integral 3 ( x 2) 2
dx converges or diverges. If it converges, find the
value. We use the definition
1 t 1
3 ( x 2) 2
dx lim
t 3 ( x 2) 2
dx
t
1
lim x 2
t 2
dx lim
t x 2
t 3
3
1 1 1 1
lim lim 0
t t 2
t 3 2 3 3
1
Since the limit exists, the integral converges. The value of the integral is .
3
1
Example 2: Determine if the integral 4 ( x 2)
dx converges or diverges. If it converges, find the
value. Using the definition, we can rewrite the problem as
1 t 1
4 ( x 2)
dx lim
t 4 ( x 2)
dx
lim ln( x 2) 4 lim ln(t 2) lim ln(4 2)
t
t t t
lim ln(t 2) ln 2
t
Since the limit does not exist, the integral is divergent.
317
Example 3: Determine the area (if it exists) of the region that is bounded by
y e 2 x , y 0 , to the left of x 1 .
This time, we use Case 2 of the definition since we are looking at a limit to negative infinity.
1
1 1 1
e dx lim e dx lim e 2 x
2x 2x
t t
t 2
t
1 1 1 1
lim e 2(1) lim e2(0) e2
t 2
t 2 2 2
e 2 1
1
2
This value is finite, so the integral is said to converge.
Now we will look at an example that has infinite limits in both directions.
1
Example 4: Find the value of dx .
1 x2
Since this is an infinite limit on both sides, we use Case 3 and split the integral into two definite
integrals at some convenient value for x. Based on the graph of the function, it seems reasonable to
make the split at x = 0.
Figure 5.2: Proper Integral with Infinite Limits with Integral
So we will write the problem as
318
1 0 1 1
1 x 2
dx
1 x 2
dx
0 1 x2
dx
0 1 t 1
lim dx lim dx
t t 1 x 2 t 0 1 x 2
lim arctan x t lim arctan x 0
0 t
t t
lim arctan(0) arctan(t ) lim arctan(t ) arctan(0)
t t
0
2 2 0
Clearly, this integral is convergent.
Integrals with Infinite Discontinuities
If a function is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus tells us
b
that the definite integral a
f ( x) dx exists. If f(x) has an infinite discontinuity which is indicated by a
vertical asymptote, we may still be able to determine some finite number that is associated with the
integral. We do that in much the same way we worked problems in the preceding section: we assign a
temporary variable to the limit where the infinite discontinuity occurs. Then we take the one-sided
limit as x approaches the value of x that we replaced with the temporary variable. The following rules
explain how such integrals should be evaluated.
Improper Integrals with Infinite Discontinuities
Case 1: If f(x) is continuous on the interval (a, b], then
b b
a
f ( x) dx lim f ( x) dx , provided the limit exists.
t a
t
Case 2: If f(x) is continuous on the interval [a, b), then
b t
a
f ( x) dx lim f ( x) dx , provided the limit exists.
t b
a
Case 3: If f(x) is continuous on the interval [a, b] except at an infinite
discontinuity at x =c, then
b c b
a
f ( x) dx f ( x) dx f ( x) dx
a c
We will work a few examples to show how these rules apply.
319
4 1
Example 5: Evaluate dx
0
4 x
The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at x = 4 which is a right side limit. We will use Case2.
1 1
4 t t
dx lim dx lim (4 x) 2 dx
1
0
4 x t 4 0
4 x t 4 0
t
lim 2 4 x
t 4 0
lim 2
t 4
4 t 2 40
04 4
Again, the integral converges..
3 1
Example 6: Does 0 x
dx converge or diverge? Show your reasoning.
1
goes infinite as x approaches zero from the right. We will use Case 1 for this example.
x
1 31
dx lim dx lim ln x t
3
3
0 x t 0 t x t 0
lim ln 3 ln t ln 3 ( )
t 0
The integral diverges.
5
1
Example 7: Determine whether x 4
1
2
dx diverges or converges. The integrand is not defined at x
= 4 where a vertical asymptote exists. This situation fits Case 3. We need to rewrite the problem as
the sum of two separate integrals.
5 4 5
1 1 1
1 x 42 dx 1 x 42 dx 4 x 42 dx
t 5
1 1
lim dx lim dx
t 4
1
x 4 t 4
t
x 4
t 5
1 1
lim lim
t 4 x 4 t 4 x 4
1 t
320
t 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
lim lim lim lim
t 4 x 4
1
t 4
x 4 t t 4 t 4 1 4 t 4 5 4 4 4
1
1
3
which does not exist. Therefore, the integral diverges. Another point to remember is that the
Fundamental Theorem does not apply in this example because the integrand is not continuous on the
closed interval [1, 5]. If we had applied the Fundamental Theorem, we would have obtained
5
5 1 1 1 4
x 4
1 2
dx 1
( x 4) 1 3 3
.
This result is clearly not possible because the answer is negative but the integrand was never negative.
If an integral is divided into two separate integrals as in Example 7, both parts must converge in order
for the entire integral to be convergent. Otherwise, the integral will be divergent.
10 1
Example 8: Evaluate x 2
1
2
3
dx
The integrand has an infinite discontinuity inside the interval at x = 2, which means that we follow
Case 3 and write the integral as the sum of two separate definite integrals.
10 1 2 1 10 1
x 2
1
2
3
dx
1
x 2
2
3
dx
2
x 2
2
3
dx
t 1 10 1
lim dx lim dx
x 2 x 2
2 2
t 2 1 3 t 2 t 3
t 10
lim 3 x 2 3 lim 3 x 2 3
1 1
t 2 1 t 2 t
lim 3(t 2) 3(1 2) lim 3(10 2) 3(t 2)
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
t 2 t 2
0 (3) (3(2) 0)
3 6 9
Remember, the integral is convergent because both parts were convergent.
5.5 Review Exercises
1. Integrate the following functions
321
x2 2 x 1
a) e dx b) x
3
x
dx c) dx
x2
2
2x
sec6 x
d) x sec x tan xdx e) tan 2 xdx f ) te t dt
2. Determine whether the integral converges or diverges, and if it converges, find its value.
0
x 1 1
0 1 x 2 dx (3 x) 2 dx xe
x2
a) b) c) dx d) dx
1 x2 1
3x 2 1
9 2 0 1
1 1
sec xdx 0 x 3 x dx
2
e) dx f) g) dx h)
0 x 0 2 4 x2
3. For what values of p is the integral
1
x
1
p
dx
convergent?
322
UNIT-SIX
APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION
Unit-6: Application of Integration
UNIT OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this unit each student should able to:
Apply integration to find area.
Apply integration to find volume.
Apply the disk method.
Apply the washer and shell method.
Determine the surface area.
Determine Length of a plane curve.
In this chapter, we will see some applications of integration such as: Area of a region bounded by
curves of continuous defined on a closed interval [a, b] and volume of a solid of revolutions.
6.1 Area
Let f be a non-negative continuous function on [a, b], then the area of the region R bounded by f and
the x-axis between x =a & x = b (as shown in the fig. below) is given by:
∫ …………………………….(*)
Figure 6.1
Example:
323
1) Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of the function and the
x-axis between x=0 & x=3.
Solution: The region R is the shaded region as shown below.
Figure 6.2
Now let R1, R2 and R3 be the sub-regions b/n x=0 and x=1, x=1 and x=2, and x=2 and x=3,
respectively. Then, using (*):
Where,
∫ ∫ ⟨
∫ ⟨
Since the sub-region R2 is below the x- axis, the negative sign is important. Similarly,
∫ ⟨ .
Thus, area of the region is:
We can see that the area of a region bounded by a continuous curves y = f(x), y = g(x) and the lines x =
a, x = b such that for all x in [a, b] is:
∫ [ ] ……………………(*)
324
Figure 6.3
Example 2: Find area of the region enclosed by the parabolas and .
Solution: The sketch of the region is shown below. So, using (**):
Figure 6.4
∫ [ ] ∫ [ ] ∫
⟨ .
Note that the intersection points can be obtained as: . Solving this
equation for x, we get , then , as indicated in the graph above.
Example 3: Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y = sin x and y = cos x, between x = 0
&x= .
Solution: The region R with its parts is as shown below:
325
Figure 6.5
The points of intersection occur when sin x = cos x, that is, when (since ). Observe that
cos x sin x when but cos x sin x , when . Therefore, area of the region is:
∫ [ ] ∫ [ ]
[ ]| [ ]| √ .
Exercise:
1. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graph of f(x) = sin x and the x-axis between
and .
2. Find the area of the region in the first quadrant which is enclosed by the y-axis and the curves
of f(x) = cos x and g(x) = sinx.
3. Determine the area of the region enclosed by the graphs of and
4. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graphs and the line .
6.2 Volume
In section, we will apply integral calculus to determine the volume of a solid region by considering
cross sections.
326
Suppose a region rotates about a straight line, then a solid figure called a solid of revolution, is formed.
The volume of such a solid is said to be a volume of revolution and the line about which the region
rotates is an axis of symmetry.
Now consider the solid of revolution generated by revolving the region between the curve
and the x-axis from to as shown below.
Figure 6.6
Every cross section which is perpendicular to the x-axis at x a circular region with radius, r = f(x). Thus,
the area of the cross section A(x) is .
Thus, we define the volume of revolution V as by:
∫ ∫ ……………………..( )
Example 1: Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the x-axis the region under the curve
√ from 0 to 1.
Solution: The region and the solid figure rotated about the x-axis from 0 to 1 are shown in figure 6.7(a)
and figure 6.7(b) below.
Figure 6.7
327
Now, the area of the cross section is √ . So, using ( ), the volume of
revolution V is given by:
∫ ∫ ⟨ .
Note that if f and g are continuous, non-negative on [a, b] such that for all x in [a, b]. let R
be a region bounded by f(x) and g(x), on [a, b] as in the following figure. Then, the volume of the solid
of revolution generated by revolving the region R about the x-axis is given by:
∫ , where [( ) ( ) ].
Figure 6.8
Example 2: The region R enclosed by the curves and is rotated about the x-axis. Find the
volume of the resulting solid.
Solution:
Figure 6.9
The curves y = x and y = x2 intersect at the points (0, 0) and (1, 1). The region and solid of rotation are
shown in the figure above. The cross-section in the plane has the shape of annular ring with inner radius
x2 and outer radius x. So, [ ] . Therefore, we have
∫ ∫ [ ]|
328
Consider again the case where a region R is rotated about the y-axis: where, either R is a region bounded
by the curve x = u(y) and the y-axis, between the lines y = c & y = d or R is a region between two curves
v(y) and w(y) on [c, d] as in following figures:
Figure 6.10
Then the corresponding volume of revolution is given by:
∫ [ ] and ∫ [ ] [ ] respectively.
Example 3: Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by y = x3, y = 8, and x
= 0 about the y-axis.
Solution: The rotation of the region is shown as:
Figure 6.11
Here, u(y) = x = √ . So, the area of the cross-section is [ ] . Thus, the volume V
of revolution is:
∫ [ ] ∫ .
329
6.3 The Disk Method
The solid generated by rotating a plane region about an axis in its plane is called a solid of revolution.
To find the volume of a solid, we need only observe that the cross-sectional area A(x) is the area of a
disk of radius R(x), the distance of the planar region‘s boundary from the axis of revolution.
Volume Formula
a) Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular to the x-axis at and If,
for each in [ ], the cross sectional area of S perpendicular to the -axis is , then the
volume of the solid is
provided is integrable.
b) Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular to the at and
If, for each in [ ], the cross sectional area of S perpendicular to the -axis is , then the
volume of the solid is
provided is integrable.
This method for calculating the volume of a solid of revolution is often called the disk method
because a cross-section is a circular disk of radius R(x) the formula can be written
∫ [ ]
Example: Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by √ and
the lines about the line
Solution:We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the generated solid in Figure below
The volume is
330
4
V [ R( x)]2 dx
1
4
[ x 1]2 dx
1
4
[ x 2 x 1]dx
1
x2 2 3 7
[ 2. x 2 x]14 .
2 3 6
Figure6.12
Exercise:
a) Determine the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by
, the x-axis about the x-axis.
b) Determine the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the portion of the region bounded by
√ and that lies in the first quadrant about the y-axis.
c) Determine the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by
about the line .
d) Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the parabola
and the line about the line
6.4 The Washer Method the solid has a hole in it (Figure ). The cross-
sections perpendicular to the axis of
If the region we revolve to generate a solid does
not border on or cross the axis of revolution,
331
revolution are washers (the purplish circular
surface in the Figure) instead of disks. The
dimensions of a typical washer are
Outer radius =
Inner Radius
The washer Area is
[ ] [ ]
Consequently, the Volume is
∫ ∫ [ ] [ ]
Figure6.13
Example: The region bounded by the curveEvaluate the volume integral.
and the line is revolved
about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the
volume of the solid.
Solution: The radii are the distances of the ends of
the line segment from the axis of revolution
Outer radius
Inner radius
Find the limits of integration by finding the x-
coordinates of the intersection points of
the curve and line
332
b
V ([ R( x)]2 [r ( x)]2 )dx
a
1
(( x 3) 2 ( x 2 1) 2 )dx
2
1
(8 6 x x 2 x 4 )dx
2
1
x3 x5 117
8 x 3 x 2 .
3 5 2 5
Figure 6.14
Exercise
a) The region bounded by the parabola and the line in the first quadrant is
revolved about the y-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
b) Determine the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by and
about the line .
c) Determine the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by
√ and about the line
The Shell Method
This method for computing volumes that have been discussed so far depend on our ability to compute
the cross-sectional area of the solid and to integrate that are across the solid. In this section we will
develop another method for finding volumes that may be applicable when the cross-sectional area
cannot be found or the integration is too difficult.
333
Volume by Cylindrical Shells about The y-Axis
Let f be continuous and nonnegative on [a, b], and let R be the region that is bounded above by
y f (x) , below by the x-axis , and on the sides by the lines x = a and y = b. Then the volume V of the
solid of revolution that is generated by revolving the region R about the y- axis is given by
Shell Formula for Revolution about a Vertical Line
The volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the x-axis and the
graph of a continuous function y f ( x) 0 , L a x b , above a vertical line x L is
b
shell shell
V 2 dx .
a radius height
Example: a) The region bounded by the curve √ the x-axis, and the line is revolved
about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
b) The region bounded by the curve √ the x-axis, and the line is revolved
about the y-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
c ) Find the volume of the solid generated when the region R in the first quadrant enclosed
between is revolved about the y-axis.
d) Determine the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by
√ and about the line .
Solution
a) Sketch the region and draw a line segmentIn this case, the shell thickness variable is y, so the
across it parallel to the axis of revolution. Labellimits of integration for the shell formula
the segment‘s length (shell height) and distance
method are and (along the y-axis in Figure ). The
from the axis of revolution (shell radius). volume of the solid is
334
∫
∫ ( )( )
* +
Figure 6.15
6.5 Length of a Plane Curve
Definition (Length of a Parametric Curve)
If a curve C is defined parametrically by and where are
continuous and not simultaneously zero on [a, b], and C is traversed exactly once as t increases from
then the length of C is the definite integral
∫ √[ ] [ ]
Example
a) Find the length of the circle of radius
b) Find the length of the asteroid,
Solution b) Because of the curve‘s symmetry with
√( ) ( )
Respect to the coordinate axes, its length
Length of first-quadrant portion
is four times the length of the first-quadrant
portion. We have ∫
( ) , ( ) The length of the asteroid is four times this:
( )
335
Figure 6.16
Formula for the Length of y f ( x) , a x b
If f is continuously differentiable on the closed interval [a , b] , the length of the curve (graph)
y f ( x) from x a to x b is
2
dy
b b
L 1 dx 1 f ' ( x) dx .
2
a dx a
Exercise: Find the length of the curve
√
a) c) ( )
b)
6.6 Surface Area
Definition 5.1: a) (Surface Area for Revolution About the x-Axis)
If the function is continuously differentiable on [a, b], the area of the surface
generated by revolving the curve about the x-axis is
∫ √ ( ) ∫ √
b ) (Surface Area for Revolution About the y-Axis)
If the function is continuously differentiable on [ ], the area of the surface
336
generated by revolving the curve about the y-axis is
∫ √ ( ) ∫ √
Example: Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve √ about the
x-axis.
Solution: √ √
∫ √ √ ( )
√
∫ √
( √ √ ) Figure 6.17
Exercise:
a) The line segment is revolved about the y-axis to generate the cone . Find its
surface area
b) Find the area of the surface that is generated by revolving the portion of the curve between
about the x-axis
c) Find the area of the surface that is generated by revolving the portion of the curve √
between about the x-axis
Surface Area of Revolution for Parameterized Curves
If a smooth curve is traversed exactly once as t increases from a to b,
then the areas of the surfaces generated by revolving the curve about the coordinate axes are as follows
1) Revolution about the x-axis
337
∫ √( ) ( )
2) Revolution about the y-axis
∫ √( ) ( )
Example: The standard parameterization of the circle of radius 1 centered at the point (0, 1) in the xy
-plane is
Use this parameterization to find the area of the surface swept out by revolving the circle
about the x-axis
Solution:
∫ √
Figure 6.18
338
Applied Mathematics-I for Engineers
6.7 Review Exercise:
1. Find the volume of solid of revolution about the x-axis generated by revolving the
area between the lines y = x and y = 4 from x = 1 to x = 3.
2. Find the volume of the solid of revolution about the y-axis generated by revolving the
region enclosed by the curve x = √ and the y-axis from y = 0 to y = 4.
3. The area bounded by the graph of y = x2+1 and the line y = 4 rotates about the y –
axis, find the volume of the solid generated.
4. Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the curves y2
= x and x = 2y about y-axis.
5. Find the are of the surface generated by revolving the curve
a)
b) ( ) √ √
Department of Mathematics
339
Applied Mathematics-I for Engineers
Reference
Reference
1. James Stewart, Calculus early trancedental, 6th ed., Prentice Hall, 2008
2. Howard Anton,Calculus a new horizon, 6th ed., John wiley and Sons Inc
3. Robert Ellis and Denny Gulick, Calculus with analytic geometry, 6th ed,
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 5th ed, 1993
4. Adams, Calculus: A complete course, 5th ed, Addison Wesley, 2003
5. R. Wrede and M. R. Spiegel, Theory of advanced calculus, 2nd ed., McGraw-
Hill, 2002.
6. A. E. Taylor and W. R. Mann, Advanced calculus, 3rd ed, John-Wiley and
Son, INC, 1995.
7. R. T. Smith and R. B. Minton, Calculus concepts and connections, McGram-
Hill book company, 2006
8. D. V. Widder, Advanced calculus, Prentice-Hall, 1979
9. Ross L. Finney et al, Calculus, Addison Wesley, 1995
10. E. J. Purcell and D. Varberg, Calculus with analytic geometry, Prentice-Hall
INC., 1987
11. Lynne, Garner: Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Dellen Publishing Company
12. John A. Tierney: Calculus and Analytic, 4th edition, Allyn and Bacon, Inc. –
Boston.
13. Earl W. Swokowski: Calculus with Analytic Geometry, 2nd edition, Prindle,
Weber and Schmidt.
14. Goldstein, L. J., Lay D. C. , and Schneider D. I (1987). Calculus and its
applications, 4th, edn, Prentice-Hall, Inc, London
15. Kresying, Advanced Engineering Mathematics.
16. Alan Jeffry , Advanced Engineering Mathematics
Department of Mathematics
340
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