Video game

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"Computer and video games" redirects here. For the magazine, see Computer and Video Games.
For PC games specifically, see personal computer game. For Console games specifically, see
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Video games
v·d·e

A video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface to generate
visual feedback on a video device. The word video in video game traditionally referred to a raster
display device.[1] However, with the popular use of the term "video game", it now implies any
type of display device. The electronic systems used to play video games are known as platforms;
examples of these are personal computers and video game consoles. These platforms range from
large mainframe computers to small handheld devices. Specialized video games such as arcade
games, while previously common, have gradually declined in use.

The input device used to manipulate video games is called a game controller, and varies across
platforms. For example, a dedicated console controller might consist of only a button and a
joystick. Another may feature a dozen buttons and one or more joysticks. Early personal
computer games often needed a keyboard for gameplay, or more commonly, required the user to
buy a separate joystick with at least one button.[2] Many modern computer games allow, or even
require, the player to use a keyboard and mouse simultaneously.

Video games typically also use other ways of providing interaction and information to the player.
Audio is almost universal, using sound reproduction devices, such as speakers and headphones.
Other feedback may come via haptic peripherals, such as vibration or force feedback, with
vibration sometimes used to simulate force feedback.

History
Main article: History of video games
See also:
Tennis for Two, an early analog computer game that used an oscilloscope for a display

Early games used interactive electronic devices with various display formats. The earliest
example is from 1947—a "Cathode ray tube Amusement Device" was filed for a patent on
January 25, 1947, by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann, and issued on December 14,
1948, as U.S. Patent 2455992.[3]

Inspired by radar display tech, it consisted of an analog device that allowed a user to control a
vector-drawn dot on the screen to simulate a missile being fired at targets, which were drawings
fixed to the screen.[4]

Other early examples include:

 The NIMROD computer at the 1951 Festival of Britain

 OXO a tic-tac-toe Computer game by Alexander S. Douglas for the EDSAC in 1952
 Tennis for Two, an interactive game engineered by William Higinbotham in 1958
 Spacewar!, written by MIT students Martin Graetz, Steve Russell, and Wayne Wiitanen's
on a DEC PDP-1 computer in 1961.

Each game used different means of display: NIMROD used a panel of lights to play the game of
Nim,[5] OXO used a graphical display to play tic-tac-toe [6] Tennis for Two used an oscilloscope to
display a side view of a tennis court,[4] and Spacewar! used the DEC PDP-1's vector display to
have two spaceships battle each other.[7]

In 1971, Computer Space, created by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, was the first
commercially sold, coin-operated video game. It used a black-and-white television for its display,
and the computer system was made of 74 series TTL chips.[8] The game was featured in the 1973
science fiction film Soylent Green. Computer Space was followed in 1972 by the Magnavox
Odyssey, the first home console. Modeled after a late 1960s prototype console developed by
Ralph H. Baer called the "Brown Box", it also used a standard television.[4][9] These were
followed by two versions of Atari's Pong; an arcade version in 1972 and a home version in 1975.
[10]
The commercial success of Pong led numerous other companies to develop Pong clones and
their own systems, spawning the video game industry.[11]

Overview
Platforms

See also: History of video games

The term "platform" refers to the specific combination of electronic or computer hardware which,
in conjunction with low-level software, allows a video game to operate.[12] The term "system" is
also commonly used. As well, newer video game platforms are also known as next "gen"
consoles.

In common use a "PC game" refers to a form of media that involves a player interacting with a
personal computer connected to a high-resolution video monitor. A "console game" is played on
a specialized electronic device that connects to a common television set or composite video
monitor. A "handheld" gaming device is a self contained electronic device that is portable and
can be held in a user's hands. "Arcade game" generally refers to a game played on an even more
specialized type of electronic device that is typically designed to play only one game and is
encased in a special cabinet. These distinctions are not always clear and there may be games that
bridge one or more platforms. There are also devices with screens which have the ability to play
games but are not dedicated video game machines (examples are mobile phones, PDAs and
graphing calculators).

Genres

Main article: Video game genres

A video game, like most other forms of media, may be categorized into genres based on many
factors such as method of game play, types of goals, art style and more. Because genres are
dependent on content for definition, genres have changed and evolved as newer styles of video
games have come into existence. Ever advancing technology and production values related to
video game development have fostered more life-like and complex games which have in turn
introduced or enhanced genre possibilities (e.g., virtual pets), pushed the boundaries of existing
video gaming or in some cases add new possibilities in play (such as that seen with titles
specifically designed for devices like Sony's EyeToy). Some genres represent combinations of
others, such as massively multiplayer online role-playing games, or, more commonly,
MMORPGs. It is also common to see higher level genre terms that are collective in nature across
all other genres such as with action, music/rhythm or horror-themed video games.

Classifications

Core games

In general, discussion about video gaming in both the press and politics revolves around titles
found in the core games classification; historically, consisting of video games developed for play
on personal computers, dedicated video game consoles or handheld game consoles.

Core games are generally defined by their intensity, depth of play or scale of production involved
in their creation and can include games across a wide spectrum of genres. For example the
[Link] series for WiiWare, the Fallout series for PC and console or LittleBigPlanet for the PS3,
all fall within the core games classification. Core games are sometimes considered demanding in
their gameplay and typically do not appeal to the casual gamer.

Casual games

Main article: Casual game

Casual games derive their name from their ease of accessibility, simple to understand gameplay
and quick to grasp rule sets. Additionally, casual games frequently support the ability to jump in
and out of play on demand. Casual games as a format existed long before the term was coined
and include video games such as Solitaire or Minesweeper which can commonly be found pre-
installed with many versions of the Microsoft Windows operating system.

Examples of genres within this category are hidden object, match three, time management, tetris
or many of the tower defense style games. Casual games are generally sold through online
retailers such as PopCap, Zylom and GameHouse or provided for free play through web portals
such as Newgrounds or AddictingGames.

While casual games are most commonly played on personal computers, cellphones or PDAs, they
can also be found on many of the on-line console system download services (e.g., Xbox Live,
PlayStation Network, or WiiWare).

Serious games

Main article: Serious game

Serious games are games that are designed primarily to convey information or a learning
experience of some sort to the player. Some serious games may even fail to qualify as a video
game in the traditional sense of the term. Also, educational software does not typically fall under
this category (e.g., touch typing tutors, language learning, etc.) and the primary distinction would
appear to be based on the title's primary goal as well as target age demographics. As with the
other categories, this description is more of a guideline than a rule.

Serious games are games generally made for reasons beyond simple entertainment and as with
the core and casual games may include works from any given genre, although some such as
exergames, educational games, or propaganda games may have a higher representation in this
group due to their subject matter. These games are typically designed to be played by
professionals as part of a specific job or for skill set improvement. They can also be created to
convey social-political awareness on a specific subject.

One of the longest running serious games franchises would be Microsoft Flight Simulator first
published in 1982 under that name. The United States military uses virtual reality based
simulations for training exercises,[13] as do a growing number of first responder roles (e.g., police,
fire fighter, EMT).[14] One example of a non-game environment utilized as a platform for serious
game development would be the virtual world of Second Life, which is currently used by several
United States governmental departments (e.g., NOAA, NASA, JPL), Universities (e.g., Ohio
University, MIT) for educational and remote learning programs[15] and businesses (e.g., IBM,
Cisco Systems) for meetings and training.[16]

Tactical media in video games plays a crucial role in making a statement or conveying a message
on important relevant issues. This form of media allows for a broader audience to be able to
receive and gain access to certain information that otherwise may not have reached such people.
An example of tactical media in video games would be newsgames. These are short games
related to contemporary events designed to illustrate a point.[17] For example, TAKE ACTION
games is a game studio collective that was co-founded by Susana Ruiz and has made very
successful and powerful serious games. Some of these games include Darfur is Dying, Finding
Zoe, and In The Balance. All of these games bring awareness to important issues and events in an
intelligent and well thought out manner.[18]

Educational games

See also: Educational software

On September 23, 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama launched a campaign called "Educate to
Innovate" aimed at improving the technological, mathematical, scientific and engineering
abilities of American students. This campaign states that it plans to harness the power of
interactive games to help achieve the goal of students excelling in these departments.[19][20] This
campaign has stemmed into many new and exciting opportunities for the video game realm and
has contributed to many new competitions. Some of these competitions include the STEM
NATIONAL VIDEO GAME COMPETITION and the Imagine Cup.[21][22] Both of these examples
are events that bring a focus to relevant and important current issues that are able to be addressed
in the sense of video games to educate and spread knowledge in a new form of media.
[Link] uses games to entice the user to learn about information pertaining to the
Nobel prize achievements while engaging in a fun to play video game.[23] There are many
different types and styles of educational games all the way from counting to spelling to games for
kids and games for adults. Some other games do not have any particular targeted audience in
mind and intended to simply educate or inform whoever views or plays the game.

Development
Main article: Game development
See also: Video game industry practices
Developers use various tools to create video games, here an editor to fine tune the virtual camera
system.

Video game development and authorship, much like any other form of entertainment, is
frequently a cross-disciplinary field. Video game developers, as employees within this industry
are commonly referred, primarily include programmers and graphic designers. Over the years this
has expanded to include almost every type of skill that one might see prevalent in the creation of
any movie or television program, including sound designers, musicians, and other technicians; as
well as skills that are specific to video games, such as the game designer. All of these are
managed by producers.

In the early days of the industry, it was more common for a single person to manage all of the
roles needed to create a video game. As platforms have become more complex and powerful in
the type of material they can present, larger teams have been needed to generate all of the art,
programming, cinematography, and more. This is not to say that the age of the "one-man shop" is
gone, as this is still sometimes found in the casual gaming and handheld markets,[24] where
smaller games are prevalent due to technical limitations such as limited RAM or lack of
dedicated 3D graphics rendering capabilities on the target platform (e.g., some cellphones and
PDAs).[citation needed]

With the growth of the size of development teams in the industry, the problem of cost has
increased. Development studios need to be able to pay their staff a competitive wage in order to
attract and retain the best talent, while publishers are constantly looking to keep costs down in
order to maintain profitability on their investment. Typically, a video game console development
team can range in sizes of anywhere from 5 to 50 people, with some teams exceeding 100. In
May 2009, one game project was reported to have a development staff of 450.[25] The growth of
team size combined with greater pressure to get completed projects into the market to begin
recouping production costs has led to a greater occurrence of missed deadlines and unfinished
products.[citation needed]

Modifications

Main article: Mod (computer gaming)

Many games produced for the PC are designed such that technically oriented consumers can
modify the game. These mods can add an extra dimension of replayability and interest.
Developers such as id Software, Valve Software, Crytek, Bethesda, Epic Games and Blizzard
Entertainment ship their games with some of the development tools used to make the game, along
with documentation to assist mod developers. The Internet provides an inexpensive medium to
promote and distribute mods, and they may be a factor in the commercial success of some games.
[26]
This allows for the kind of success seen by popular mods such as the Half-Life mod Counter-
Strike.

Cheating

Main article: Cheating (video games)

Cheating in computer games may involve cheat codes and hidden spots implemented by the game
developers,[27][28] modification of game code by third parties,[29][30] or players exploiting a software
glitch. Modifications are facilitated by either cheat cartridge hardware or a software trainer.[29]
Cheats usually make the game easier by providing an unlimited amount of some resource; for
example weapons, health, or ammunition; or perhaps the ability to walk through walls.[28][29] Other
cheats might give access to otherwise unplayable levels or provide unusual or amusing features,
like altered game colors or other graphical appearances.

Glitches

Example of a color glitch from the video game Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3
Main article: Glitch

Software errors not detected by software testers during development can find their way into
released versions of computer and video games. This may happen because the glitch only occurs
under unusual circumstances in the game, was deemed too minor to correct, or because the game
development was hurried to meet a publication deadline. Glitches can range from minor graphical
errors to serious bugs that can delete saved data or cause the game to malfunction. In some cases
publishers will release updates (referred to as patches) to repair glitches. Sometimes a glitch may
be beneficial to the player, these are often referred to as exploits.

Theory
Main article: Game studies
Although departments of computer science have been studying the technical aspects of video
games for years, theories that examine games as an artistic medium are a relatively recent
development in the humanities. The two most visible schools in this emerging field are ludology
and narratology. Narrativists approach video games in the context of what Janet Murray calls
"Cyberdrama". That is to say, their major concern is with video games as a storytelling medium,
one that arises out of interactive fiction. Murray puts video games in the context of the Holodeck,
a fictional piece of technology from Star Trek, arguing for the video game as a medium in which
we get to become another person, and to act out in another world.[31] This image of video games
received early widespread popular support, and forms the basis of films such as Tron, eXistenZ,
and The Last Starfighter.

Ludologists break sharply and radically from this idea. They argue that a video game is first and
foremost a game, which must be understood in terms of its rules, interface, and the concept of
play that it deploys. Espen J. Aarseth argues that, although games certainly have plots, characters,
and aspects of traditional narratives, these aspects are incidental to gameplay. For example,
Aarseth is critical of the widespread attention that narrativists have given to the heroine of the
game Tomb Raider, saying that "the dimensions of Lara Croft's body, already analyzed to death
by film theorists, are irrelevant to me as a player, because a different-looking body would not
make me play differently... When I play, I don't even see her body, but see through it and past
it."[32] Simply put, ludologists reject traditional theories of art because they claim that the artistic
and socially relevant qualities of a video game are primarily determined by the underlying set of
rules, demands, and expectations imposed on the player.

While many games rely on emergent principles, video games commonly present simulated story
worlds where emergent behavior occurs within the context of the game. The term "emergent
narrative" has been used to describe how, in a simulated environment, storyline can be created
simply by "what happens to the player."[33] However, emergent behavior is not limited to
sophisticated games. In general, any place where event-driven instructions occur for AI in a
game, emergent behavior will exist. For instance, take a racing game in which cars are
programmed to avoid crashing, and they encounter an obstacle in the track: the cars might then
maneuver to avoid the obstacle causing the cars behind them to slow and/or maneuver to
accommodate the cars in front of them and the obstacle. The programmer never wrote code to
specifically create a traffic jam, yet one now exists in the game.

Social aspects
Demographics

The November 2005 Nielsen Active Gamer Study, taking a survey of 2,000 regular gamers,
found that the U.S. games market is diversifying. The age group among male players has
expanded significantly up into the 25–40 age group. For casual online puzzle-style and simple
mobile cell phone games, the gender divide is more or less equal between males and females.
Females have also been found to show an attraction to online multi-player games where there is a
communal experience.[citation needed] More recently there has been a growing segment of female
players engaged with the aggressive style of games historically considered to fall within
traditionally male genres (e.g., first-person shooters). According to the ESRB almost 41% of PC
gamers are women.[34]

When comparing today's industry climate with that of 20 years ago, women and many adults are
more inclined to be using products in the industry. While the market for teen and young adult
men is still a strong market, it is the other demographics which are posting significant growth. In
2008, the average American gamer has been playing for 12 years, and is now, on average, 35
years of age.[35]

Multiplayer

Main article: Multiplayer video game

Video gaming has traditionally been a social experience. Multiplayer video games are those that
can be played either competitively, sometimes in Electronic Sports, or cooperatively by using
either multiple input devices, or by hotseating. Tennis for Two, arguably the first video game, was
a two player game, as was its successor Pong. The first commercially available game console, the
Magnavox Odyssey, had two controller inputs.

Since then, most consoles have been shipped with two or four controller inputs. Some have had
the ability to expand to four, eight or as many as twelve inputs with additional adapters, such as
the Multitap. Multiplayer arcade games typically feature play for two to four players, sometimes
tilting the monitor on its back for a top-down viewing experience allowing players to sit opposite
one another.

Many early computer games for non-PC descendant based platforms featured multiplayer
support. Personal computer systems from Atari and Commodore both regularly featured at least
two game ports. PC-based computer games started with a lower availability of multiplayer
options because of technical limitations. PCs typically had either one or no game ports at all.
Network games for these early personal computers were generally limited to only text based
adventures or MUDs that were played remotely on a dedicated server. This was due both to the
slow speed of modems (300-1200-bit/s), and the prohibitive cost involved with putting a
computer online in such a way where multiple visitors could make use of it. However, with the
advent of widespread local area networking technologies and Internet based online capabilities,
the number of players in modern games can be 32 or higher, sometimes featuring integrated text
and/or voice chat. MMOs can offer extremely high numbers of simultaneous players; Eve Online
set a record with 54,446 players on a single server in 2010.[36]

Benefits

Main article: Video game behavioral effects

It has been shown that action video game players have better hand-eye coordination and visuo-
motor skills, such as their resistance to distraction, their sensitivity to information in the
peripheral vision and their ability to count briefly presented objects, than nonplayers.[37]
Researchers found that such enhanced abilities could be acquired by training with action games,
involving challenges that switch attention between different locations, but not with games
requiring concentration on single objects. It has been suggested by a few studies that
online/offline video gaming can be used as a therapeutic tool in the treatment of different mental
health concerns.[which?]

In Steven Johnson's book, Everything Bad Is Good for You, he argues that video games in fact
demand far more from a player than traditional games like Monopoly. To experience the game,
the player must first determine the objectives, as well as how to complete them. They must then
learn the game controls and how the human-machine interface works, including menus and
HUDs. Beyond such skills, which after some time become quite fundamental and are taken for
granted by many gamers, video games are based upon the player navigating (and eventually
mastering) a highly complex system with many variables. This requires a strong analytical
ability, as well as flexibility and adaptability. He argues that the process of learning the
boundaries, goals, and controls of a given game is often a highly demanding one that calls on
many different areas of cognitive function. Indeed, most games require a great deal of patience
and focus from the player, and, contrary to the popular perception that games provide instant
gratification, games actually delay gratification far longer than other forms of entertainment such
as film or even many books.[38] Some research suggests video games may even increase players'
attention capacities.[39]

Learning principles found in video games have been identified as possible techniques with which
to reform the U.S. education system.[40] It has been noticed that gamers adopt an attitude while
playing that is of such high concentration, they do not realize they are learning, and that if the
same attitude could be adopted at school, education would enjoy significant benefits.[41] Students
are found to be "learning by doing" while playing video games while fostering creative thinking.
[42]

The U.S. Army has deployed machines such as the PackBot which make use of a game-style
hand controller to make it more familiar for young people.[43]

According to research discussed at the 2008 Convention of the American Psychological

Association, certain types of video games can improve the gamers' dexterity as well as their
ability to problem-solve. A study of 33 laparoscopic surgeons found that those who played video
games were 27 percent faster at advanced surgical procedures and made 37 percent fewer errors
compared to those who did not play video games. A second study of 303 laparoscopic surgeons
(82 percent men; 18 percent women) also showed that surgeons who played video games
requiring spatial skills and hand dexterity and then performed a drill testing these skills were
significantly faster at their first attempt and across all 10 trials than the surgeons who did not play
the video games first.[44]

Whilst many studies have detected superior mental aptitudes amongst habitual gamers, research
by Walter Boot at the University of Illinois found that non-gamers showed no improvement in
memory or multitasking abilities after 20 hours of playing three different games. The researchers
suggested that "individuals with superior abilities are more likely to choose video gaming as an
activity in the first place".[45]
Controversy

Main article: Video game controversy

Like related forms of media, computer and video games have been the subject of frequent
controversy and censorship, due to the depiction of graphic violence, sexual themes, advergaming
(a form of advertising in games), consumption of drugs, consumption of alcohol or tobacco,
propaganda, or profanity in some games. Among others, critics of video games often include
parents' groups, politicians, organized religious groups, and other advocacy groups, even though
all of these can be found in all forms of entertainment and media. Various games have been
accused of causing addiction and even violent behavior, though how much ground this holds is
debatable. "Video game censorship" is defined as the use of state or group power to control the
playing, distribution, purchase, or sale of video games or computer games. Video game
controversy comes in many forms, and censorship is a controversial subject. Proponents and
opponents of censorship are often very passionate about their individual views.

Various national content rating organizations, such as the Entertainment Software Ratings Board
or ESRB in North America, rate software for certain age groups and with certain content
warnings. Some of these organizations are optional industry self-regulation (such as the ESRB),
while others are part of national government censorship organizations. Most video games display
their rating on the front side of their packaging. However, parents are not always aware of the
existence of these ratings. Not all ratings are considered accurate. Organizations such as What
They Play and Common Sense Media aim to provide guidance and advice for parents.[46]

Commercial aspects
Game sales

See also: List of best-selling video games

A typical retail display (in Geneva, Switzerland) with a large selection of games for several major
consoles

The three largest producers of and markets for computer and video games (in order) are North
America (US and Canada), Japan and the United Kingdom. Other significant markets include
Australia, Spain, Germany, South Korea, Mexico, France and Italy.[47] Both India and China are
considered emerging markets in the video game industry and sales are expected to rise
significantly in the coming years. Irish are the largest per capita consumers of video games.[48]

Sales of different types of games vary widely between these markets due to local preferences.
Japanese consumers tend to purchase console games over computer games, with a strong
preference for games catering to local tastes. In South Korea, computer games are preferred,
especially MMORPG games and real-time strategy games. There are over 20,000 Internet cafés
in South Korea where computer games can be played for an hourly charge.

The NPD Group tracks computer and video game sales in the United States. It reported in 2004
that:

 Console and portable software sales: $6.2 billion, up 8% from 2003[49]

 Console and portable hardware and accessory sales: $3.7 billion, down 35% from 2003[49]
 PC game sales: $1.1 billion, down 15% from 2006[50]

PC games that are digitally distributed either directly or by networks such as Steam are not
tracked by the NPD, and Steam does not list sales numbers for games downloaded through their
service. Unauthorized distribution is also rampant on the PC.[51]

These figures are sales in dollars, not units, Unit shipments for each category were higher than
the dollar sales numbers indicate, because more software and hardware was discounted than in
2003. But with the release of the next-generation consoles in 2006, these numbers increased
dramatically. The game and film industries are also becoming increasingly intertwined, with
companies like Sony having significant stakes in both. A large number of summer blockbuster
films spawn a companion game, often launching at the same time to share the marketing costs.

The global market for console games has seen an average of 6.9 percent compound annual
growth rate and is expected to become a $34.7 billion market in [Link] game sales are
expected to grow at a larger rate of 16.9 percent, escalating from $6.6 billion in 2008 to $14.4
billion by 2012. The largest channel for growth, however, is in mobile gaming with a growth rate
of 19 percent; growing from $5.6 billion to $13.5 billion in four years.[52]

Criticism

In Australia, the United Kingdom and other PAL regions, generally when compared to the US,
PAL gamers pay 40% to 50% more for the same product.[citation needed]. The reason for this is not due
to the costs of translation, as English is the main language in Australia and the UK. The
differences between PAL and NTSC are these days irrelevant; most video displays run at least
60Hz. There is also a problem of regional lockout in Australia, as while most DVD players are
sold region-free to accommodate local consumer rights legislation,[53] video game consoles are
still sold fully region protected. Some effort has been made to increase awareness of the issue,
specifically to Nintendo of Australia,[54] in the form of a formal report outlining the issues,
published by Aaron Rex Davies.[55] The report has gone on to gain a lot of attention in the public
media.[56]
Video game museums
There are many video game museums around the world, for example Museum of Soviet Arcade
Machines in Moscow[57] or Computer Game Museum in Berlin.[58]