NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF
ANIMAL SCIENCE AND FISHERIES

FPY/SIWES PRACTICAL GUIDE MANUAL

ANP401
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY TECHNIQUES
(RUMINANTS)

Course Developers/Writers:
G. JOKTHAN & A. A. NJIDDA

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National Open University of Nigeria
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Published by National Open University of Nigeria

Printed by NOUN PRESS
[email protected]
April 2018

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CONTENT PAGE

FATTENING OF SHEEP AND GOATS 4

SHEEP PRODUCTION 11

GOAT PRODUCTION 13

PASTURE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 16

ESTIMATING OF AGE USING DENTITION 19

DETERMINATION OF BODY WEIGHT 25

CASTRATION 29

IDENTIFICATION 35

CATCHING AND HOLDING OF SHEEP AND GOATS EASILY 37

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION 41

CATCHING AND HOLDING OF SHEEP AND GOATS EASILY 48

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION 51

METHODS OF MILKING 54

DRENCHING 56

HOOF TRIMMING 57

DEHORNING 59

RANGE FENCING 61

BODY CONDITION SCORE 65

FORAGE CONSERVATION 72

SILAGE 74

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 FATTENING OF SHEEP AND GOATS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Fattening/Finishing involves intensive feeding of sheep and goats to slaughter
weight with adequate finish (fat deposit) in feedlots. This targets the local
market that has high demand for fat animals. The operation of large feedlots
by export slaughter houses and independent feedlot operators (on-farm
feedlots) is becoming feasible. The principal functions of such feedlot
operations are to assemble large numbers of sheep and goats, often coming
from different genetic and management backgrounds, and produce a product
of acceptable standard. The following guidelines will serve these operations
and also small farmers that want to fatten smaller numbers of sheep and goats.
This will be the subject of this particular technical bulletin.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
Instruction in this lesson should result in students achieving the following
objectives:
1. Student should be able to fatten sheep or goat using the different methods
practiced during the FPY/SIWES.
2. State the systems of fattening and explain which is simpler cheaper.

Advantages of fattening
Fattening is a strategic feeding option that can have the following
advantages under Ethiopian conditions:

 Technically, it is quite simple and within the capabilities of small

farmers to implement; moreover, the results are highly visible. This
helps farmers to have confidence in the technique. Other techniques
such as feeding to boost reproductive performance are less convincing
because the farmer may be unsure that the extra feed resulted in any
benefit.
 Benefits can be realized within a short period of time unlike
other animal production activities.
 Fattening generates cash income that is eagerly sought by
farmers.
 Fattening is generally profitable because the value per kilogram
of live weight increases as both weight and condition increase.

Fattening systems
Intensive feeding of sheep and goats before slaughter in Ethiopia can be
categorized into two systems:

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  Traditional systems: This system generally depends on
grazing natural or planted pastures with variable degrees of
supplementation. Animals require a long period of time to attain
market weight and condition. It is also associated with huge fluctuations
in the weights and conditions of the animals depending on feed
availability. This system can be improved to supply animals of
acceptable condition to slaughterhouses for ultimate export.

Fig. 1 Traditional system of goat fattening

 Agro-industrial byproduct based fattening: Fattening of sheep

based on agro-industrial byproducts is also practiced in Nigeria. This
system can be promoted to similar areas where agro-industrial
byproducts are available. Fattening using agro-industrial byproducts like
sugar processing byproducts is feasible in places for instance in parts of
Adamawa where valuable feed resources such as molasses (from the
Savanna sugar factory) and corn (grain and residue) are widely available.
Protein sources like oilseed cakes can be purchased from nearby
processing plants and/or forage legumes can be grown in the area.
Brewery byproducts are also used. The following table shows examples
of rations where byproducts form the feed base. Local equivalents of
the weights indicated can be used whenever scales are not available.

Table 1: Molasses based rations

Ration I Ration II Ration III
Ingredient
Straw Ad lib Ad lib Ad lib
Molasses 350 g 250 g 200g
Oilseed cake 125g 100 g ---
Brewers dried grain --- --- 200 g
Urea 10 g --- ---
Molasses urea block ---- Free choice Free choice

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 HOW TO FATTENED SHEEP AND GOATS

Consider the following when selecting sheep and goats for

intensive fattening:
 Condition: Select animals that are healthy and have no visible physical
defects. Target animals with medium body condition. Body condition
scores of 2.25-3.0).
 Skeletal frame: The animals should have a large skeletal frame and
good body condition.
 Castration: Castration influences the fattening process.
 Breed: Identify breeds with greatest potential for growth and fattening.
Early maturing breeds start depositing fat at an earlier age and can be
ready for market at a lower weight.
 Sex: Females are earlier maturing than males. Males can do well in
feedlots, but often cause problems by fighting. Females can do well in
feedlots, but often have lower growth rates partly because they reach
carcass finish at an earlier age.
 Weight of animals: Weight of animals at the start of the feeding
operation governs the duration of feeding and the types and amounts
of feedstuffs needed. Lightweight (15-20 kg) animals can use more
roughage, whereas heavier lambs (>25 kg) require more concentrates
and a shorter feeding period.
 Age: Animals can be placed on intensive feeding at any age, usually
after weaning. Avoid animals that are too old. Check that the teeth are
sound. This has implications on feed utilization. It is advisable to select
sheep/goats between 2 and 4years of age for fattening;

Management of finishing sheep and goats

 The fattening program should be started after the necessary feed
supplies are secured. Underfeeding and incorrect timing are the most
common causes of failures in fattening activities.
 The objective in a fattening operation is to convert as much of the feed
to body tissue as possible. It is, thus, necessary to minimize the
movement of animals during the fattening period. They should be
allowed only limited exercise.
 The success of a finishing operation depends on the first two weeks
after arrival of animals. They may have traveled long distances and will
be stressed, hungry, and thirsty. They are generally gathered, sorted;
often stand for a long time without feed and water. It is recommended
that the following guidelines be followed under such circumstances:
 Rest the animals for a few hours in a dry, clean, sheltered area with
access to fresh water after arrival. Then offer grass hay or mixed grass-
legume hay.

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 Hand feed salt during the first two weeks; then provide trace mineral
salt in a separate feeder. Afterwards, these supplements can be mixed
in the complete diet, but salt should continue to be provided ad libitum
(free choice).
 Animals should have feed available at all times including evenings. If
there is no feed left in the morning, feed supply should be increased for
the following day.
 Adjust the animals to the fattening concentrate diet over a two week
period by feeding the concentrate after the animals have
consumed enough roughage to provide bulk. Gradually increase
the intake of the concentrate every two days, while providing free
access to the basal roughage diet.
 Sort the animals by weight/size/sex and feed in uniform weight/sex
groups. Large animals tend to bully smaller animals and keep them away
from feed troughs.
 Cull non-performing animals. Some animals do not adapt to intensive
feeding irrespective of breed, sex or age. It is best to cull these animals
as soon as possible. They can be identified by their poor performance
in the initial stages of feeding.
 Feed for 90 to 120 days. The length of the feeding period depends
upon the desired animal condition and the type of ration fed. What is
desired for the export market may just be conditioning without the
amount of fat desired by the local market. Thus, animals for export can
be sold at a time when the desired condition is attained.
 Water should be available at all times. Inadequate water supply will
affect their performance.
 The animals should have shelters that protect them from adverse
environments. The shelter need not be expensive. Any building material
will do, depending on availability and financing. The shelter can be
constructed from locally available materials such as bamboo or mud
with thatched roof. Space required is about 2 m2 per animal. Shelter
should normally be open on one side. Walls up to 1.2 meters on the
other three, with a gap of 0.5-0.8 meters between the walls and roof,
to provide sufficient ventilation without draft. Muddy feedlots reduce
feed efficiency drastically; it is thus necessary to keep the premises dry.
Flooring should be included and elevated at least about 15 degrees to
facilitate cleaning and drainage. Feeding racks (silage, water, mineral and
concentrate) should be accessible to both goats and caretaker,
preferably in the front of the aisle. A feeding space of 20 linear
centimeters should be provided per animal.
 Socio-economic considerations: Sheep and goats for fattening need to
be purchased when prices are low and sold at times of peak demand
when prices are high. Feeds should also be purchased when prices are
lowest and stored. These measures are important in increasing the
profit margin of the fattening operation.

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 Health of fattening sheep and goats
It is best to use own animals for the fattening operation if available. The
second option is purchasing from the immediate village. Purchase from
the market should be taken as the last option. The incidence of
especially pestes des petits ruminants (PPR) is rampant in many areas
whenever sheep and goats from different sources are gathered in the
local markets.

Drench for internal parasites and treat for external parasites with
broad spectrum anthelmintics and acaricides respectively before the
start of the feeding operation.

Feeding finishing sheep and goats

Finishing can be accomplished with rations containing different
proportions of roughages and concentrates. The proportion depends
on the type of feeds available, the desired length of feeding and the
types of animals to be finished. Higher proportions of concentrate
feeding shorten the time required for fattening.

 Concentrates:
 High-energy concentrates are fed for energy. Grains and grain
products commonly fed are shelled corn, sorghum and wheat.
Liquid feedstuffs, such as molasses, can also be used as a source
of dietary energy. Alternative energy sources, such as fodder
beet and sweet potato can be fed to growing and finishing sheep
and goats, but in most situations performance will not equal that
obtained from grains and grain byproducts. High-protein
concentrate sources most commonly fed are cottonseed cake,
sunflower cake, brewer’s grains, distiller’s grains and other
similar feeds.

 Roughages:

 A wide variety of roughages can be fed to growing and finishing

lambs. The amount of roughage to feed depends on the
objective of feeding the roughage.

The rations used for fattening can be classified into three categories:
starter, intermediate and finishing.

 Starter: contains higher levels of roughage, 14% crude protein. The

ration is hand-fed in order to control feed consumption and identify
any sick animals or animals going off-feed. This ration is generally fed

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 for one week. For animals that have been transported long distances, it
is advisable to increase this phase to two weeks.
 Intermediate: The animals are gradually changed to the intermediate
ration containing a lower proportion of roughage to the total ration,
13% crude protein. Is hand-fed for one week.
 Finishing ration: Animals are gradually changed from the
intermediate to the finishing ration, which contains even less roughage,
with protein content initially of 13%, declining to 12% when successful
adjustment on the rations has been achieved. Finishing rations are self-
fed. The finishing ration should contain about 10% roughage which is
fed in a separate feeding trough, concentrates being self-fed. Heavy
lambs must be finished more rapidly with a high concentrate ration,
while lighter lambs can be fed rations containing more roughage.

Table 2. Sample feeding programs for finishing sheep and goats

in feed lot

Diet I (%) Diet II (%) Diet III (%)

Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg)
Ingredient To 30- 40 to To 30- 40 to To 30- 40 to
30 40 market 30 40 market 30 40 market
Ground corn 52 62 72 49 59 69 60.5 60.5 59.5
Ground corn 20 10 - -- -- -- -- -- --
cobs
Chopped grass 33 23 13 -- -- --
hay
Oilseed cake 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 11
Dried legume 10 10 10 -- -- -- 23 23 23
hay
Liquid molasses 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Dicalcium 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
phosphate
Trace mineral 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1.5
salt

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
1 Provision of facilities (stock, feeds etc) is necessary so as to
facilitate learning.
2 The condition under which practical is done vary from
institution to institution

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 3 The teachers differ in their mode of teaching so also the
students.
4 Adjustment is allowed where necessary.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 State the advantages and disadvantages of each of the methods
used in fattening.
2 Identify the animals used during the fattening period?
3 Which of the breed responds to fattening better.

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 SHEEP PRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Careful management of the pregnant, parturient and lactating ewes will
have a marked influence on the percentage of lambs dropped and
reared successfully. So, the following steps may be taken to afford
proper attention to these animals.

2.0 OBJECTIVE
Instruction in this lesson should result in students achieving the
following objectives:
1 Student should be able to understand different management
technique of class of sheep (ewe, lamb) etc.
2 Students should be able carry out the management practice of each
class of sheep.

Management of ewe
 Do not handle the pregnant ewes too frequently.
 Separate the advanced pregnant ewes from the main flock and take
effective care in their feeding and management.
 Extra feed during the latter part of pregnancy (3-4 weeks before
parturition) will be beneficial for the condition of the pre-parturient
ewes which will help in improving milk production of ewes, birth
weight and growth of lambs.
 Inadequate and poor nutrition may result in pregnancy, toxaemia,
abortions and premature births of weak lambs.
 Bring lambing ewes into lambing corals 4-6 days before parturition
and provide maximum comfort. If possible, provide soft, clean
bedding and individual lambing pens.
 Watch gestation length, which ranges from 142 to over 150 days.
Early maturing breeds have slightly shorter gestation period.
 Save parturient ewes from cold and chilly weather.

Management of lamb
 Care of lamb farm birth to slaughter age
 Average gestation period is about – 150 days
 About a week to lambing the following are observed
 Production of milk from mammary gland
 Ewe becomes nervous and excited
 Few hours to parturition, theirs expulsion of the bag containing
a fluid
 It is not uncommon to have twin birth in ewe

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 Steps
 The lamb should be able to suckle the dam 15-20mins after
birth, if this does not happened the lamb has to be assisted by
placing the ewe’s teat into the lamb’s mouth.
 Keep the ewe and lamb in a confinement for at least 24hours,
this is done in other to allow the ewe and the lamb get use to
each other.
 The livestock man should monitor closely the health of the ewe
and lamb.
 Provide for the ewe water, good quality hay, silage or freshly cut
silage.

Pre weaning management of lamb

This covers about 2-5 months

Steps
 Take care of the navel by dipping it in 7% solution of iodine to avoid
injection
 Take data of the lamb (see farm records)
 Provide creep feeding under intensive condition when ewes are
milking
 The feeding is separate from that of the mother

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
1 The facilitator/teacher should ensure students take part in all
demonstrations/practicals.
2 The facilitator/teacher should teach in a simple way for easy
understanding by the students.
3 Adjustment can be made where necessary.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 What are the problems likely t be encountered during pre-
weaning management.
2 How can you improve lamb management in tropical
environment?
3 How can ram production be improve through management?

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 GOAT PRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The domestic goat is a subspecies of the wild goat of southwest Asia
and Eastern Europe. It is a member of the bovine family, and is closely
related to the sheep, both being in the "goat antelope" group. Domestic
goats are one of the oldest domesticated species. For thousands of
years, they have been used for their milk, meat, hair, and skins all over
the world. In the last century they have also gained some popularity as
pets.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
Instruction in this lesson should result in students achieving the
following objectives:
1 Student should be able to understand different management
technique of class of goat (buck, doe, kid) etc.
2 Students should be able carry out the management practice of each
class of sheep.

3.0 STEPS
Management of breeding goat stock
Steps
 Bucks intended for breeding should be kept in good condition.
 Provide adequate amount of food because poorly fed goat are
sluggish and tend to have reduce libido (the keenness to mate).
 Reduce high phosphorus diet because it reduces fertility in terms
of sperm quality.
 Avoid Vitamin A and iodine deficiency (deficiency cause reduce
libido)
 Exercise yard should be provided
 Dehorned bucks regularly and the hooves should be trimmed to
reduced limpness.
 Provided good pasture.
 In absence of pasture provide concentrate up to 0.75kg /
day/buck.
 Two (2) weeks before and during breeding season, increase the
level of concentrate by 0.45 to 0.9kg.
 To achieve good breeding efficiency mating should be 1:50 (hand
mating).
 1:40 (pasture mating)

Management of breeding does

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 The Management of breeding does is related to Physiological phases:
 The dry period
 Pregnancy period
 Lactation period

Dry period
This is the period when the does is last productive
Place the does or high level of nutrition (flushing) usually done
for dairy goats).
 Provide exercise yard
 Nanny kids (yet to reproduce should not be breed too fat). Age
of puberty is between 6-7 months.
 Pregnancy period
 During the last 6-8 weeks of frequency, the doe should be
placed on high level of nutrition (steaming up).
 Period enough water and mineral lick
 At last week of pregnancy, concentrate of about 0.3 to 0.5kg
should be given.
 Uneasiness, restlessness, sitting down and getting up, smelling
the ground, appearance of water bag are the signs of parturition.
 Watch the doe closely coming kidding which should be
completed in 2 to 3 hours whish may be longer in cases where
the doe produce more than 1 kid.
 Observe the doe careful in case (Dystocia) and also size of the
foetus can also pose difficulty during kidding.

Lactation period
 Provide enough pasture and concentrate to the lactating doe.

Management of kids
 Immediately after with, clean the air passages if the kids is that
breathing
 Use straws and tickle the nostril or tongue of the kind to
stimulate respiration
 If it still doesn`t breath take it by its hind leg and turn it upside
down for some time or poor cold water on the kind or give it
kiss of life (month to month respiration)
 After all these and it still doesn’t breath the it may die or survive
and be very weak
 Take care of the navel by dipping it in 7% iodine solution to
prevent infections.

4.0 CONCLUSION

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 The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
1 The facilitator/teacher should ensure students take part in all
demonstrations/practicals as students readiness to learning vary
2 The facilitator/teacher should teach in a simple way for easy
understanding by the students.
3 Adjustment can be made where necessary.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 What are the problems likely to be encountered during pre-
weaning management?
2 How can you improve kid management in tropical environment?
3 How can buck production be improve through management?

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 PASTURE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The rate of growth of forages in a pasture is directly related to how
well the pasture has been managed, not only in recent grazing periods,
but also during the previous winter and back through the prior grazing
season. Pastures that were managed poorly during the prior year will
not respond as quickly and will not produce the optimum quantity of
forage during the current year. All other factors being equal, the better
a pasture is managed the more forage it will produce, up to the
capability of the soils and the site conditions.

In addition to better pasture production, the soil, water, and wildlife

resources will be greatly enhanced by a managed grazing system. A
greater percentage of rainfall will infiltrate into the soil instead of
leaving the pasture as runoff. Any runoff that does occur will be
cleaner, carrying little, if any, sediment. Soil erosion will be greatly
reduced and you may have a net building of the soil. Habitat for wildlife,
especially song birds, will be enhanced through diversification of cover
type, height, and stage of maturity.

The management strategies discussed below can be tailored to your

pasture situation, relating directly to the forages that are currently
growing and to those desired in the future, and considering the kind
and class of livestock utilizing the pastures.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this exercise the student should be able to.
 Understand production of pasture.
 Management strategies of pasture.

3.0 PROCEDURE
Identify and Manage Sensitive Areas
Many pastures are used for grazing because there are severe
environmental limitations precluding the use of the area for cropland.
Some of these limitations include wetness, droughtiness, steep slope,
stoniness, and south/southwest slope exposure.
The following sensitive areas are commonly found and delineated:

• Wooded areas, including savannas

• Native prairie remnants
• Steep slopes
• Shallow or thin soils

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• Organic soils
• Springs or seeps
• Riparian areas
• Wetlands, ponds, lakes
• Streams, rivers
• Areas that commonly flood
• Conservation structures
• Areas with threatened or endangered species
• Areas with archeological significance.

Subdividing Pastures
The most important step to take in improving the yield of pastures is to
subdivide the pasture into several paddocks. This has the effect of
allowing for a rest period for the forages on the majority of the
pasture, while improving the efficiency of harvest for the area being
grazed.

Two common methods of subdividing pastures are “strip grazing”, and

“set
paddocks”.

When to terminate grazing

Grazing below a specified residual stubble height (4 inches for tall cool
season grasses, and 2 inches for short cool season grasses) will remove
active growing points, which will cause the grasses to regrow from
buds on the roots. This requires an extra 7-10days of growing time and
weakens the root by drawing upon stored food reserves for
this regrowth.

Management Prior to a Killing Frost

 Allowing the forages to regrow some prior to a killing frost is an
extremely important pasture management strategy.
 New buds, which will be next years’ grass shoot, are developed
during the fall of the year.
 Pastures that are allowed to rest for 30 days prior to a killing frost
will emerge from dry season dormancy 7-10 days earlier in the
rainy. This represents a significant
extension of the grazing season.

Sacrificial Paddock Use and Management

A sacrificial paddock is a portion of one of the paddocks that will
intentionally be utilized for a holding area while the remainder of the
paddocks rest. This takes place when soil conditions are very wet, very
dry, or when the forage production has diminished and no paddock is
ready to graze.

17
 Sacrificial paddocks should be selected with care. Sensitive areas should
not be
used for sacrificial paddocks, nor should areas that are prone to
erosion, areas that would be very difficult to rejuvenate, or areas that
are difficult to get to with feed equipment. In addition, water for the
livestock needs to be available.

Managing Forage Balance

The most difficult aspect of managing grazing systems is dealing with the
variable rate of forage growth.

To even out the forage balance on a monthly basis, the following

strategies are
often used:

• Using a rotational grazing system will reduce the depth of the

midsummers lump, and it will delay the onset of the slump in
forage production.

• Utilize warm season grasses to fill in the slump that normally occurs
in midsummer for cool season forage based systems.
• Use an annually seeded crop as forage during the summer.
• Hay fields that have been harvested for the first crop can be used for
grazing
instead of taking a second crop.
• Some of the paddocks can be harvested as hay in the spring during
the time of rapid forage growth.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
1 Provision of bag of land for pasture demonstration is necessary so
as to facilitate learning.
2 The condition under which practical is done vary from institution to
institution
3 The teachers differ in their mode of teaching so also the students as
regards to level of understating.
4 Adjustment is allowed where necessary.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 Differentiate between production and management.
2 State the advantages and disadvantages of pasture production.
3 Cultivate pasture and harvest during FPY/SIWES.

18
 ESTIMATING OF AGE USING DENTITION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Both sheep and goats have a total of 32 teeth. They do not have any
upper incisors. The dental formula for sheep and goats is as follows:

0/4 incisors, 3/3 pre-molars, 3/3 molars. The first number in each
formula represents how many sets of teeth are on the upper jaw; the
second number indicates how many sets of teeth are on the lower jaw.
For example, the 0/4 means that sheep/goats have no upper incisors,
but have 4 sets of lower incisors (8 lower incisors in all). Most of the
time the dental formula looks like this 2 (0/4 incisors, 3/3 pre-molars,
3/3 molars) = 32. All baby sheep and goats are born with deciduous
teeth (teeth that will fall out). Deciduous teeth are much smaller than
permanent teeth. The deciduous teeth are replaced with permanent
teeth as the animal ages.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
When you have worked through this material you should be able to:
 carry out dentition in farm animal.
 discuss the main reasons why dentition is done in farm animals.
 describe the different types of teeth.

3.0 PROCEDURE
Table 3: sheep and goat dentition
Permanent Tooth Eruption in
Sheep and Goats
Permanent
Age at Eruption
tooth
Incisor (I1) 1-1.5 years
Incisor (I2) 1.5-2 years
Incisor (I3) 2.5-3 years
Incisor (I4) 3.5-4 years
Premolars 1.5-2 years
Molar (M1) 3 months
Molar (M2) 9-12 months
Molar (M3) 1.5-2 years

19
Sheep Dentition

Fig. 2 Dentition of an aged goat Fig. 3 Dentition of a yearling sheep.

(about 10 years old). Two incisors are permanent (black
arrows). All the incisors are
permanent and worn.
The black arrow shows where
this goat is missing an incisor
tooth.

Fig. 4 Fig. 5
Dentition of a 2 year old sheep. Dentition of a 2 year old
sheep.
Four incisors are permanent (black arrows). Four incisors are permanent
(black arrows).

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Fig. 6 Dentition of a 6-8 year old sheep. Fig. 7 Dentition of an
extremely aged sheep
Notice the wide spacing between the teeth. (from 8-12 years of age),
frequently referred to as a
"broken mouth." Notice how
this ewe has severely
worn or missing teeth, with
receding gum lines
Goat Dentition

Fig. 8 Fig. 9
Dentition of a goat 2 weeks of age. Dentition of a
goat 10 months of age.
All the teeth are baby or deciduous teeth. All the teeth are
baby or deciduous teeth.

21
Fig. 10 Fig. 11
Dentition at 1.5-2 years of age. Dentition of a 3 year
old goat.
Four incisors are permanent (black arrows). Six incisors are
permanent (black arrows).

Fig. 12
Dentition of an aged goat (about 10
years old).
All the incisors are permanent and
worn.
The black arrow shows where this
goat is missing an incisor tooth.

22
Table 4: Cattle Dentition

Cattle age at occurrence

Full Wear
Teeth Eruption
development
Incisors
18 to 24 24 months Leveled at 5 to 6 years, noticeable
Pinchers
months wear at 7 to 8 years
1st 36 months Leveled at 6 to 7 years, noticeable
24 to 30
intermediate wear at 8 to 9 years
months
pair
2nd 48 months Leveled at 7 to 8 years, noticeable
intermediate 36 months wear at 8 to 9 years
pair
42 to 48 60 months Leveled 9 years, noticeable wear at 10
Corners
months years
Premolars
1st cheek 24 to 30
tooth pair months
2nd cheek 18 to 30
tooth pair months
3rd cheek 30 to 36
tooth pair months
Molars
4th cheek 5 to 6
tooth pair months
5th cheek 12 to 18
tooth pair months
6th cheek 24 to 30
tooth pair months

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
1 Students should be able to determine the age of an animal using
dentition.
2 The condition under which practical is done vary from
institution to institution.
3 Students should actively practice the skills learned.
23
 4 Adjustment is allowed where necessary.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 Differentiate between in cattle and small ruminants.
2 Which of the methods is more suitable for young animals?
3 State the difficulties encountered during dentition.

6.0 REFERENCES
Food Safety Inspection Service. (2013). Using dentition to age cattle.
U.S. Dept of Agric., Washington, D.C.
http://www.fsis.usda.gov/ofo/tsc/bse_information.htm

National Animal Health Monitoring System. (2010). Beef 2007-09. Part

IV: Reference of beef cow-calf management practices in the
United States, 2007-08. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C.

Pace, J. E., and D. L. Wakeman. (2003). Determining the age of cattle by

their teeth. CIR253. Florida Cooperative

Torrell, R. (1998). Methods of determining age in cattle. Cattle

Producer’s Library: CL712. University of Nevada, Reno, NV.

24
 DETERMINATION OF BODY WEIGHT

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Proper measurement of live body weight, which often is hard in the
village settings due to lack of weighing scales, is a prerequisite for
achieving so many lofty goals that are always associated with either
medical or economic status of the animals. Knowing the live
bodyweight of small and large ruminants is important for a number of
reasons, such as for breeding, correct feeding and health (Slippers et al.,
2000). Apart from taking live weight of meat animals, researchers also
use other parameters such as body length, width of pelvis, height at
withers and chest girths in order to adequately evaluate live animals
(Atta et al., 2004). Under standard conditions properly calibrated
livestock scales are the most accurate and consistent method for
determining body weight. Under farm conditions however, where
scales and records may be absent, it may be difficult to know the
weight of sheep and goats (Abegazand Awgichew, 2009). Some of
these standard weighing scales coupled with their shortcomings are too
expensive for most of small farmers (Mahieu, 2011). This has forced
many farmers to rely on estimates of body weights using certain
number of body characteristics which can be measured readily (Aladeet
al., 2008).

2.0 OBJECTIVES
When you have worked through this material you will be able to:
o weigh farm animal.
o discuss the main reasons why weigh is done in farm animals.
o describe the different types of weighing facility.

3.0 PROCEDURES FOR ESTIMATING WEIGHT OF SMALL

RUMINANTS
 Weight band:
 Briefly, the weight band is wrapped directly behind the
shoulder blade, down the fore-ribs, under the body behind
the elbow and all the way around to the point behind the
shoulder blade.

 The ends of the weight band are overlapped on top, on the

goat’s spine. Lastly, the resultant weight measurement is read off
the weight band in kilograms.

 Visual appraisal: Visual determination of the weight of animals

is often faced by errors like using the same estimate for more
than one breed of a particular species (Otoikhian, 2008). Body
structure can be deceptive when estimating weight (Slippers et
al., 2000). For instance, Red Sokoto goats appear lighter than
25
 they actually are because of their light bones. Apart from bones
and body structure problem in estimating weight, a white animal
always looks bigger than it is (Otoikhian, 2008).

 Body Linear Measurements: There are a number of linear

dimensions which can be used to quantify the size of an animal
and to estimate weight. The most widely used body linear
measurements include height at withers, heart girth, chest depth,
body length, fore cannon bone, rump height, distance between
eyes, ear length, ear width, paunch girth and tail length. Heart
girth and cannon bone length are least affected by the posture of
the animal. Abegaz and Awgichew (2009) described the linear
measurement as follows:

 Height at Withers (HAW). This measures the distance from

the surface of a platform on which the animal stands to the
withers. The measurement is best made with a special measuring
stick made with two arms one which is held vertical and the
other at right angles to it sliding firmly up and down to record
height. The sheep or goat should stand squarely on all four legs.
The legs should be equally spaced, and carry equal portions of its
weight. The vertical arm of the measuring device is placed on the
ground and ensures it is at a right angle to the platform. Then
the other shorter arm is slide down until it just touches the
shoulder at the desired point. The vertical measuring device is
withdrawn and the distance is measured with a measuring tape.
Alternatively, the vertical arm could have the measuring scale
inscribed onto it and height read directly. This method can be
used alone or in combination with the other linear
measurements to get more accurate results.

 Heart Girth (HG) or Chest circumference: Heart girth is a

circumferential measure taken around the chest just behind the
front legs and withers. The measurement should be taken to the
nearest 0.5 cm. HG is a highly repeatable measure though it
does vary somewhat with extremes of posture and perhaps as
the animal breaths.

 Body Length (BDL): Body length refers to the distance from

the base of the ear to the base of the tail (where it joins the
body). It can also be measured as the distance from base of tail
to the base of the neck (first thoracic vertebrae), or to front of
the chest or to tip of the nose. Extreme care is needed to
ensure that the backbone is straight in both vertical and
horizontal planes.

26
  Hip Width (Pin Bone Width) (HW): Hip width is the
distance between the outer edges of the major hip bones on the
right and left side. The hipbones are easily located and the
distance between them easily measured with a pair of large, half
round or oval shaped callipers.

 Rump Height (RH): Rump height is the distance from the

surface of a platform to the rump using a measuring stick as
described for height at withers.

 Fore Cannon Bone Length (CB): This is the length of the

lower part of the leg extending from the hock to the fetlock in
hoofed mammals. It is a well-established fact that linear
development of different bones in the body is strongly related.
 Chest Depth (CD). Chest depth measures the distance from
the backbone at the shoulder (standardize on one of the vertical
processes of the thoracic vertebrae) to the brisket between the
front legs.

a Precautions while taking body linear measurements

Since the animal body movement and body posture can
introduce errors into measurements and estimated weights,
Abegaz and Awgichew (2009) suggested the following
precautions to be taken in order to counteract these effects:

i. When possible, choose measurements that are little affected by

the animal’s posture
ii. Standardize the position of all animals that are to be compared
iii. Be patient and wait for an animal to stand correctly.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
1 Provision of weighing facilities is necessary so as to facilitate
learning.
2 The condition under which practical is done vary from
institution to institution
3 The teachers differ in their mode of teaching so also the
students.
4 Adjustment is allowed where necessary.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 Select different class of sheep and goat and determine their
weight.
2 Which of the methods is more suitable for young animals.

27
 3 State the advantages and disadvantages of each method used.

6.0 REFERENCES
Abegaz, S. and K. Awgichew. (2009). Technical Bulletin No.23:
Estimation of weight and age of sheep and goats. A.Yami, T.A.
Gipson, and R.C. Merkel, eds. Ethiopia Sheep and Goat
Productivity Improvement Program (ESGPIP). Ethiopia.

Afolayan, R.A., I.A. Adeyinka and C.A.M. Lakpini. (2006). The estimation
of live weight from body measurements in Yankasa sheep.Czech
J. Anim. Sci. 51(8): 343-348.

Alade, N.K., A.O. Rajiand, and M.A. Atiku. (2008). Determination of

appropriate model for the estimation of body weights in goats.
ARPN J. of Agric. Bio. Sci. 3(4): 52-57.

Atta, S., A.O. Okubanjo, A.B. Omojola and A.O.K. Adesehinwa. (2004).
Body and carcass linear measurements of goats slaughtered at
different weights. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 16(8).

De Villiers, J.F., S.T. Gcumisa and S.A. Gumede. (2010). Weight band to
estimate the live weight of meat goats. Agri Update: Information
from the KZN Department of Agriculture, Environmental
Affairs and Rural Development, South Africa.

Otoikhian, C.S.O., A.M. Otoikhian, O.P. Akporhuarho and C.

Isidahoman. (2008). Correlation of body weight and some body
measurement parameters in Quda sheep under extensive
management system. Afr. J. Gen. Agric. 4(3): 129-133.

28
 CASTRATION

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Castration is an important management practice for sheep and goat
farmers to maintain control of their breeding program and successfully
carry out breed improvement. Castration is the removal or
destruction of the testes, epididymis and a portion of each spermatic
cord from a ram/buck. In most cases, non-breeding males and males
not slaughtered at a young age should be castrated.
Traditionally, farmers do not castrate animals and both males and
females are allowed to run together. The result is that inferior males
mate with females passing on undesirable traits and the young stock
produced are not very productive. There are also other reasons for
castrating sheep and goats:

2.0 OBJECTIVES
When you have worked through this material you will:
o be aware of the extent of castration practices in farm animal.
o the main reasons why animals are castrated.
o be able to describe the process of animal castration and its
consequences.

3.0 METHOS OF CASTRATION

There are three commonly used methods of castration for sheep/goats:
the Burdizzo method, the banding or elastrator method and the knife
(surgical) method.
The different methods are more suitable for different sizes and age of
animals, e.g., the elastrator method being more suitable to very young
animals. It is good to match castration method to size and age of
animal.

a. THE BURDIZZO EMASCULATOME (METHOD)

Fig 13. The whole Fig 14. Head of the

instrument burdizzo

29
The following step wise procedures and figures show the castration of
sheep/goats using the burdizzo.

Step 1. The animal should be properly restrained by

the assistant. The operator grasps the scrotum in one
hand and manipulates the testes down into the scrotum.
He then locates the two spermatic cords between the
fingers and pushes one cord over to one side of the
scrotum. This is the first cord to be crushed (Fig 15).

Step 2. Place the jaws of the burdizzo onto the upper

scrotum, leaving the rudimentary teats above the
crushing point. Do not crush the septum or tissue
between the testicles. Rather, do one side of the
scrotum at a time (Fig 16).

Step 3. Clamp the burdizzo over the cord on the side

of the scrotum you are doing first. You cun generally
hear a clicking sound as the cord is crushed. Leave the
instrument closed for 20 to 25 seconds or the time it
takes to count from one to 25. The spermatic cord is
very elusive when you try to crush it. Be sure that you
feel it within the jaws of the burdizzo before and after
the jaws are closed. You can tug on the cord to see if it
feels ruptured (Fig 17).

Step 4. Release the Burdizzo, move it lower to a new

site about 1 cm closer to the testicles and close it again
to be doubly sure that the cord is crushed. A site below
the first crush is chosen to minimize acute pain from a
second crush (Fig 18).

30
 Step 5. Locate the cord on the other side of the
scrotum and position the burdizzo over it. Close the
burdizzo and repeat what you did with the first cord
(Fig 19).

Step 6. When you are done, you may see a mark on

each side of the scrotum. The animal may be sore and
move slowly for about a day. Be sure to encourage it to
move around. At first the scrotum will swell up a little,
but the testicles will gradually shrink over the next few
weeks leaving a small scrotal sac (Fig 20).

Fig.21. Crush sites for Fig.22. Post castration changes: uncastrated buck (left);
burdizzo castration buck castrated 5 weeks earlier (right)

b. THE BANDING OR ELASTRATOR METHOD

 This method involves cutting off the blood supply to the
testicles with a heavy-duty rubber band or ring.
 Materials needed include an elastrator and castrating bands.
An elastrator is a special applicator that stretches a heavy-
duty rubber band and applies it to the neck of the scrotum.
 The scrotum and testes will fall off in two to 4 weeks,
depending on the size of the testicles.

31
 Fig.23. Elastrator tool used to apply rubber rings Fig.24. Elastrator band (ring)

Fig.25. Inserting an elastrator ring

Fig.26. Proper placement of the rings.
onto the scrotum.

This method causes some stress to the animal due to the pain and
discomfort experienced by the constricting band, especially for 10 to
15 minutes after the elastrator band is applied. Follow these
procedures to castrate lambs/kids using the elastrator method:

PROCEDURE
 Do not use rings older than 12 months to avoid breakage and to assure
a tight fit. The rings must be strong enough to cut off blood flow in the
arteries as well as the veins. If not, the scrotum will swell.
 Restrain the animal as described above.
 Place a rubber ring over the prongs of the elastrator. Hold the
elastrator with the prongs facing up. Close the handles to open the
band. The scrotum and testicles are then passed through the expanded

32
 hole of the band. Position it as close to the animal's body as possible,
with care taken not to place the band over the rudimentary teats or
involve the penis.
 Release the elastrators displacing the ring from the prongs, thereby
positioning the band. The band will return to its original shape cutting
off circulation to the testicles and eventually causing all of the tissue
below the band to die and fall off.
 Check to be sure both testicles are still in the tip of the scrotum and
that the ring is placed properly (Figure 8). If not, cut the ring with
scissors and repeat the procedure.
 Administer an injection of tetanus antitoxin. Even though this is a
bloodless procedure, the tetanus organism can gain entry through the
irritated tissue around the rubber ring.
 Check daily to be sure that the rubber band is still around the neck of
the scrotum and for signs of infection.

c. THE KNIFE METHOD

 The testicles may be surgically removed.
 Materials needed include a clean and sterile sharp knife, a one-
sided razor blade or a scalpel, warm water; disinfectant (iodine
can be used), syringes, tetanus antitoxin and a fly control spray
designed to be sprayed on open wounds.
 Bucks and rams older than 6 months may need to be sedated
prior to castration using a knife.

To perform a knife castration, follow these procedures after

the animal is restrained by the assistant. Begin by washing your
hands and instruments (knife or scalpel) thoroughly with soap and
water and then disinfectant. Next, wash the scrotum thoroughly and
disinfect it. Do not excite the lambs, kids or calves before or
immediately after castration. This will increase bleeding.

 Push the testicles high up into the scrotum. Cut off the bottom one-
third of the scrotal sac with a cut parallel to the ground. The testes
should now be visible. Manipulate each testis separately to the open
end of the scrotum. It may sometimes be necessary to push on the
abdomen if a testicle has been pulled deep into the abdomen.

33
4.0 CONCLUSION
This lesson has attempted to discuss the different methods of
castration in farm animals.
1 Students should be able to identify the different equipment for
castration.
2 Student’s level of understanding of the subject matter vary.
3 Teaching should be made simple for the students.
4 Adjustment should be where necessary

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1. Identify the types of castration methods used in your FPY/SIWES
research institute/organization or farm.
2. State the advantages and disadvantages of each method of
castration practiced during the FPY/SIWES.
3. What are the limitation in the use and practice of castration in
Nigeria? Discuss

34
 IDENTIFICATION
1.0 INTRDUCTION
Animal identification is a process done to identify and track specific
animals. It is done for a variety of reasons including verification of
ownership, biosecurity control, and tracking for research or agricultural
purposes.
Proper identification of sheep and goats is essential for the maintenance
of systematic farm records, feeding of required quantity of nutrients,
better management practices and individual care of the animals. It is
also an essential requirement for the registration of pure-bred animals
and to make selections of breeding stock and sale animals.
A number of systems can be used for identification. Some, such as
stencils, are temporary and are meant to be used until more permanent
methods are instituted; others, such as tattooing, are permanent.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
Instruction in this lesson should result in students achieving the
following objectives:
1 Identify animals using different method of identification.
2 Should be able to use the equipment for identification.
3 Should be able to use identified animals to establish a systematic
farm record.

3.0 METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION

a. Tattoo
Animals can be tattooed on any part of their skin that can be seen but
the ear is the may be used in leather production. Marking ears avoids
damaging the skin which may be used in leather production. The
process involves making a series of pierced marks through the ear
rubbing in Indian ink. The equipment required is:
 Lettering
 Indian ink
 Methylated spirits
 Tattooing pliers
 Records

Procedure
1 Place the letters of figures in the tattooing pliers and test on paper.
2 An assistant holds the animal in standing position.
3 Clean the ear of ax and dirt with methylated spirits.
4 Smear ink on the inside of the ear.
5 Line up pliers between ear blood vessels in middle of ear

35
 6 Squeeze pliers with quick firm movement to penetrate skin
(assistant restraining the animal)
7 Remove pliers and rub more ink into holes using a stiff brush.

b. Ear tagging
Procedure
1 Dip the tags and applicator in disinfectant.
2 Write the number on the tag before tagging.
3 Restrain the animal in standing position.
4 Clean ear with methylated spirits.
5 Clip tag into ear with applicator, avoiding ear veins.
6 The tag is best placed as near to the head as possible to reduce the
chances of ripping.

c. Ear Notching
Many purebred breeders do not like to use ear notches because it
detracts from the appearance of the animal. A simple system of
notching that can be read and interpreted easily should be used. For
example, notches in the top of the left ear (1), bottom of the left ear
(10), end of the left ear (100), centre of the left ear (1000), top of the
right ear (3), bottom of the right ear (30), end of the right ear (300),
and centre of the right ear (3000).

Procedure
2. Hold the animal by the head and use a pair of ear notchers to remove a
V-shaped piece of tissue from the edge of the ear to notch the correct
numbers.
3. Apply some antiseptic to the notches.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusions should serve as guidelines for the
facilitator/teachers;
1 Most of the farms d not have all the equipment for identification
2 Student’s level of understanding of the subject matter vary.
3 Teaching should be made simple for the students.
4 Adjustment should be where necessary

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 Identify animals using any of the identification methods.
2 State the advantages and disadvantages of the method used
above
3 Which of the method will be acceptable by the local farmers?

36
CATCHING AND HOLDING OF SHEEP AND GOATS EASILY

SHEEP
Catching a sheep the right way should be easy. Doing it the wrong way
is stressful both for the shepherd and for the sheep.
If the sheep that need to be caught is not placid or familiar with human
contact, and cannot be approached directly, it should be walked
together with few other sheep into a corner or small pen. The sheep
can then be caught and in the following way.
1) Grasp the sheep by the neck or upper part of a back leg.
2) Put one hand (your right) on its muzzle and turn its head slowly but
firmly sideways (to its left). The sheep will fall to the ground.
3) Take hold of the top of the front legs. One in each hand, and tilt the
sheep into a sitting position, with it leaning slightly backwards against
your legs.
4) The sheep is now relaxed and you can trim its hoofs or examine its
udder.

NB: Some shepherd use a crook to catch sheep. A crook is a strong pole, about
1.5m long, with a hooked end. A neck crook has a large hook to fit around the
neck of a sheep. A leg crook has a small hook to fit around.

GOATS
Catching and restraining a goat
The easiest way to catch a goat is to bribe it with food! If this fails a group
of goat can be herded into a pen or enclosure from where individual
animals can be caught. Approaching from the side and catching the horns,
leg or neck usually succeed. The goat can be manhandled to sitting position
by:
1. First reaching under the belly and gently pulling the two furthest legs
towards you.
2. With the goats now on its side lean over to catch both front legs, back
up the goat towards you so that it sits on its bottom.

An alternative method is to up one hand of the shoulder and one under

the neck and carefully twist the goat into the sitting position. Mind the
horns! Feet can now be examined and hooves trimmed.

37
 ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION TECHNIQUE
Insemination in different animals has different techniques especially the
timing because animals at different time relative to the onset of estrus.
There are basically 2 major methods (rector-cervical and older
speculum method.

A THE SPECULUM METHOD

PROCEDURE
 With the speculum method semen usually can be deposited only 1-
3cm into the external uterine OS or posterior Portion of the
cervical canal.
 The equipment consist of a glass or metal speculum, and
inseminating tube and a light source.
 A sterile lubricated speculum is inserted into the vagina and cervix
located by the aid of a light.
 The inseminating tube is the inserted through the speculum and into
the external uterine OS or posterior part of the cervical canal as far
as possible after which the semen is expel or deposited.
 Here there is no manipulation of the cervix to allow for deeper
deposition of the semen into the body of the uterus.
 Due to some obvious reason, the fertility rate is low.
 In an investigation it was found that fertility is about 9.7% lower in
this method than in recto-vaginal technique.

B THE RECTO-VAGINAL TECHNIQUE

In this method the equipment consist of an inseminating tube or
catheter which is 5-6mm outside diameter, 40-45cm long and a syringe.
The inseminating tubes are single service or disposable connected
directly to plastic tubes.

The principal steps for carrying out insemination are:

 Put on clean rubber or disposable plastic gloves and sleeves.
 Connect sterile inseminating tubes to syringe or inseminating tubes
and drawn in 1 ml of diluted semen.
 Place the load tube in horizontal position with portion near the
syringe end in the mouth.
 Lubricate glove and sleeves.
 Carefully insert the hand and arm into the rectum and remove
faeces if necessary.
 Clean the exterior of the vulva with cotton or paper toweling and
inside edge of the lips of the vulva with fresh cotton.
 Insert inseminating tubes into the vulva as far as possible without
touching the inside surfaces.
 Pass the tube along the roof of the vagina, thus avoiding the urethra
and it reaches the cervix.

38
 With the hand in the rectum, press downward in the rectal wall
grasp the cervix and guide tube into external uterine OS with the
aid of thumb and a little finger around the posterior end of the
cervix
 Combine gentle the forward pressure on the tube and manipulation
of the cervix by rotatory movement from wrist until the desired
extent of penetration is achieved.

39
 ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

1.0 INTRODUCTION
AI is the preferred method of introducing superior genes from
individuals free of specific disease and thereby improving the
production of offspring. AI is also useful for breeding animal outside of
their natural breeding, after oestrus has been induced and synchronized
by manipulation of the photoperiod or the use of hormones. It permits
the production of adequate quantities of milk and equalized the need
for labour through the year. Semen used for out of season breeding can
be frozen-thawed or liquid-stored if collected from ducks, rams and
cattle held under artificial light in order to simulate the short days of
the natural breeding season. Although higher pregnancy rates may be
obtained with trans-abdominal insemination than with cervical
insemination the former method may be prohibited due to ethical
consideration.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this exercise, you should be able to.
 Discuss semen collection techniques through live animal’s
practices.
 properly handle, thaw and prepare semen for insemination.

3.0 PROCEDURE FOR SEMEN COLLECTION

A THE USE ARTIFICIAL VAGINA
 The preparation for the artificial collection is important. The normal
pattern of service routine should be adhered to procedure for semen
collection
 Estrus cows should be put into the service yard.
 Bull is retrain as usual and lead up to the estrus cow. This is to lease
the bull by allowing it to see and smell the cow and the lead it away so
that it does not mount immediately
 This usually cause complete creation and libido become sub-hormones.
 AU the usual technique of collection is to have the bull lead up to the
cow and operator stand to the right of the cows laid quarter.
 The bull noses the cow’s perinium, depresses its back and makes a
precaution pumping movement during which there is prostration of the
penis and discharge of accessory secretion.
 Mounting then occurs and the bull makes some poking movement of
the penis.
 At the point the operator grape the sheath of the bull with his left hand
and direct it to the right of the cow’s lined quarter so that the
defected penis enters into the Artificial vagina (AV) which is held in the
operators right hand.

40
 Usually when the penis makes contract with the woman lubricated
surface of the AV, a vigorous ejaculation, thrust occur.
 The AV which is held horizontally is now held upright s that the
ejaculation flows into the graduated tube.
 In case where the bull fertility is being investigated, attempt should be
made to collect at least 3 semen samples.
 Bull should be not be shouted at or beaten during semen collection.
 All things should be done quietly.

B THE USE OF ELECTRO EJACULATOR

 It is commonly use in practice to collect semen from young bull for
semen evaluation on at AI centers.
 Electric current for a can battery or from main suppliers or transistor is
suitably modified to a 30 or 50 frequency cycle and carried by means of
electrode set into a metal probe which are passed into the bull rectum.
The probe are held over the ampullae and stimulations are applied
increasing waves by varying the resistance
 At first low voltage and latter voltage of 15-20v and then semen drips
would be seen from the protruded penis.
 The drip sample from the electrical stimulation gives a greater value of
ejaculation

C RECTAL MASSAGE
 The technique involves the introduction of the lubricated hand and arm
into the bull’s rectum to locate the seminal vesicle.
 Struck the seminal vesicle against the penis.
 This cause accessory fluid to drip from the sheath hairs
 The ampullas are then found if possible between fingers and thumb.
 If this becomes a failure struck toward the urethra may be done
 A disadvantage of the message method is that samples obtained are not
representative of the true ejaculate.

Advantages of AI
AI is used several reasons. There include:
i. It spread more widely the merits of a top quality sire i.e. more
females can be inseminated in a wide area with semen from a proven
sire without the sire moving from one place to another.
ii. AI allows for the elimination of the cost and risk of maintaining a sire
for a small herd or flock.
iii. This permits the use of a desirable but proven quality sire.
iv. Presents the spread of certain reproductive disease.
v. Permits the easier use of exotic breed bulls which is otherwise
difficult to maintain in a harsh environment.
vi. Improve record keeping for performance tenting since exact dates of
conception can be known.

41
 vii. It allows for a good co-ordination with estrus synchronization
program.
viii. It helps in eliminating size differences between sire and dams.
ix. Permits the use semen from sire several year’s even they might have
been dead. And this can help in various research programs.
x. Sterility in bull can be easily be detected.
xi. It saves time to carry out AI than under natural mating.

Disadvantages of AI
i. It requires a trained personal
ii. The equipment to be used be costly or even unable to the local famers
iii. The behaviors of indigenous animals especially cattle makes it difficultto
practice AI. Heat detection is difficult and it is not easy for the
indigenous bulls to mount or ejaculate by means of artificial vagina.
iv. The poor infrastructural facilities available makes it difficult to supply or
perform AI.
v. The extensive use of AI tends to reduce the market for bulls.
vi. When poor or dirty equipment are used can be a source of disease or
infections injuries to the dams.
vii. If a female is inseminated wrongly when it is not in estrus, this can lead
to permanent sterility or lead to disease called matritis or if pregnant
can lead to abortion, feotal death or maternal illness.
viii. In the event of dilatrous trial in a bull being used for AI, such a trait
becomes widely spread, which will take time for climate.

Preparation of slide for estimating sperm mortality

All surface that will come into contact with semen should be clean and
sterile this include the glass slide, the cover glass and the glass rod.

STEPS
i. The first step to take is to warm the slide but this should be should be
done carefully not to get hot.
ii. Place one drop of warm (380C physiological saline 0.9g NaCl in 100mls
distilled water) or sodium citrate buffer (Na3C6H7.2H2O) on the pre
warm slide.
iii. Invert tube of raw semen gently 2 or 3 times of place a very small
amount of semen in saline or citrate buffer. If semen has been diluted,
there will be no need for the use of this saline or citrate buffer.

Diluents or Extenders for liquid semen

If desired or required, fresh semen can be successfully used for
insemination within 24 hours of collection without dilution phial
containing it is corked and stored in a beaker of water at temperature
before transferring it to refrigerator at about 40C for satisfactorily used
in AI however, semen must be diluted at least 4 times its volume of
diluents or extenders and its fertility must be retained at least 4 days.

42
 For this purpose special diluent or extenders has been device in
addition to dilution provides a buffer to maintained a constant P H and
nutrient and antibiotics with sulphonamides. The diluent which have
more extensively used are:

A Egg Yolk citrate diluent

Procedure
1) Dissolve 2.9g of crystalline sodium citrate dehydrated in 180 double
distilled water over glass.
2) Wash fresh eggs obtained from a disease free flock, sack them in 70%
alcohol you 5 minute and then dry them before braking shall.
3) Using a septic precaution, separate the egg yolk from albumen as
completely as possible puncture the yolk membrane and collect the
yolk from a stainless glass container.
4) To mix 100mls of diluents mix 20mls of egg yolk and 80mls of sodium
citrate buffer solution.
Some workers use higher proportion of yolk to citrate than the 1:4
proportion up to equal parts of the 2 ingredients.

B Boiled skimmed milk diluent

Procedure
a) It requires adequate heating of milk to destroy a factor known as
lactanin which is toxic to sperm.
b) It is done by first obtaining fresh homogenized pasteuralised milk or
fresh pasteuralised milk (skimmed) from a reliable creamery of dairy
plants.
c) You should avoid fresh skimmed milk fortified with milk solid.
Homogenized milk containing vitamin D or activated ergosterol is
however, satisfactorily.
d) Using an accurate thermometer heat the milk to 92 0 - 950C and hold it
this temperature for 10mins in the top portion of covered glass double
boilers or in a covered vessels placed directly on a heated plate.
e) Cool the milk to room temperature and add required level of
antibiotics and store at 50C until ready for use. It is usually prepared a
day before use.

B Milk glycerol diluent:

Procedure
a) Diluent the semen to one half the final disease perm concentration
with fresh previously heated and cooled skim milk or homogenized
milk containing antibiotics.
b) Cooled partially diluted semen slowly to 50C over a period of 4 hours.
c) Add an equal volume of cooled milk diluent containing 20% glycerol by
volume for best sperm availability, the milk glycerol fraction must be
added gradually. You can do the addition as follows:-
i. Add step wise 20,30 and 50% of the milk at 10min interval

43
 ii. You can add in 3 equal volume in 10min interval
iii. Add drop wise from a separatory funnel continuously over a period of
30min.
iv. The final concentration of glycerol is now 10% and diluent is ready for
pouring into test tubes and packaging for shipment. You do not need
to wait for equilibration.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
1 Provision of the necessary facility to facilitate teaching.
2 Teaching should be simple since level of understanding amongst
students vary.
3 Students should demonstrate the practical skills learned.
4 Adjustment can be made where necessary.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 State the advantages and disadvantages of each of the extenders
used.
2 Among the methods of semen collection practiced, which is the
best and why?
3 Which of the diluents is easier and safer t prepare and why?

Fig. 28. Bull mounting a dummy for semen collection

44
Techniques of heat detection/gadgets
Different signs are studied carefully for detection of heat. Heat
detection aids are very important tools for efficient reproductive
management if used in combination with expert eye. Cows with
detector combination with expert eye. Cows with detector (KaMaR)
plus CHALK marking on tail were more efficient than detector alone.
Visual observation with tail paint is 98 % efficient as compared to heat
watch alone i.e. 91 %.

The secondary signs of heat include;

 Frequent urination, chin resting, back rubbing, walking along
fences, loss of appetite and sudden drop in milk production.
Other supportive sign include licking, sniffing, head lift up, lip
curling, and flehman's reaction (up curling of lips by female or
male after touching the genitalia of raged animal).
 Willingness to amount other cows, even though neither cows
may be willing to stand for the mount
 Roughened tail head or mud on the rump, which is evidence that
other animals have tried to mount her.
 Restlessness which may be indicative of a cow about to exhibit
heat (cows in pre-heat may bawl more than usual, head-butt the
face, sniff or lick other cattle)
 Clear stringy mucus discharge which may be hanging from the
vulva or meared on the pin-bones or rump of a cow about to
have estrus or one already in estrus. Bloody mucus often
appears 2-3 days after entrus has occurred and should be
recorded in order to closely watch for heat in 17-21 days.

Physical sign of estrus include

 The tumefaction of vulva,
 reddening of vulva (bright cherry pink color),
 excess mucus discharge and tone in uterus.
 Closeness in animals coming into heat usually congregates and
form small groups of three to five animals called sexually active
group (SAG). It is easy to detect heat if sexually active group
exist in herd.

Heat detection gadgets

1 Vaginal pH
2 Vaginal smear
3 Measurement of vaginal conductivity using probe
4 Fern pattern of cervical mucus discharge
5 Endometrial biopsy
6 Cervical mucus glucose content:
7 Uterine tone

45
8 Change in parlor behavior
9 Milk yield fluctuation
10 Temperature measurement
11 Heat expectancy charts
12 Tail painting
13 Use of androgenized cow
14 Chin ball device
15 Heat expectancy charts
16 Gomer bulls
17 Bio stimulation
18 Pressure sensitive KaMaR or BeaCon heat detector
19 Electronic heat mount detector
20 Heat patch with visible colour change
21 Pedometer and activity meters
22 Video camera and recording using CCTV
23 Electronic odour detector
24 Milk progesterone Detection
25 Heat detection by 17β-estradiol and P4 in milk
26 Infra red spectroscopy and magnetic resonance spectra
27 Synchronization of estrus

46
 OESTRUS SYNCHRONIZATION

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Estrous synchronization gives many beef cattle producers the
opportunity to capture the economic benefits of artificial insemination
(AI). Because AI involves a substantial investment of labor and time,
most commercial farms or ranches will not utilize this technology
unless this investment can be confined to a period of less than 5 to7
days. To make the labor requirements of AI compatible with modern
beef cattle breeding, the estrous cycle must be synchronized so that a
high percentage of treated females show a fertile, closely synchronized
estrus.

There are three primary methods of estrous synchronization available

for beef producers who breed cattle artificially or who wish to
synchronize estrus for natural breeding:
• prostaglandin injections
• “progesterone-like” ear implants and estradiol/progesterone
injections
• a combination of an orally active progesterone (MGA) and
prostaglandin

2.0 OBJECTIVES
Instruction in this lesson should result in your achieving the following
objective:
 synchronize female animals.

3.0 PROCEDURE

Table 5. Examples of Work Schedules for Synchronization.

Using Prostaglandin only:
Scheme 1.
May 1 May 5 May 5-11 May 12
Heat detected Inject all Continue to Turn in
and breed others heat detect Clean up
purchase not breed for 6 bulls
prostaglandin previousl days
from y
veterinarian detected
in heat
scheme 2
April 10 April 18 April 29 April 30-May May 6
Purchase Inject all Inject all 5 Turn in
prostaglandin eligible eligible Heat detect Cleanup
from females females and breed bulls
47
veterinarian
Scheme 3
April 25 April 28 April 29 May 9 May 16
Purchase Inject all Heat detect Inject all Turn in
prostaglandin eligible and breed females not Clean up
females previously bulls
detected in
heat.
Continue to
breed on
detected
heat

Using
‘’synchro-
mate B’’
April 17 April 20 April 29 May 1 May 5
Purchase Put Remove Breed by Turn in
Implants and implants implants; appointment, clean up
injections in and Separate return calves bulls
give calves from to cow
injection cows. Begin
heat
detection
and
inseminatio
n
Using MGA
and
prostaglandin
s
Scheme 1
March 15 March 28 April 11 April 28 May 6
Order feed Start Remove Inject all Turn in
with MGA feeding MGA from cows and clean up
MGA to feed heifers with bulls
all eligible prostaglandin
cows and .
heifers Heat detect
and breed
for 6 days
Scheme 2.
March 15 March 28 April 11 April 28 May 1 May
Order feed Start Remove Inject all Breed all 6
with MGA feeding MGA from cows and females not Turn
MGA to feed and heifers with previously in
48
 all eligible heifers prostaglandin inseminate clea
cows . Heat detect d n up
and breed bulls
for 72hrs

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
5 The facilitator/teacher should provide the facility to facilitate
learning.
6 Teachers differ in their mode of teaching so also the students.
7 Adjustment is allowed where necessary.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 Carry out synchronization using any of the methods studied.
2 How do you manage animals for synchronization?
3 State the advantages and disadvantages of synchronization of heat.

6.0 REFERENCES

Nellor JE, Cole HH (1956): The hormonal control of estrus and

ovulation in the beef heifer. J Anim Sci.15:650-661, 1956.

Miksch ED, LeFever DG, Mukembo G, Spitzer JC, Wiltbank JN (1974):

Synchronization of estrus in beef cattle II. Effect of an injection of
norgestomet and an estrogen in conjunction with a norgestomet
implant in heifers and cows.

Pursley JR, Mee MO, Brown MD, Wiltbank MC (1994): Synchronization

of ovulation in dairy cattle usingGnRH and PGF2α. J Dairy Sci
77(Suppl 1):230 (Abstr).

49
 MILKING UTENSILS

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The milk secreted from cow’s udder is usually sterile. It invariably
becomes contaminated during and after milking by the milker, milking
equipment’s, utensils, cooling , storage and while processing. Milk is a
good medium for bacteria, yeasts and moulds that are the common
contaminants. The contamination of milk from improperly cleaned
utensils/ cans is about 60%, accounting for highest level of contributor.
Dairy farmers/producers have responsibility of producing milk under
clean and hygienic conditions, protected from contamination by dirt at
all times, employing appropriate techniques to clean and disinfect the
milking equipment, Utensils and storage cans. The ability of raw milkto
retain its quality under storage, and the safety of the product for the
consumer, can both be directly related to the bacterial content of the
milk. Good quality milk is essential for production of good quality dairy
products. In most countries, bacterial content is one of the factors
considered in determining the payment for milk.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
Instruction in this lesson should result in your achieving the following
objectives:
 be able to sanitize utensils.
 be able to identify quality milking utensils.
3.0 SAMPLES OF MILKING UTENSILS

Fig. 29 Fig. 30

50
Fig. 31 Fig. 32

Fig. 33 Fig. 34

Fig. 35

51
 Procedure for cleaning the milking utensils
1 Pre-rinsing with Water: Pre-rinsing with cold or lukewarm water
should always be carried out immediately upon emptying the
vessels. Otherwise, the milk residues will dry and stick to the
surfaces, making them harder to clean. If there are dried milk
residues on the surface, it may be disadvantageous to soak the
equipment, to soften the dirt and making cleaning more efficient.
2. After rinsing scrub utensils/pails thoroughly with a suitable
brush, using hot water and efficient dairy cleaner. About 15 g of
the mixture will be required for cleaning a utensils of 10 litre
capacity.
3. Follow the washing up on scrubbing with hot water. The
temperature water should be more than 50°C.
4. Wash the utensil again with enough cold water (tepid water in
cold season)to remove traces of detergent.
5. Sanitise the cleaned utensils with acceptable sanitizing agent
(iodophors/chlorine solutions (50-200ppm of active
compound))to kill/disinfect the utensils.
6. Properly cleaned vessels should be placed in inverted position
for the complete drainage of water, so as to avoid contamination
from air, insects, rodents, reptiles etc.
7. Dry cleaned utensils should be stored in dust, dirt and other
contamination protected area.
8. Hot water sterilization-the temperature should be as near the
boiling point as possible and never below 85°C. The utensils
should be immersed for 20min, but where it is not possible,
boiling water should be poured over the milk-contact surfaces
till they are too hot to touch.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
 Provision of different types of milking utensils is necessary
so as to facilitate learning.
o Teachers differ in their mode of teaching so also the students.
o Adjustment is allowed where necessary.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 List the different types f milking utensils used in your place of
FPY/SIWES
2 identify the best product to be used in the milk industry to avoid
cases of rusting.
3 Identify milking utensils and there uses.

52
 METHODS OF MILKING

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The milk process requires several important steps. The purpose
of these steps is to elicit optimal milk letdown, minimize the
chances of a cow contacting mastitis organisms during milking,
and efficient milk removal.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
Instruction in this lesson should result in students achieving
the following objectives:
a. Student should be able to differentiate between
hand and machine milking.
b. Student be able to identify quality milking
utensils.

3.0 METHODS OF MILKING

A Hand Milking
 Cows are milked from left side. after let down of milk,
the milker starts milking teats either cross wise or fore
quarters together and then hind quarters together or
teats appearing most distended milked first few streams
of fore milk from each teat be let on to a strip cup.
 This removes any dirt from the teat canal and gives the
operator a chance to detect mastitis.
 Milking is done either by stripping or by full hand method.
Stripping is done by firmly holding the teat between the
thumb and fore finger and drawing it down the length of
the teat and at the same time pressing it to cause the milk
to flow down in a stream.
 Grasping the teat with all the five fingers and pressing it
against

B Machine Milking
Modern milking machines are capable of milking cows
quickly and efficiently, without injuring the udder, if they
are properly installed, maintained in excellent operating
conditions, and used properly. The milking machine
performs two basic functions.
 It opens the streak canal through the use of a partial
vacuum, allowing the milk to flow out of the teat cistern
through a line to a receiving container.
 It massages the teat, which prevents congestion of blood
and lymph in the teat.

53
 Advantages
 The advantages of this milking machine are manifold. It is
easy to operate, costs low, saves time as it milks 1.5 litre
to 2 litres per minute.
 It is also very hygienic and energy-conserving as electricity
is not required.
 All the milk from the udder can be removed.
 The machine is also easily adaptable and gives a suckling
feeling to the cow and avoids pain in the udder as well as
leakage of milk.

Fig. 36

4.0 CONLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
1 Students should be shown different types of milking
machines.
2 Students should learn to operate milking machines.
3 Students should also practice hand milking.
4 Adjustment is allowed where necessary.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 Differentiate between hand machine milking.
2 State the disadvantages of machine milking.
3 How do you handle milk after milking?

54
 DRENCHING
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Deworming (sometimes known as worming or drenching) is the
giving of an anthelmintic drug (a wormer, dewormer, or drench) to a
human or animal to rid them of helminths parasites, such as
roundworm, flukes and tapeworm.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
Instruction in this lesson should result in your achieving the following
objectives:
 be able to understand drenching technique
 be able carry out drenching procedure with minimal assistance

3.0 METHODS
Procedure
1) Put the liquid into a bottle with a long neck, or put a short piece of
plastic or rubber tubing over the neck of a bottle. The best type of
bottle for drenching is a long-necked wine bottle. A Coca-Cola
bottle is a good alternative.
2) Hold the sheep in a standing position with its head slightly up.
3) Put the end of the bottle or tube into the back of the mouth above
the tongue
4) Tip the bottle so that the liquid run slowly out into the mouth and
is swallowed.
A pill or bolus can sometimes be given by placing it, with the
fingers, at the back of the sheep’s mouth and pushing it down the
esophagus. An easier method, if treating many sheep, is to use a
commercial balling gun.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
1 The facilitator/teacher should make sure the students themselves
demonstrate the use of drenching gun.
2 The facilitator/teacher should properly supervise the students
during demonstration.
3 Students should also learn the construction of drenching gun using
local materials.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 What are the short comings observe in the use f coca cola
bottle for drenching?
2 Discuss the side effects of drenching.
3 When is the best time to drench an animal and why?
HOOF TRIMMING
55
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Keeping hooves short and in good condition is very important because
lame goat will be lose condition. Where animals travel across hard or
stony ground their hooves tend to wear and require no trimming.
Hoof trimming is an essential part of sheep and goat management.
Flocks should be checked on a regular basis for hoof growth.
Overgrown hooves may make walking painful, predispose the animal to
other foot and leg problems, and competing for feed difficult. This may
cause sheep and goats to stop eating and exercising. Animals with
overgrown hooves are also very susceptible to joint and tendon
problems and arthritis. Also, breeding animals use their hind legs
during mating; mating and reproductive performance of a flock may
seriously be affected if hooves of breeding males are not trimmed.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
Instruction in this lesson should result in your achieving the following
objectives:
1 be able to carry out hoof trimming.
2 know when to dehoof and animal on the farm.
3 Students level understanding vary hence teaching should be made
simple by facilitators/teachers.

3.0 PROCEDURE
Hooves are trimmed with sharp knife or foot clippers as follows
1. Restrain the goat in either sitting or standing position
2. Take one leg and clean the soil and any loose material from under
and between the hoof.
3. Clip or slice away the excess nail on the outside of the hoof until it
is the same height as the inside. Cut thin slice until confident enough
to avoid cutting the soft tissue because bleeding and discomfort to
the goat.
4. The heel should also be trimmed to the same height.
5. If the hoof is very long it will not be possible to trim it to an ideal
shape at one trimming session. Where the hoof is peeling away at
the side, remove any loose materials but do not clip up side to
expose the soft tissue.
6. After trimming treat the feet with either
(a) Iodine; (b). Antibiotic spray (c) 10% solution of formalin or
copper sulphate.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;

56
 2 Provision of dehoofing equipment is necessary so as to facilitate
learning.
3 The condition under which practical is done vary from institution to
institution
4 The teachers differ in their mode of teaching so also the students.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 Discuss safety measure to be taken during hoof trimming.
2 State the procedure of handling a particular specie of animal for
hoof trimming.
3 When is the best time to carry out hoof trimming and why?

57
 DEHORNING

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Dehorning/disbudding: Horns on animals can and do cause bruises and
other injuries to animals. Horns can also be a hazard to people and
equipment. Dehorning/disbudding is the practice of removing an
animal’s horns or horn buds, depending on the age of the animal and
the stage of horn growth. Dehorning/disbudding should be done
between 7-10 days of age for goats and prior to 3 months of age for
cattle. It should be pointed out that perhaps the most simple and
effective method of dehorning is to select polled breeding stock (not
always possible within some breeds and species).
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Instruction in this lesson should result in students achieving the
following objectives:
 Students should be able differentiate between disbudding and
dehorning.
 Should be able to carry out dehorning/disbudding

3.0 METHODS OF DEHORNING

A. Chemical Method
 Involves the use of alkalis e.g. CaOH, KOH, NaOHetc can be
applied. Usually the chemicals are applied in the form of paste.
Procedure
 Clip the hair around the horn bud, this is done in order to
expose the bud
 Apply petroleum jelly e.g. Vaseline around the bud to prevent
chemical from touching other areas e.g. the eyes.
 Rub the paste on the horn bud until a little bit of blood occurs.
 It should be applied or calves of 3-10days old
B. The hot iron method (Electric cauterizer)
Procedure
 In this method the iron is electrically heated until red hot usually
above 5000C and a caplide end is pressed firmly on the bud until
the matrix cell are destroyed and not more than 10 seconds.
 Care must be taken s that the iron should not go deeper to the
head.
 This method is carried out on cattle that are over 3 months and
below.
 It requires more time and it’s painful

58
C. The use of clippers and saws
Procedure
 It’s is carried out on cattle that are over 3 months of age
 It is a bloody operation
 It involves the use of clippers or saws to saw off the horn
 It should be done in cold weather so as to avoid pain
D. Cosmetics dehorning
 It involves the use lidocaine along the base of the horn
 Stich the skin around the bud before applying

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusions should serve as guidelines for the
facilitators/teachers;
1 Care should be taken during dehorning/disbudding exercise
2 Students vary in understanding the subject matter taught
3 Teaching should be made simple for the students
4 Adjustment should be made where necessary
5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT
1. Carry out dehorning/disbudding exercise using any of the
methods.
2. State the advantages and disadvantages of dehorning/disbudding
3. When is the best age to dehorn/disbud?

59
 RANGE FENCING

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The most effective and long lasting fences are planned with correct
layout and built with appropriate material and construction. The cost of
a properly built fence often returns its value in a short time. It is most
important to be aware of any regulations and zoning ordinances that
pertain to the type of fence being built. When fences are built near
property borders it is essential to know the exact location of the
boundary lines.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this exercise the student should be able to.
 Identify the different types of livestock fencing.
 Student should be able to construct simple fence among the ones
studied.

3.0 TYPE OF FENCES

A Fence Post Options
Fence posts can be simple or they can be fancy. From metal t-posts to
wooden locust posts, each option has its pros and cons. Here are a few
of the options to consider when purchasing fence posts.

1 Metal T-posts:
T-posts come in a variety of sizes from 4 ft to 8ft. They usually come in
bunches of 5 and are easy to find at your local farm store.
Pros:
 T-posts are easy and quick to install. And require only a t-post driver
or even just a sledge hammer.
 Often less expensive than wood posts
 Reusable, moveable and long lasting
Cons:
 Not as aesthetically pleasing as wood posts
 They require the additional purchase of clips or insulators in order to
attach your fencing.

2 Store Bought/Treated Wood Posts:

Treated wood fence posts are usually round posts that come in sizes
ranging from 6-8ft. They are easily found at your local farm supply or
home improvement store.
Pros:
 Uniform shape and size
 Posts are resistant to rot, which increases their lifespan
Cons:
 Most posts are treated with chemicals that are not healthy for people
or the soil

60
  Heavy and cumbersome to carry
 Requires digging 1-2 foot holes in order to support the posts
 More expensive than t-posts

3 Locust Posts:
Split locust fence posts are a way to get wooden fence posts without
the chemical treatment. You can usually find them locally ranging from
6-8 ft and sometimes longer.

Pros:
 Locust posts are naturally resistant to rot and require no chemical treatment
 Posts have a long lifespan
 They have a very natural, rustic look
Cons:
 Locust posts are not uniform in shape, size or looks. Depending on
your personality, this can either be a good or bad thing
 They are harder to find
 The cost is usually higher than metal posts, but usually less than
treated, store bought posts
 Like other wood posts they are heavy and require a deep hole to
secure them in the ground

4 Step-in Posts:
Steeps-in post light-weight posts used primarily for temporary pastures.
They are most often made of fiberglass or polypropylene.
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Pros:
 Inexpensive with no extra materials required to secure your wire to
the posts
 Very quick to install, using nothing more than your foot to push them
into the ground
 Good for dividing pastures
Cons:
 Due to their lightweight nature they cannot be used for large animals
or animals that will test a fence
 Shorter lifespan
 Can only be used with electric wire, tape or netting

B Fence Wire Options:

Just like with your posts, you have a lot of different choices when it
comes to wire. This is where you need to decide the purpose of your
fence- what do you want to keep in our out? Not all wire is created
equal and knowing the answer can help you decided what is best for
your farm needs.

61
1 Welded Wire
About:
Welded wire fencing is constructed by welding the connections
between the horizontal and vertical wires of the fence. It can be
purchased in a variety of gauges and most commonly comes with 2″x4″
mesh openings in heights between 3 ft and 5ft.
Use:
Welded wire fencing is not quite as strong as its woven wire
counterpart, so it is best used with animals who will not lean or stand
on the fence. It is a great option for a chicken run or garden fence as
well as used as a guard to protect trees from deer or livestock.

2 Woven Wire
About:
Woven wire fencing is constructed with a wire knot at the junctions of
the horizontal and vertical wires. It comes in lengths from 50ft to 330 ft
and in a variety of mesh opening sizes and heights.
Use:
Woven wire fence is a durable, long lasting fencing option for livestock.
Depending on your needs, you can choose “goat fence” with smaller
openings and strong construction to prevent animals from putting their
heads through and to withstand impact from the animal leaning or
standing on the fence. Larger animals or those who don’t stress a fence
can have wider openings.

3 Field Fence
About:
Field fence is a specific type of woven wire fence. It typically comes in
rolls of about 330ft and is much less expensive than other types of
woven wire fences. The mesh spacing is variable, ranging from 3 inches
to 7 inches, with the bottom spaces being closer together and the top
farther apart.
Use:
Field fence is best for low impact animals or if you need a secure, full
fence for a large area. It is great for keeping deer out of a garden or for
fencing a dog run.

4 Barbed Wire
About:
Barbed wire fencing consists of 2 strands of wire that have been
twisted together, with barbs placed every 3-5 inches throughout the
length of the fence.
Use:
Barbed wire fencing is best used for large animals such as cattle or
bison. It cannot be used safely with animals such as goats, sheep, llamas
or alpacas. It can also be used as a perimeter fence for you property or

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 in conjunction with a woven or welded wire fence. Most barbed wire
fences are made up of 5 strands of wire.

5 Electric Wire
About:
An electric fence is made up of multiple strands of high tensile wire. It
requires the additional use of a fence charger, grounding rods and
insulators. Most electric fences consist of 4-5 strands of wire.

Use:
Electric fencing is a durable, long lasting and flexible way to build a
fence. It is a good option for goats, sheep, pigs, cattle, horses and
llama. They are a good deterrent for keeping predators out as well as
your livestock in. Keep in mind that, an electric fence is only a
psychological barrier and may not be the best option for very head
strong animals- such as a buck in rut. Electric fencing can be used as a
permanent fence, temporary fence, or to divide pasture.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusions should serve as guidelines for the
facilitators/teachers;
1 Students should be shown the different types of fences studied.
2 Students vary in understanding the subject matter taught.
3 Teaching should be made simple for the students
4 Adjustment should be made where necessary

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1. Identify fence suitable for young and older animals.
2. State the advantages and disadvantages of the different fencing
systems.
3. Draw sketches of the fence studied.

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 BODY CONDITION SCORE

CATTLE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Body condition scoring serves as a useful, easy-to-use management tool
to determine the nutritional needs of a cow herd. Using a numeric
scoring system from 1-5 for sheep and goat, 1 to 9 for cattle, livestock
man can evaluate animals in the field to estimate body energy reserves.
This information can be used to adjust feeding strategies to reach
optimal BCS. Since body condition greatly affects reproductive
performance as well as feeding efficiency, monitoring body condition
using BCS can greatly influence a producer’s bottom line.

Body condition scores are also important in establishing selection tools

provided by the American Angus Association. Along with yearling data
and cow weight, which should be taken 45 days before and 45 days
after a calf’s weaning measure date, BCS are essential in calculating
improved mature cow expected progeny differences (EPDs) in the
National Cattle Evaluation (NCE). These EPDs will then be used in the
Weaned Calf Index ($W), which was released in the spring 2005 NCE.
Cow weights submitted without BCS will not be used to calculate
mature size EPDs.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this exercise the student should be able to.
 The different types of body condition score of farm animals.
 Students should know the significant of body condition scoring in
livestock production.

3.0 PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING BODY CONDITION

SCORE
Body condition of cattle
BCS1
No photos available.
Bone structure of shoulder, ribs, back, hooks and pins is sharp to the
touch and easily visible. Little evidence of fat deposits or muscling.

BCS 2
No photos available.
Little evidence of fat deposition but some muscling in the hindquarters.
The spinous processes feel sharp to the touch and are easily seen with
space between them.

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65
66
Body condition score of sheep

67
Body condition score of goat

68
 Figure 1
Visual aspect of the goat:
Emaciated and weak animal,
the backbone is highly visible
and forms a continuous ridge.
The flank is hollow. Ribs are
clearly visible. There is no fat
cover and fingers easily
penetrate into intercostal
spaces (between ribs).
The spinous process of the
lumbar vertebrae
can be grasped easily between
the thumb and
forefinger; the spinous process
is rough, prominent, and
distinct giving a saw-tooth
appearance. Very little muscle
and no fat can be felt between
the skin and bone. There is a
deep depression in the
transition from the spinous to
transverse process.

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6.0 REFERENCES
Khan, K., H.H. Meyer and J.M. Thompson. (1992). Effect of prelambing
supplementation and ewe body condition score on lamb survival
and total weight of lamb weaned. Proceedings Western Section
American Society of Animal Science 43:175.

Russel, A. (1991). Body Body condition scoring of sheep. In: E. Boden

(Ed.) Sheep and Goat Practice. p 3. Bailliere Tindall, Philadelphia.

Angus Productions Inc. (2014).Body condition scoring (The cattle

producers resource) http://www.cowbcs.info/photogallery.html

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 FORAGE CONSERVATION
HAY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Forages can be conserved to feed livestock during periods of shortage
caused by limited pasture growth or inadequate pasture conditions, or
fed as a supplement. Conserved forages can take the form of hay,
haylage, and silage. Although several methods have been proven as
efficient ways to store and preserve forages, it is important, to keep
this fact in mind: At best, conserved forages can rarely match the nutritive
value of fresh forage because some losses of highly digestible nutrients (sugar,
protein, and fat) are unavoidable during conservation and storage. Our goal
in forage conservation is to focus on minimizing losses, which start
immediately after cutting.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
Instruction in this lesson should result in students achieving the
following objectives:
2 Student should be able to understand forage conservation
technique.
3 Students should be able carry out the process of hay production.
4 Differentiate between hay and silage.

4.0 PROCEDURE
Basic method of hay making
 Forage is cut before it is fully mature (long before it has seeded), to
maximize its nutritive value. Although cutting hay early will result in
lower total volume, the increase in nutritive value will more than
compensate for reduced yields.
 Leaves are more nutritious than the stems, and so when cutting forage,
it is important that it is cut with as much leaf and as little stem as
possible.
 Do not leave cut forage to dry in a moist environment, as this will
encourage the growth of moulds. These can be extremely harmful to
livestock and to people handling it.
 The cut forage is laid out in the sun in as thin a layer as possible, and
raked a few times and turned regularly to hasten drying.
 Chopping forage into small pieces after drying will hasten the dying
process.
 The drying process may take between 2 to 3 days.
 Hay should not be over dried as it may start to ferment and also
become a fire hazard.
 The dried hay should ideally be stored in form of bales when the
moisture content is low, ideally less than 15%. This helps storage and
requires less space.

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 Storage of hay
 Hay must be stored in a dry environment.
 Hay can be baled and stored under cover or can also be stored by
creating hay stacks. Stacks may be covered by plastic sheets to keep
out rain and prevent from exposure to excessive sun.

Problem with hay making

 If hay is dried in a moist environment, for example during heavy rains
season, mould may grow on the hay. These moulds can be extremely
toxic to animals as well as the people handling it.
 In such cases it is advisable to wait till the end of the rainy season
before cutting the forage. This may lead to lower nutritional content in
the hay, but this is better than toxic hay. The resultant may be
supplemented with other feeds.
 On the other hand, drying the hay too fast may lead to shattering of
the delicate parts of the plant, causing a subsequent loss of nutrients.
 To avoid this, drying can be done in barns by passing hot air through
the forage. Although artificial drying produces hay of good quality, it is
expensive, but can be attempted on a community basis in areas where
there is a need, and the necessary facilities. (NR International,Livestock
Production Programme

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
1 Provision of hay making facility is necessary so as to facilitate
learning.
2 The condition under which practical is done vary from
institution to institution
3 The teachers differ in their mode of teaching so also the
students.
4 Adjustment is allowed where necessary.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 Differentiate between silage and haylage.
2 State the advantages and disadvantages of hay making.
3 State the precautionary measures to be taken during hay.
production.

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 SILAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Silage is the final product when forage of sufficient moisture (> ~50%) is
conserved and stored anaerobically (oxygen-free), under conditions
that encourage fermentation of sugars to organic acids. The acidity
generated by the organic acids (mainly lactic acid, but also acetic and
propionic acids) and the lack of oxygen prevent the development of
spoilage microorganisms. Three of the most critical factors for silage
production are (1) rapid removal of air, (2) rapid production of lactic
acid that results in a quick lowering of the pH (this is the result of
adequate fermentation processes), and (3) rapid feedout once the silo
is opened and exposed to air to avoid heating and spoilage.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
Instruction in this lesson should result in students achieving the
following objectives:
5 Student should be able to prepare silage using the technique
learned during the FPY/SIWES.
6 Students should be able construct a local silo.
7 State the advantages and disadvantages of silage.
3.0 PROCEDURE
Phases of silage fermentation
An overview of the four phases of the silage production process.
The phases are as follows:
1. Aerobic: This phase usually lasts for approximately one day. During
this period, plant cells and microbes will metabolize sugars and starch
in the presence of oxygen, generating heat in the process. Silage
temperature is elevated to about 90°F, and water may be lost (as
seepage) because of respiration and compaction. If anaerobic conditions
are not achieved quickly, high temperatures (>120 °F) and prolonged
heating will occur due to the growth of unwanted aerobic bacteria,
yeast, and molds that compete with beneficial bacteria for substrate.
Therefore, it is critical to ensure good compaction, proper moisture,
and good sealing, all of which lead to a rapid transition to anaerobic
conditions.

2. Fermentation: Once anaerobic conditions are achieved, lactic acid

bacteria and other anaerobes start to ferment sugars into lactic acid,
mainly, and other organic acids to a lesser extent (such as acetic and
propionic) that will drop the silage pH from about 6.0 to a range of 3.8
– 5. Alcohols such as ethanol will be generated too, but with no
contribution to the acidification process. Rapid decrease in pH prevents
breakdown of plant proteins and helps inhibit growth of spoilage

73
 microbes. Consequently, lactic acid production is preferred to ensure a
low silo shrink. The fermentation phase usually lasts from one week to
more than a month, depending on crop and ensiling conditions.
3. Stable: As long as anaerobic conditions are maintained, silage can be
stable for months and up to years. However, under practical
conditions, silage should be used within a year of its production. Slow
entry of air through areas that were not properly sealed can slowly
deteriorate material, thus silos should be constantly checked and
maintained to avoid any potential break of seal integrity.
4. Feedout: Once a silo or bale is opened, it should be used as quickly as
possible to avoid aerobic deterioration of the material. When oxygen
becomes available in the ensiled material, yeasts metabolize the organic
acids, which in turn cause the pH to increase, and further restarts the
aerobic activity (such as molds), causing greater silage spoilage. The
design of a typical silo face should allow for the daily removal of
approximately 6 inches of face material (for reference, each 6-inch daily
removal is equivalent to one week of exposure to air). Silo opening
should occur only after the fermentation phase has been completed
(that is, after three to six weeks). The suggested approach is to wait
approximately two to three months before opening a silo.
Differences between Silage and Haylage
The main difference between silage and hayage is the initial dry matter
(DM) concentration level at which the forage is clipped and packed to
achieve optimum anaerobic and fermentation conditions. Three
different moisture levels can be achieved: high-moisture silage (≤ 30%
DM), medium-moisture silage (30% to 40% DM), and low-moisture
(wilted) silage (40% to 60% DM). Low-moisture silage is referred to as
haylage. When baled and wrapped, haylage is referred to as baleage.
High-moisture silages are more prone to potential seepage losses (that
is, effluent or leachate from the silo), undesirable secondary
fermentation (resulting in butyric acid, which results in a rancid smell),
and high dry matter losses (silo shrink). On the other hand,
preservation as haylage depends more on achieving adequate packing
(high density) to maintain anaerobic conditions. Achieving high density
at packing is more difficult in drier forage. Nevertheless, high density is
critical in haylage to maintain anaerobic conditions because microbes
are less active and fermentation is lower in haylage than in higher
moisture silage.
Management Practices for Making Better Silage
Crop factors
An ideal crop to be ensiled should have an adequate level of sugars
(measured as water-soluble carbohydrates) to be fermented, low
buffering capacity (that is, the resistance to changes in pH), and a stand
with a dry matter concentration above 20% (McDonald et al., 1991).

74
Moisture
Moisture concentration affects the rate and extent of fermentation.
Forages should not be ensiled with more than 70% moisture (or less
than 30% DM concentration) due to potential seepage losses and
growth of undesirable bacteria (such as clostridia), which results in
undesirable fermentation. Wilting is needed in most cases when ensiling
grasses and legumes.

Particle size
The optimal particle chop length is a balance between the particle size
needed to achieve good compaction in the silo and the effective fiber
requirements of ruminant livestock, especially lactating animals. The
recommended theoretical length of cut (TLC) is 3/8 to 1/2 inch for
unprocessed corn and legume silages, and 3/4 inch for kernel-processed
corn silage (Muck and Kung, 2007). Sorghum silage should have a
similar TLC to corn silage and grasses, and cereal silages should have a
similar TLC to legume silages. Kernel processing is highly
recommended when making corn silage to improve starch digestibility.
Kernel processing should not be done, however, if whole plant DM
concentration is less than 30% due to risk of increased seepage losses.

Packing density
Attaining a high density in a silo is important because it determines the
porosity at which air moves into the silo and subsequently the amount
of spoilage that occurs during storage and feedout. Silage density is
influenced by DM concentration, TLC, and packing intensity.

Sealing
Good sealing with plastic sheets and concrete barriers will keep the
carbon dioxide in and prevent oxygen from entering the silo. Care
must be taken to seal any holes with UV-resistant tapes, especially in
low-moisture silages where porosity is greater.

Additives
Several types of additives are available that can be used for silage
making. Additives can help in every phase of silage making.
Nevertheless, good harvesting practices are the main drivers of silage
quality. In general, additives can be classified as stimulants or inhibitors
of fermentation, and nutrient sources (Kung et al., 2003). Specific
effects of additives include the following:

 Provide fermentable carbohydrates

 Inhibit undesirable types of bacteria and promote desirable
bacteria
 Furnish additional acids (such as propionic acid) directly to
decrease pH

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  Modify moisture (Table 4)
 Extend aerobic stability during feed out (bunk life)

4.0 CONCLUSION
The following conclusion should serve as a guide to the
facilitator/teacher;
1 Provision of silage production facilities (silo) is necessary so as to
facilitate learning.
2 The condition under which practical is done vary from institution to
institution
3 The teachers differ in their mode of teaching so also the students.
4 Adjustment is allowed where necessary.

5.0 PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1 Differentiate between silage and haylage.
2 Prepare silage and determine the pH and colour.
3 How do you control the acidity during silage production?

6.0 REFERENCES
Kung, L., M.R. Stokes, and C. J. Lin. 2003. Silage additives. In Silage
science and technology, pp.305-360. D.R. Buxton, R.E. Muck, and
J.H. Harrison, eds. ASA-CSSA-SSSA Publishers, Madison, WI.

McDonald, P., N. Henderson, and S. Heron. 1991. The biochemistry of

silage. Chalcombe Publications, Aberystwyth, UK.

Muck, R.E., and L. Kung. 2007. Silage production. In Forages: the

science of grassland agriculture, pp. 617-633. R.F. Barnes, C.J.
Nelson, K.J. Moore, and M. Collins, eds. Blackwell Publishing,
Ames, IA.

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