DEFENCE FORCES TECHNICAL COLLEGE

DIPLOMA IN AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(AIRFRAMES AND ENGINES OPTION)

PRESENTED BY: BONFACE OMBUNDA

COLLEGE NO: 408101

SERVICE NO: 112019

PRESENTED TO: THE KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATION COUNCIL FOR

PARTIAL

FULFILMENT OF AWARD IN DIPLOMA IN

AERONAUTICAL

ENGINEERING

[AIRFRAMES AND ENGINES OPTION]

SUPERVISOR: CAPT BETT

SERIES: JUNE /JULY 2022

SERIES: JUNE/ JULY 2020

I do hereby declare that this research report is a result of my own independent effort and

investigation and has never been submitted to any other institution of higher learning for any

academic award.

NAME: NG’ANG’A ESBON KIBE

SIGN……………………………… DATE………………

Supervisors’ Approval

This is to certify that this work has been submitted for examination with my approval as the

institution’s supervisor.

NAME: LT COL KIGEN

SIGN……………………………………………... DATE…………………………

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My special thanks and honor to the Almighty God, in whose power, strength and might I be

able to walk through this tough time. I acknowledge this project as a reputable world class

academic institution, its leadership and entire staff and my fellow students. I also extend my

sincere thanks to my supervisor whose guidance, encouragement and inspiration enabled me

to produce excellent work. I would also wish to extend my sincere gratitude and appreciation

to all my course mates for their continuous encouragement when I felt like giving up due to

pressure at campus

Finally, I acknowledge in a special way and recognize my parents and other family members

for any hand invested in my academics.

May God bless you all abundantly

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 DEDICATION

This research project is dedicated to my parents and my siblings for their encouragement,

financial support, moral support and spiritual empowerment. I also dedicate to all those who

stood by me while writing this report. May God bless you abundantly.

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Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.......................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION......................................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER ONE:...................................................................................................................7
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................7
1.1 Background information.......................................................................................................7
1.2 Problem statement................................................................................................................3
1.3 Project objectives..................................................................................................................3
1.4 Hypothesis.............................................................................................................................3
1.5 Scope......................................................................................................................................4
1.6 Limitation..............................................................................................................................4
1.7 Theoretical statement............................................................................................................4
2.4 Component Description:.......................................................................................................8
2.4.1 Valve.........................................................................................................................8
2.4.3 Dimension Specifications..................................................................................................10
Types of Shaft...........................................................................................................................13
The Standard size of shafts are:................................................................................................................14
Advantages of Shafts:...............................................................................................................14
Disadvantages of Shafts:...........................................................................................................15
2.5. Methods of data collection..................................................................................................18
2.6 Data presentation................................................................................................................18
PROJECT DESIGN..............................................................................................................20
3.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................20
...................................................................................................................................................20
3.1.1 Input Torque....................................................................................................................20
3.1.2 Kinetic gear1 (driving gear).............................................................................................21
3.1.3 Gear reduction mechanism..............................................................................................21
3.1.4 Output gear 2....................................................................................................................21
3.1.5 Output Torque..................................................................................................................21
3.3 Motion transmission............................................................................................................23
3.3.1 Advantages of geared transmissions................................................................................................23
Parameters to design a geared transmission when designing a geared transmission, one needs
to keep in mind the following parameters:...............................................................................24
3.3.2 Law of gearing...................................................................................................................................24

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 3.3.3 Gear ratio...........................................................................................................................................24
3.4 project design and construction..........................................................................................................25
4.1.1 Transformation of engineering driven by technology....................................................................28
REFERENCE...........................................................................................................................33

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 ABSTRACT

Sheet metal is simply a metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental

forms used in metal working and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes.

Countless everyday objects are constructed of the material. Thicknesses can vary

significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces

thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate. Sheet metal also has applications in car

bodies, airplane wings, medical tables, roofs for buildings (Architectural) and many other

things. Sheet metal of iron and other materials with high magnetic permeability, also known

as laminated steel cores, has applications in transformers and electric machines. There are

three primary procedures in Layout. They are Parallel, Radial, and Triangulation. The

major aim to our experiment is to study about pneumatic control system, study about double

acting cylinder, study about the advantage of pneumatic hand operated valve and study about

high speed blade.

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 CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background information

In todays’ life, there is an increasing emergence of small-scale metalwork workshops, which

deals mostly on sheet metal. This will in turn need equipment that are more efficient and

fairly priced for cutting sheet metal in those workshops and JUA KALI sectors.

In the market today, we are having sheet metal cutters of different kind. One of which being

the pneumatic sheet metal cutter, sheet metal scissors etc.

The pneumatic sheet metal cutter has a disadvantage that it can only be used where there is

high production and there must be presence of electric power for filling the air cylinders.

Sheet metal scissors are tiresome at the same time less accurate and causes many injuries on

the personnel.

This project aims at designing and fabricating a portable sheet metal cutting machine, which

will be more convenient since it will not require electrical power and will be hand operated.

This will make it possible to be used in areas where there is no electricity hence opening

Kenya’s countryside which accounts for 68% of Kenya’s population. This project will reduce

the un-employment rate in Kenya’s rural sector and minimize the increasing rural-urban

migration that is overstretching Kenya’s urban resources. The other target clientele is

Kenya’s Jua-Kali sector, which make up 37% of Kenya’s source of employment. The Jua-

Kali sector face stiff competition from cheap imports from China and Kenya’s flourishing

plastics industries. However, most Kenyans still prefer the Jua-Kali sheet metal products due

to their durability. The Jua-Kali sector currently use tin-snips to cut the sheet metal since the

cost of power is high in Kenya and has been on an increasing trend making production costs

very high. This project aims at producing a hand-operated sheet metal cutter that eliminates

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the need for electricity. Below are some of the Jua-Kali products: Chips fryers, baking tins,

steel doors, ovens, cooks well, tea urn, sufurias, steel mop bucket, steel kitchen sink, pots etc.

Another advantage of this machine is that, the materials needed are easily available and hence

making it cheaper to purchase. This equipment will also not require professionals to maintain

and operate due to its simplicity in design and operation.

1.2 Problem statement

This project aim is to design and fabricate a portable sheet metal cutting machine. With

increasing demand in sheet metal made structures like the school boxes, tool boxes, sheet

metal doors and many more, sheet metal scissors are not able to provide the require quantity

and quality sheets.

This project is focused on minimizing effort for cutting sheet metal. The main objective is to

develop a simple tool, which makes it easier to cut sheet metals while applying minimal

energy.

The currently available machines in the market are the pneumatic sheet metal cutters, which

are expensive and also require skilled personnel for operation. They can also not be used in

areas where there is no electricity.

The other tool available for cutting sheet metal is the sheet metal scissors. In its operation, the

operator gets exhausted since the holding is not comfortable at all. The production rate is

slower while using this pair of scissors.

1.3 Project objectives

1. To improve livelihood in small scale sheet metal sector

2. To design and fabricate a portable sheet metal cutting machine

3. To improve production rate of sheet metal products

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1.4 Hypothesis

 The livelihood of small-scale sheet metal sector will be improved by eliminating the

use of tin-snips.

 Designing and fabricating of a portable sheet metal cutter which will be hand operated

thus eliminating the need for electrical power.

 The rate of production of sheet metal products will be improved due to faster

operation of the machine compared to tin-snips.

1.5 Scope

During field study in small scale sheet metal workshops, it was observed there is a

need for developing a better way of cutting small thinned sheet metal than the use of

tin-snip. Use of tin-snips was observed unsafe as it exposes the workers to great risks

of injuries and fatigue. Similarly, the use of tin-snips has led to low production and

inefficiency of the work. For the pneumatic sheet metal cutter, it is only applicable in

areas where there is electricity.

Thus, in attempt to find a permanent solution for this limitation prompted me to

design and fabricate a hand and potable sheet metal cutter which would be a better

alternative.

Some of the advantages of this structure are availability of the machine due to its low

price, also can be used in areas with no electricity.

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1.6 Limitation

However, this tool is limited to the thickness of the sheet metal and thus only a given range

of thickness will be considered. In large scale production, the tool will be ineffective to use

since it’s hand operated and relies on human energy

1.7 Theoretical statement

Portable sheet metal cutter is a mechanical device used to cut thin sheet metals by applying

rotation movement of the roller through the handle by hand. The roller is used to feed and to

impact force to the work piece in the cutter. The roller and the cutter are slightly overlapped

to ensure correct feeding and cutting. The cutter is fixed to a spring for free movement while

cutting. The following diagram is a model of portable sheet metal cutting machine drawn for

the purpose of presentation of this proposal.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

There are many sheets metal cutting machines. Portable sheet metal cutting machine is one of

them. Many researchers have investigated experimentally the effect of various types’

parameters on the different quality characteristics in the cutting machines of different

categories of materials. The portable sheet metal cutting machine have found the influence of

laser power and feed rate (cutting speed) on the kerf width in the laser cutting of 1.27 mm

thick 4130 steel. Joseph Bramah patented the hydraulic press in 1795.While working at

Bramah. Henry Mausdlay suggested a cup leather packing. Because it produced superior

results, the gears eventually displaced the steam hammer from metal forging. Torque shaft

was used extensively in Bessemer steel production.

Hero of Alexandria first documented portable sheet metal cutting machine in 60 A.D, but the

concept had existed before then. Portable sheet cutting machine devices are used in many

industrial applications. Generally appropriate for applications involving less force than

hydraulic applications, and typically less expensive than electric applications, most portable

metal sheet cutting machines are designed to use clean dry air as an energy source. This

system is a system that uses compressed air to transmit and control energy. In the big

industries, portable sheet metal cutting machines are very much important

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2.2 Block diagrams

1. DC Motor

2. Jack Handle

3. Spur Gear Mechanism

4. Base Plate

5. Crank linkage

6. Hydraulic Bottle Jack

7. Lifting floor

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2.3 Principle of operation

The most common cutting processes are performed by applying a shear force, and are

therefore sometimes referred to as shearing processes. Cutting processes are those in which a

piece of sheet metal is separated by applying a great enough force to cause the material

to fail .When a great enough shearing force is applied, the shear stress in the material will

exceed the ultimate shear strength and the material will fail and separate at the cut location.

This shearing force is applied by two tools, one above and one below the sheet. Whether

these tools are a punch and die or upper and lower blades, the tool above the sheet delivers a

quick downward blow to the sheet metal that rests over the lower tool. A small clearance is

present between the edges of the upper and lower tools, which facilitates the fracture of the

material. The effects of shearing on the material change as the cut progresses and are visible

on the edge of the sheared material. When the punch or blade impacts the sheet,

the clearance between the tools allows the sheet to plastically deform and “rollover” the edge.

As the tool penetrates the sheet further, the shearing results in a vertical burnished zone of

material, finally, the shear stress is too great and the material fractures at an angle with a

small burr formed at the edge. The height of these portions of the cut depends on several

factors, including the sharpness of the tools and the clearance between the tools. [

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The sheet metal cutting machine works with the help of torque shaft, driving gear, driven

gear and cutting plate. The torque handle shaft is connected to the moving driving gear to a

driven gear, which has less diameter for torque increment to the output-cutting tool, thus

cutting the small size of the sheet metal.

Sheet Metal Cutting Machine

The machine is portable in size, so easily transportable.

2.4 Component Description:

2.4.1 Valve.

A valve is a mechanical device that blocks a pipe partially or completely to change the

amount of fluid, Gas or any passing material that passes through it. When you turn on a

faucet (tap) to brush your teeth, you are opening a valve that allows pressurized water to

escape from a pipe. Similarly, when you flush the toilet, you open two valves: one (the

siphon) that allows water to escape to empty the pan and another (called a ball valve or

ballcock) that admits more water into the tank ready for the next flush.

Control Valves respond to a controller's signal by changing the size of the flow passage. As a

result, the flow rate may be regulated directly, and pressure, temperature, and liquid level can

be controlled as well. Control valves are pieces of Industrial Equipment that employ a set

point to adjust for load disturbances when controlling the flow of a fluid such as water, gas,

steam, or chemical compounds. As a rule, control valves should be set to function between 20

and 80 percent open at maximum flow rates and no less than 20 percent open at minimum

flow rates. For the selection of the right control valve for a process, several factors must be

xv
considered, including the valve's flow characteristics, size, noise, cavitation potential, body

material and trim, actuator size and type, and dynamic response to changes in control signals.

The choice of pressure and temperature depends on the application and the pressure

conditions.

Other Examples of valves.

 Angle form valve.

 Electric pinch valve.

 Pressure reducing valve.

 Sustaining valve.

2.4.2 Spur gear.

Spur gears are simple, easily manufactured gears and are usually the first choice when

exploring gear options. Transmitting power between parallel axes, the teeth project radially

on the disc.

The sole variance in their identity remains the rack, which is covered more in-depth in

Engineering360's Rack and Pinion Specification Guide.

Spur gears are regularly used for speed reduction or increase, torque multiplication,

resolution and accuracy enhancement for positioning systems. The teeth run parallel to the

xvi
gear axis and can only transfer motion between parallel-axis gear sets. Spur gears mate only

one tooth at a time, resulting in high stress on the mating teeth and noisy operation.

2.4.3 Dimension Specifications

Gears mate via teeth with very specific geometry. Pitch is a measure of tooth spacing and is

expressed in several ways. 

Diametral pitch (DP) is the ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch diameter of a gear; a

higher DP therefore indicates finer tooth spacing. It is easily calculated by the formula DP=

(N+2) ÷ OD, where N is the number of teeth, and OD represents the circumferential

measurement.

Circular pitch (CP) is a direct measurement of the distance from one tooth center to the

adjacent tooth center. It can be measured by the formula CP= Π ÷ DP.

Module (M) is a typical gear discipline and is a measurement of the size and teeth number of

the gear. Gears measured in inches earn 'English module' distinction to prevent confusion. M

= OD ÷ N

Pressure angle is the angle of tooth drive action, or the angle between the line of force

between meshing teeth and the tangent to the pitch circle at the point of mesh. Typical

pressure angles are 14.5° or 20°.

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 Gear vernacular identified. Image credit: Boiler Invasion

2.4.4 Metal rod

A metal (from Greek μέταλλον métallon, "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when

freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity

and heat relatively well. Metals are typically malleable (they can be hammered into thin

sheets) or ductile (can be drawn into wires). A metal may be a chemical element such as iron;

an alloy such as stainless steel; or a molecular compound such as polymeric sulfur nitride.

In physics, a metal is generally regarded as any substance capable of conducting electricity at

a temperature of absolute zero.[1] Many elements and compounds that are not normally

classified as metals become metallic under high pressures. For example, the nonmetal iodine

gradually becomes a metal at a pressure of between 40 and 170 thousand times atmospheric

pressure. Equally, some materials regarded as metals can become nonmetals. Sodium, for

xviii
example, becomes a nonmetal at pressure of just under two million times atmospheric

pressure.

2.4.5 Torque shaft.

A shaft is defined as a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross-section, which is

used to transmit power from one part to another, or from a machine that produces power to a

machine that absorbs power.

Shaft form the important element of machines. They support rotating parts like gears and

pulleys and are themselves supported by bearings resting in the rigid machine housing.

The shafts perform the function of transmitting power from one rotating member to another

supported by it or connected to it. Thus, they are subjected to torque due to power

transmission and bending moment due to reactions on the members that are supported by

them.

Shafts are to be distinguished from axles which also support rotating members but do not

transmit power.

Shafts are always made to circular cross-sections and could be either solid or hollow. The

shafts are classifieds as straight, cranked, flexible, or articulated. Straight shafts are the

commonest to be used for power transmission.

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Such shafts are commonly designed as stepped cylindrical bars, that is, they have various

diameters along their length, although constant diameter shafts would be easy to produce.

The stepped shafts correspond to the magnitude of stress which varies along the length.

Moreover, the uniform diameter shafts are not compatible with assembly, disassembly, and

maintenance such shafts would complicate the fastening of the parts fitted to them,

particularly the bearings, which have restricted against sliding in an axial direction.

While determining the form of the stepped shaft it is borne in mind that the diameter of each

cross-section should be such that each part fitted onto the shaft has convenient access to its

seat.

Types of Shaft

Shafts are mainly classified into two types:

 Transmission shafts are used to transmit power between the source and the machine

absorbing power. e.g., countershafts, line shafts, and all factory shafts.

 Machine shafts are an integral part of the machine itself. e.g., crankshaft

 Axle shafts are used in vehicles.

 A spindle shaft is a rotating shaft with a fixture for holding a tool or a workpiece.

The Standard size of shafts are:

The standard sizes of transmission shafts are:

 25 mm to 60 mm with 5 mm steps

 60 mm to 110 mm with 10 mm steps

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  110 mm to 140 mm with 15 mm steps and

 140 mm to 500 mm with 20 mm steps

 The standard length of the shafts is 5 m, 6 m, and 7 m.

The standard sizes of Machine shafts are:

 Up to 25 mm steps of 0.5 mm

Advantages of Shafts:

 The shaft system is less likely to jam.

 Less maintenance than a chain system when a tube is attached to the drive shaft.

 A hollow shaft is a low weight than a solid shaft for the same torque transmission.

 In the hollow shaft, the internal shape is hollow so the materials required are less.

 The shaft is more strong and it has a low failure chance.

 High polar moment of inertia

 High torsional strength

Disadvantages of Shafts:

 The power loss due to loose coupling.

 Shafts can vibrate during rotation.

 Produced a constant noise

 Maintenance and manufacturing costs were high.

 The manufacturing process is difficult.

 The downtime was longer due to mechanical problems.

 The use of flexible couplings, such as a leaf spring coupling, can cause a loss of

velocity between shafts.

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  Changing the speed was not so easy.

 Oil dripping from overhead shafting.

2.4.1 SPRING.

A spring is an elastic object that stores mechanical energy and releases it when the opposing

force is removed. If you need to apply force to create movement or hold something in place

without the use of engines or other powered means, springs could be the answer.

When you think of springs, you probably envision classic coil springs made of metal in a

cylindrical shape. You can find them fitted into a spring mechanism to apply force against or

away from an object. While metal coil springs like these are instantly recognizable, they only

represent a portion of the springs that exist. To understand their versatility and functions, you

should know more about the history of springs.

xxii
2.4.6 Metal sheet.

Sheet metal is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. Sheet metal is one

of the fundamental forms used in metalworking, and it can be cut and bent into a variety of

shapes. Countless everyday objects are fabricated from sheet metal. Thicknesses can vary

significantly; extremely thin sheets are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm

(0.25 in) are considered plate steel or "structural steel".

The use of sheet metal is extremely important and valuable in modern day building,

manufacturing, and construction sectors. Sheet metal is used in a variety of industries namely

car manufacturing, aircraft parts, tools, agriculture, mining, catering, shipping, medical,

electronic parts, and construction to name a few.

xxiii
If you are new to the construction or building sector, you will need to understand the need for

sheet metal fabrication, the importance of sheet metal, and what to consider when sourcing

suppliers.

2.4.7 Angular cutting disc.

Angular cutting disc is a kind of a grinding device that cn be used to break an enormous piece

of metal into various piece.

It usually has abrasive grains that are held in the correct positon by the aid of a bond matrix

and then separated from each other by pores.

In this project the driven gear will insert kinetic energy via the rotating shaft to the angular

cutting disc that gives the greatest power and torque, ideal when brute force is required.

These Angular-cutting discs of different sizes can deliver 25 times more force of same-size as

well as higher horsepower per weight. One of their main advantages is their ability to hold

torque and force without continuous application of applied gear pressure from the power

source. This is because the gear system is reduction gear.

However, there are more moving parts to any Angular cutting disc system, so more

maintenance opportunities and cost, and they do break incase of a heavily and strong metallic

xxiv
structure, which would be a weaker in applications where sanitation is crucial. It also takes an

assortment of other equipment to operate to drilling machine — motors, pumps, fluid

reservoirs, etc

2.5. Methods of data collection

For this purpose, methods of analysis refer to the statistical techniques and method used in

collecting, presenting and analyzing the data.

2.5.1 Observation

This was done by watching carefully while the workers were carrying out their cutting

processes. It was observed that they used tin-snips which caused injuries and low production

rates.

2.5.2 Interviews

This was done by face-to-face interview of the workers at metal workshops, this probe useful

information on some of the challenges they face in their line of duty.

One of the challenges highlighted was the workers didn’t have proper equipment to get sheet

metals cut efficiently. They said they usually struggle to cut sheet metals by use of tin-snips

since they are tiresome. This assisted much in coming up with this project idea.

2.6 Data presentation

The following methods will be used in presenting the project.

2.6.1 Diagrams

They will be used to interphase theory and practical of the work. By this, one can interpret

and understand the concept of the project.

2.6.2 Tables

xxv
Tables will help to tabulate certain information’s such as list of materials to give a clear

presentation which is easy to understand

2.6.3 Graphs

Graphs will be used to present data that is too numerous or complicated to be described

adequately in the text and less space.

xxvi
 CHAPTER THREE

PROJECT DESIGN

3.1 Introduction
This section will look into the design of the project based on the block diagram below;

Input Kinetic Gear reduction Output Output

3.1.1 Input Torque

This project is designed to obtain Torque power from a separate manual rotary energy, in

which is being transmitted to the first gear for either increment or reduction process.

xxvii
3.1.2 Kinetic gear1 (driving gear)

Input torque from external mechanical force is connected to a driving gear using a metallic

shaft, which transmits kinetic power to gear 1.

3.1.3 Gear reduction mechanism.

In this part the driving gear and the driven gear will either reduce or increase the speed

depending on the diameter size of the gear. If the driving gear has large diameter while the

driven gear has less diameter then that is a reducing gear and vice vercer.

3.1.4 Output gear 2

This is the final gear motion that is achieved out of the combination of the torque force and

the driving gear.

3.1.5 Output Torque.

The force produced by the gear 2 is the connected to a cutting disc, which will enable it to

cut any metallic structure place beside it.

3.2 Calculation of torque and bearing

Gears are one of the most important mechanical elements that are used in nearly all types of

machinery. Proper design and calculations of gears are very important, and this needs an

engineering-level approach. When you are designing your gear systems for machinery, you

need to know the required gear ratio to obtain the required torque and speed. This article will

be a very good reference to calculate your required gear ratio for input and output torques and

speeds, for gear pairs.

Gear systems are used for generally torque or speed reduction. A main shaft gives input speed

and torque to the gear system. This output shaft is assembled to a gear which is called

‘driving gear’. Other gear, which is assembled to other shafts, is called ‘driven gear.

xxviii
For this calculator, you need to know the input speed and input torque values of the driving

gear and shaft system. Then you need to enter the number of teeth of driving gear(n1) and

driven gear(n2).

For an example when applying an input torque = 100N

And input speed of gear 1= 70rpm

Output speed of gear 2= 20rpm

Output torque= 2000N

The ratio of n1 and n2 be 10:3 meaning this is a reduction gear.

i=wawb=zbza

n=Tb⋅wbTa⋅wa=1

TbTa=i

Where:

I is the gear ratio;

Z is the number of teeth;

Ta is the input torque;

Tb is the output torque;

w is the angular velocity;

n is the efficiency, in the ideal case is equal to 1;

xxix
3.3 Motion transmission

The gear ratio in a transmission is the ratio between the rotational speeds of two meshing

gears. Since each gear has a different diameter, each of the axes rotates at a different speed

when they are both engaged. Modifying the gear ratio is the equivalent of modifying the

torque that is applied.

The gear ratio is calculated by dividing the output speed by the input speed (i= Ws/ We) or by

dividing the number of teeth of the driving gear by the number of teeth of the driven gear (i=

Ze/ Zs).

i = Ws/We

i = Ze/Zs

3.3.1 Advantages of geared transmissions

Geared transmission offer a series of advantages when compared to other types of

transmissions. First, they offer a high performance when transmitting forces and motions,

with a long service life and high reliability.

xxx
But what makes them stand out is the stupendous accuracy of their gear ratio, which means

that they can be employed in precision machinery.

Gear ratios in geared transmissions is very precise, which makes these transmissions perfect

for precision machinery

Unlike other mechanisms, such as chains or pulleys, their size is small, which means that they

can be installed both in both small and large machines and spaces, as well as in places that

are hard to access. Furthermore, their simple maintenance makes geared transmissions one of

the most widespread systems in major industries such as automotive.

Parameters to design a geared transmission when designing a geared transmission, one needs

to keep in mind the following parameters:

3.3.2 Law of gearing

The law of gearing defines the situation by which the point of contact between two teeth will

always cross point O, when its profile allows it.

This point O must be located in a line that joins both the center of rotation of one of the gears

and the center of rotation of the other.

In addition, the pitch radii and the distances between point O and the corresponding centers

must coincide.

3.3.3 Gear ratio

The gear ratio (rt) is the ratio between the rotational speeds of two mating gears.

More specifically, it is the quotient of the input and output speeds (rt = ωs / ωe).

xxxi
The system may cause a reduction if the gear ratio is less than 1, or a multiplication if it is

greater than 1.

3.4 project design and construction.

The main purpose of this project is to understand the fundamental knowledge of design and

mechanism by using gear system and a simple mechanism property. This project contains of

designing and fabrication of simple metal cutting machine. There have many differences

between this cutting machine with current design in marketplace. This project is to develop

and improving it performance as well so that there has no doubt about the design and

concept. This design required little forces to crush or cut the aluminum metal sheets, cans and

metallic rods at a time.

In this project, it requires lot of skills, information and knowledge such as torque shaft,

driving gear, driven gear, shaft bushes and some t shaped plates. So, this design would

through much process before it get into prototype term in order to achieve the objectives and

off course customer need.

A mechanical metal cutting machine is one of the most aid able machines. It helps to reduce

the pollute environment of this world through noise pollution. Thus helps create a better place

to live in and work comfortable, apart from that, this cutting machine actually can be used

where there is no power and also it is easy to use while carrying out the cutting process. It can

be placed everywhere, in the garage park, homes, even in workshops. Therefore, this project

interest and expose me the field of mechanism and design Engineering. To design the

mechanical part of a portable metal cutting machine and to fabricate the Mechanical part of

the system. 

xxxii
3.5 Sheet metal cutting:

Cutting processes are those in which a piece of sheet metal is separated by applying a great

enough force to cause the material to fail. The most common cutting processes are performed

by applying a shear force, and are therefore sometimes referred to as shearing processes.

When a great enough shearing force is applied, the shear stress in the material will exceed the

ultimate shear strength and the material will fail and separate at the cut location. Two tools,

one above and one below the sheet apply this shearing force. Whether these tools are a punch

and die or upper and lower blades, the tool above the sheet delivers a quick downward blow

to the sheet metal that rests over the lower tool.

A small clearance is present between the edges of the upper and lower tools, which facilitates

the fracture of the material. The size of this clearance is typically 2-10% of the material

thickness and depends upon several factors, such as the specific shearing process, material,

and sheet thickness.

The effects of shearing on the material change as the cut progresses and are visible

on the edge of the sheared material. When the punch or blade impacts the sheet, the clearance

between the tools allows the sheet to plastically deform and “rollover” the edge. As the tool

penetrates the sheet further, the shearing results in a vertical burnished zone of material.

Finally, the shear stress is too great and the material fractures at an angle with a small burr

formed at the edge. The height of these portions of the cut depends on several factors,

including the sharpness of the tools and the clearance between the tools.

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xxxiv
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Data analysis.

The manufacturing industry has been undergoing a dynamic shift towards digitalization.

Advancing technology, sensors, connectivity and the ability to store vast amounts of data has

encouraged manufacturing owner-operators to converge IT and OT and utilize machine data

to gain useful insights. However, despite the clear benefits of digitalization, companies are

encountering challenges with the adoption of advanced analytics tools and getting value out

of all the available technologies. These challenges have different perspectives for each

industry but are especially highlighted when it comes to the engineering and metal cutting

industries. Sandvik Coromat, a world’s leading supplier of manufacturing and metal cutting

tools, went through a similar data-driven journey in the adoption of analytics in their

business.

V R Vijay Anand, Head of Digital Machining at Sandvik Coromant, brought their experience

closer to us at the Maintenance Analytics Summit with implementing data analytics in

processes, challenges they had and learnings they took away from it.

4.1.1 Transformation of engineering driven by technology

No doubt, rapid technological advancements are transforming the very definition of

engineering, explains Vijay. The challenge that the industry faces is how to adopt all the

different technologies and what is the real value it brings to companies.

Some of the challenges the metal cutting industry is experienced where advanced analytics

may give some relevant insights are:

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  Reducing waste – all industries from automotive, airlines, oil and gas are seeing ways

to be more productive, reduce time, resources, consumables, and be more predictive

in the production.

 Skill gap – Technical skills and competences with metal cutting are difficult to source.

Unfortunately, new generations are reluctant to go into traditional professions like

engineering. Analytics can help companies become independent of individuals with

knowledge and move towards a more predictive and prescriptive way of working.

 Cost and quality control – Managing production in terms of customization, smaller

batches and shorter lead times, which requires cost traceability and producing the

”right” quality for the customers to be competitive.

When metal-cutting companies are implementing digital technologies and leveraging data

insights to help their customers, it all comes down to solving the above challenges, states V R

Vijay. And solving them requires the ability to leverage information and knowledge through

data and analytics.

The analytics producers are all the data scientists and data analysts who are playing with the

data, trying to find trends in it and come up with value from data. The analytics consumers

are traditional operators in a manufacturing plant standing in front of the machines. The

consumers do not really care about data or analytics; their job is to make sure the machine is

working properly.

These are two opposite worlds in the metal cutting industry that have two different

understanding of what analytics means. When a data scientist refers to predictive analytics,

and when a traditional engineer refers to predictive analytics, their understanding is

diametrically different.

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For analytics experts, predictive means that they are past descriptive and diagnostic analytics,

and can produce predictions and insights about the future. While for the machine operator, a

change in the machine dashboard descriptive numbers, combined with the sound of vibration

(his sound) and a small stray in the cutting path (his vision) are indicating that something is

wrong or might be going wrong really soon. 

4.2 Project finding.

Currently, machine tool selection, cutting tool selection and machining conditions

determination are not usually performed at the same time but progressively, which may lead

to suboptimal or trade-off solutions. Targeting this issue, this paper proposes a big data

analytics based optimization method for enriched Distributed Process Planning by

considering machine tool selection, cutting tool selection and machining conditions

determination simultaneously. Within the context, the machining resources are represented by

data attributes, i.e. work piece, machining requirement, machine tool, cutting tool, machine

conditions, machining process and machining result. Consequently, the problem of

machining optimization can be treated as a statistic problem and solved by a hybrid

algorithm. Regarding the algorithm, artificial neural networks based models are trained by

machining data and used as optimization objectives, whereas analytical hierarchy process is

adopted to decide the weights of the multi-objective optimisation; and evolutionary algorithm

or swarm intelligence is proposed to perform the optimisation. Finally, the results of a

simplified proof-of-concept case study are reported to validate the proposed approach, where

a Deep Belief Network model was trained by a set of hypothetic data and used to calculate

the fitness of a genetic algorithm.

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4.3 Recommendation.

In light of project finding, the following recommendations were made:

The project was time consuming since a lot of components needed to be welded .It is also

recommended that once the project is started it should never be left to be completed the

following day since it can be completed within one day.

As far as the project is concerned, each part of output of each metallic parts it is

recommended that the shaft to be used should be one that will provide more tensile strength

so as to produce the torque required to the driven gear.

It is also recommended that the driving and driven gears should be very available and of

deferent diameter sizes to increases either the torque produce or revolution.

4.4 conclusion.

In light of project finding, the following conclusions were made for the present project:

The project was able to function in all the stages with the average difference of 0.02, which

gives the error margin of 5%.

It is of a great concern that the portable metal cutting machine can be used in schools,

industries, homes, workshops and in mechanical garage since it is a very important system for

metal shaping productivity.

xxxviii
LIST OF MATERIALS

LIST OF MATERIALS

S/NO ITEM DESCRIPTION QUANTITY UNIT AMOUNT

PRICE

1 Spur Gear Outer gear 2 piece 700 1400

Mechanism diameter:8cm,

inner gear

diameter:21mm

2 Metal rod Mild steel round 1 piece 450 450

bar,20mm

diameter,50cm

length

3 Welding rod Mild steel 5 pieces 150 150

welding

rod:7018,3/32-

inch

4 Spring Stainless steel 1 piece 300 300

spring

5 Sheet metal 1mx1m mild 1 piece 2500 2500

steel sheet metal

6 Axial torque z- shape handle 1 piece 1000 1000

handle

7 bearings Inner bearing 2 pieces 1500 3000

Outer baring

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 8 Metallicshaf With a high 1 piece 1500 1500

t/ tensile strength

Jack Handle

9 paint Grey metallic 2litres 400 800

paint

10 Bolts & nuts Bolts size 17’’ 2 pieces 100 200

Nuts size 17’’ 2 pieces 100 200

11 DC Motor Dc 12v 1 pc 800 800

12 .Hydraulic 400 400

Bottle Jack

13 Crank 200 200

linkage

14 Base Plate 250 250

Lifting floo

Total 14,500/-

REFERENCE

[1]. Dharwa Chaithanya Kirthikumar, “A Research on Multi-Purpose

Machine”, International Journal for Technological Research in

Engineering (Vol.1, Issue.1, ISSN: 2347-4718) (2013).

[2]. Dhanasegaran A, Dhilip Kumar H, Dinesh Kumar V T, Gopi

Kumar K. and S.Gokul, International Journal of Current

xl
 Engineering and Technology. “Design and Fabrication of Pedal

Powered Circular Saw for Wood Working Applications”.

[3]. Prof. Zoeb khan, Mr.Sushil Dopekar, ”Design and Fabrication of

Human Powered Wood Cutting machine” International Journal on

Recent and Innovation Trends in Computing and Communication.

ISSN: 2321-8169.

[4]. J.P. Modak and R. D. Askhedkar, “Hypothsis for the Extrusion of

lime flash sand bricks using a manually driven bricks making

machine”, Building Research and Information, 22 (1); 47-54

[5]. Machine design and drawing by R.S. Khurmi and J.K. Gupta, S.

Chand publications.

Applied Mechanics J Hannah and J M Hillier, fourth edition

Mechanics of machine by R.C Stevens, fourth edition

Strength of materials by R.K Gupta fourth edition.

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