TECHNICAL REPORT

Mechanical Engineering Department

Muhammad Furqan 2021-ME-016 Communication Skills

Muhammad Furqan 2021-ME-016 Communication Skills

Table of Contents
Table of Contents.............................................................................................................................1
Determination of Young’s Modulus by Searle’s Method................................................................2
Abstract...........................................................................................................................................2
Objective..........................................................................................................................................2
Introduction / Background..............................................................................................................2
Method / Methodology.....................................................................................................................4
Lab instructions........................................................................................................................4
Experimental setup...................................................................................................................4
Procedure.................................................................................................................................4
Results.............................................................................................................................................5
Calculations.................................................................................................................................5
Percentage error..........................................................................................................................6
Tables and Figures......................................................................................................................6
Stress Strain Curve......................................................................................................................7
Analysis or Error analysis...........................................................................................................7
Discussion.......................................................................................................................................8
Theory:............................................................................................................................................9
Factors Affecting Young’s Modulus:...........................................................................................9
Application of Bone Adaptive Remodeling..................................................................................9
Vibratory Bending for Elastic and Viscoelastic Layered Finite-Length Beams........................10
Buckling analysis of a single-walled carbon nanotube embedded in an elastic medium based
on nonlocal elasticity and Timoshenko beam theory and using DQM......................................10
Conclusions:..................................................................................................................................11
References:....................................................................................................................................11
Appendices:...................................................................................................................................12

Determination of Young's modulus by Searle's method.

Muhammad Furqan. 2021-ME-016.

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Abstract

 
The purpose of the experiment was to determine a value for Young’s modulus E for a
steel beam by Searle’s method. Young’s modulus is used to describe and measure deflection of a
material. Two weights are provided and by leveling them we can find value of E.(Determination
of Young's modulusby Searle's method 2021)
The base and height of the steel beam was measured at three different points, then an
average was determined using these. The main test was conducted to determine the amount of
deflection in the steel beam. Couples of half kg were placed on both sides of the beam
simultaneously and the deflection was measured. This was repeated till the load reached 2 kg on
both sides of the beam.
The standard Searle's apparatus is modified to exploit the sensitivity of the diffraction
pattern for changes in slit widths of the order of laser wavelengths produced by micro
elongations in the wire when a stress is applied to it. The measurement of Young's modulus of
elasticity is one of the classical assignments that frequently appear in the basic laboratory
courses of physicists and engineers. It is not easy to innovate on this well-established subject.

Objective

To determine Young’s Modulus of a wire.

Introduction / Background

Young’s modulus, numerical constant, named for the 18th-century English

physician and physicist Thomas Young, that describes the elastic properties
a  solid  undergoing  tension or compression in only one direction, as in the case of a metal rod
that after being stretched or compressed lengthwise returns to its original length. Young’s
modulus is a measure of the ability of a material to withstand changes in length when under
lengthwise tension or compression. Sometimes referred to as the modulus of elasticity, Young’s

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modulus is equal to the longitudinal stress divided by the strain. Stress and strain may be
described as follows in the case of a metal bar under tension.
If a metal bar of cross-sectional area A is pulled by a force F at each
end, the bar stretches from its original length Lo  to a new length Ln. (Simultaneously the cross
section  decreases.) The stress is the quotient of the tensile force divided by the cross-sectional
area, or F/A. The strain or relative deformation is the change in length, Ln – Lo, divided by the
original length, or (Ln−  Lo)/Lo. (Strain is dimensionless.) Thus Young’s modulus may be
expressed mathematically as
Young’s modulus = stress/strain = (FL)/(Al)
This is a specific form of  Hooke’s law of elasticity. The units of Young’s
modulus in the English system are pounds per square inch (psi), and in the metric system 
(N/m2). The  value of Young’s modulus for aluminum is about 1.0 × 107 psi, or 7.0 × 1010  N/m2.
The value for  steel is about three times greater, which means that it takes three times as much
force to stretch a steel bar the same amount as a similarly shaped aluminum bar.
Young’s modulus is meaningful only in the range in which the stress is
proportional to the strain, and the material returns to its original dimensions when the external
force is removed. As stresses increase, the material may either flow, undergoing permanent
deformation, or finally break.
When a metal bar under tension is elongated, its width is slightly
diminished. This lateral shrinkage constitutes a transverse strain that is equal to the change in
the width divided by the original width. The ratio of the transverse strain to the longitudinal
strain is called Poisson’s ratio.
The Young's modulus of materials is a measure of its response to the
applied stress. It is a very important quantity because it defines the rigidity of materials in
practical applications [1]. Many methods exist and different types of instruments are available to
measure the Young's modulus
of the material of a wire [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Most of these methods directly measure the strain
(small changes in the length of wire per unit length) when a stress is applied. For
example, in the standard Searle's method the small elongation of the wire is measured using a
spirit level and a compensating screw [1]. The elongation of the wire therefore should be large
enough, within its elastic limit, to yield appreciable accuracy. This is generally achieved by
using a long enough wire and larger loads. In addition, the traditional method suffers from the
backlash error of the compensating screw. In order to measure the Young's modulus precisely
one needs an alternative sensitive method to measure small elongations of the wire due to the
applied stress.

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Method / Methodology

Lab instructions

 Weight on one hanger is kept constant and weight on second hanger are varied to get
different observations.
 Diameter of wire is measured at different places with screw gauge.
 Add half kg weight in start of each observation.
 Note readings by adjusting micrometer screw to bring bubble exactly in middle of spirit
lamp.

Experimental setup

Apparatus used in the set up are

 Meter rod.
 Two wires.
 0.5 kg slotted weight with hanger.
 Screw gauge

Procedure

Take two steel wires of same length and diameter and tight their ends in torsion
screws .Wire 1 becomes experimental wire and wire 2 becomes auxiliary wire. Suspend a 1 kg
dead load from hook of frame. Suspend a 1 kg hanger and eight 1/2 kg slotted weights from hook
of frame F1. The experimental wire becomes taut.
Remove kinks from experimental wire by pressing the wire between nails of right
hand thumb and first finger and moving them along the length of the wire. Remove all slotted
weights from hanger. Now each wire is equally loaded with 1 kg weight find the pitch and the
least count of the screw gauge. Measure diameter of the experimental wire at five different
places, equally spaced along the length (near two ends, two quarter distance from ends and
middle). At each place, measure diameter along two mutually perpendicular directions. Record
the observations in the table. Note the breaking stress for steel from table of constants. Multiply
that by the cross section area of the wire to find breaking load of the wire. The maximum load is
not to exceed one-third of the breaking load.
Repeat steps till all the eight 1/2 kg slotted weights have been used (now total load on
experimental wire is 5 kg which must be one-third of the breaking load). Now remove one slotted
weight (load decreasing), wait for two minutes to allow the wire to contract fully. Bubble moves
down from the center. Repeat while The reading is recorded against load in hanger in load
decreasing column. Repeat till all the eight slotted weights are removed now load on
experimental wire is 1 kg the initial load.

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Results

Calculations

Length of wire = L = ……… m

Least count of screw gauge = 0.01 mm
Diameter of wire d = ………mm
Radius r = d/2 = ……..mm
Area of cross section A = ԉr2 = ……….m2
Least count for Searle’s apparatus = pitch/no of circular div. = …………mm

Mean extension for 2 kg = l = e – a =

Force = F = mg = 2 × 9.8 =
Stress =F/A =
Strain = l /L =
Young’s Modulus = FL / Al =

Fig.

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Percentage error

Actual value of E from Table =

Actual value theoretically =
Difference in values =
⁒ Error = Difference in value / Actual value × 100

Tables and Figures

Load (N) Mass including Searle’s reading Searle’s reading Extension

hanger (g) while while L / 10-3 m
loading(mm) unloading(mm)
2 200 500 500.1 0.1
2.9 300 500.1 500.4 0.3
3.9 400 500.4 501 0.6
4.9 500 501 502 1
5.9 600 501.9 503.2 1.3
6.9 700 503.2 505 1.7

Stress Strain Curve

The stress-strain curve of a material indicates important mechanical properties of the material.
The curve for a typical elastic material like metal wire is shown in the figure. Hooke's law, F = kl, is
obeyed in the region of proportionality (region OA in the figure). The slope of the line OA gives Young's
modulus Y. If the strain is increased beyond A, the stress is no longer proportional to the strain.

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Figure II

Analysis or Error analysis

Will there be any error if the control (or reference) wire and the test wire are not of the same
material? If wires are of different material then their thermal expansion (due to temperature
change during experiment) will be different. This will introduce an error in the measured
elongation l.
 The wires used in the experiment are identical, long and thin. The long and thin wires
gives larger elongation and hence better measurement accuracy.
 The wires should be taut otherwise length L can not be measured correctly. The control
weight or dead weight is used to make the wires taut.
 List out various sources of errors and ways to reduce them.
 When a set of readings are taken, the micrometer screw must be rotated in the same
direction to avoid back-lash error. The micrometers (screw gauges) usually have back-
lash error. It is the maximum change in micrometer reading to start physical movement
of the screw in reverse direction. You can experience this error with a simple nut and
bolt.
 After adding a load or removing a load, wait for some time before taking the next
reading; this will help the wire to elongate or contract fully.
 Before beginning the experiment, kinks in the experimental wire should be eliminated.

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 Both wires should be held in place by the same hard support.

 Weights with slots should be added and removed with care.
 The load should be gradually increased or lowered.
 After adding or withdrawing a weight, you should wait two minutes.
 The study of mechanical properties of materials is vital because it allows us to better
understand how materials behave and to design new products and improve old ones.
 A material's Young's modulus is a useful property to know in order to forecast how it will
behave when subjected to a force.
 A material's Young's modulus is crucial for practically everything around us, including
buildings, bridges, automobiles, and more.

Discussion

So in this way we are able to calculate the young’s modulus of a wire. It can
be very useful for students in subject of material and manufacture as the Young’s modulus of
copper wire is 117 G Pa or 117 x 10 9 N/m 2. But there should be a possibility of uncertainty as
our major aim was to calculate the results of the value of E.
It comprising of two brass frames with specially designed self-centering
chucks, connected by a pivoted link carrying a sensitive spirit level and a standard micrometer
head reading to 1/100 mm. Supplied in case with a ceiling bracket, constant weight and suitable
wire. Without weights.
For example, In the Searle's method to determine the Young's modulus of a
wire, a steel wire of length 156cm  and diameter 0.054 cm is taken as experimental wire. the
average increase in length for  1.5 kg wt. is found to be 0.050cm. then the Young’s modulus of
the wire is  3.002×1011N/m2

Theory:
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Factors Affecting Young’s Modulus:

The modulus is closely related to the binding energies of the atoms. Binding

forces, and thus the modulus of elasticity, are typically higher for high melting point materials.
Young’s modulus does depend on orientation of a single crystal [Link] temperature  in
the material increases atomic vibration which, in turn, decreases the necessary energy to further
separate the atoms from one another (and thus generally decreases the stress needed to produce
a given strain.) Presence of impurity atoms, alloying atoms, non-metallic inclusions, secondary
phase particles, dislocations (shifts or mismatches in the lattice structure), and defects (cracks,
grain boundaries, etc.). All of these things can serve to either weaken or strengthen a material.

      
  Anything that impedes the motion of dislocations through the lattice will tend to
increase the modulus, and thus the yield strength.  Anything that facilitate dislocation movement
(like increased temperature) or creates localized stress risers (like cracks, inclusions, etc.) will
tend to decrease strength (e.g. by promoting early onset of failure).

The modulus of elasticity of plastics is much smaller than that for metals or
ceramics and glasses. For example:

 The modulus of elasticity of nylon is 2.7 GPa (0.4 x 106  psi)

 The modulus of glass fibers is 72 GPa (10.5 x 106  psi)
The Young’s modulus of composites such as  glass fiber-reinforced
composites(GFRC) or carbon fiber-reinforced composites (CFRC) lies between the values for
the matrix polymer and the fiber phase (carbon or glass fibers) and depends upon their relative
volume fractions.

Application of Bone Adaptive Remodeling

Bone remodeling theory based on strain energy density (SED) as the feedback
control variable was used in conjunction with the finite element method to analyze the shape of
the vertebral bodies within the ligamentous motion segment. The remodeling theory was once
again applied to the altered two motion segments model to predict the Young’s modulus
distribution of the cancellous bone within the vertebral bodies. A three-dimensional finite
element model of the two motion segments ligamentous lumbar spine (L3-5) was developed.
Bone remodeling response (external as well as internal) of the motion segments to a uniaxial
compressive load of 424.7 N was studied. The external shape of the converged model matched
the normal shape of a vertebral body. The internal remodeling resulted in regional cancellous
bone Young’s moduli (or bone density) distributions similar to those reported in the literature;
poster central regions of the vertebrae were predicted to have greater values of the elastic
modulus than that of the outer regions. The results of the present study suggest that vertebral
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body assumes an adequate/optimum structure in terms of both its shape and its elastic moduli
distribution within the cancellous region in response to the applied load. Extensions of the
present model and its clinically relevant applications are discussed.

Vibratory Bending for Elastic and Viscoelastic Layered Finite-Length Beams 

The vibrational characteristics, natural frequencies, and associated

composite loss factor of a finite-length laminated beam having alternate elastic and viscoelastic
layers, are investigated. An auxiliary equation which accounts for the effect of the viscoelastic
layers is derived. The use of this equation in conjunction with the ordinary bending equations
encountered for homogeneous beams, allows one to solve static and dynamic bending problems
for laminated beams in the same manner as for homogeneous beams. The resulting equations
are complex expressions since the shear modulus of the viscoelastic material is a complex
quantity.
The use of the auxiliary equation in conjunction with the loading equation
for a freely vibrating beam yields a sixth-order, complex, homogeneous differential equation.
The solution of this equation, subject to satisfying the boundary conditions, yields the desired
natural frequencies and associated composite loss-factors.

Buckling analysis of a single-walled carbon nanotube embedded in an elastic

medium based on nonlocal elasticity and Timoshenko beam theory and using DQM

After the invention of carbon nanotubes by Yakima [1], a new world of

research is in progress for the proper and accurate analysis of Nano-size structures. These
Nano-size structures exhibit superior physical, mechanical, chemical, electronic and electrical
properties [2], [3], [4], [5]. These outstanding properties of CNTs lead to its usage in the
emerging field of Nano electronics, Nano devices, nanocomposites, etc.
Experiments at the nanoscale are extremely difficult and atomistic modeling
remains prohibitively expensive for large-sized atomic system. Consequently continuum models
continue to play an essential role in the study of carbon nanotubes. Thereby size-dependent
continuum-based methods [6], [7], [8] are becoming popular in modeling small sized structures
as it offers much faster solutions than molecular dynamics simulations for various engineering
problems. Furthermore, size-dependent continuum mechanics is used because at small length
scales the material microstructures (such as lattice spacing between individual atoms) become
increasingly significant and their influence can no longer be ignored.

Conclusions:

In the end we conclude that if we draw a graph between stress and strain we will
always get a straight line. This means that under elastic limit stress is directly proportional to

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strain which is also called Hooke’s law. Slope of stress and strain graph will gives us the value
of Young’s Modulus E.
In this experiment. The apparatus is Searle's apparatus, so as to incorporate a
narrow parallel slit created by blades attached to the two wires. The change in the elongation in
the experimental wire directly changes the elongation of wire, which is measured by the change
in the positions of the minima in the diffraction pattern. It is also possible to determine other
physical quantities of interest that involves measuring micro-increment like the thermal
expansion coefficient a wire or a rigid body.

References:

[1] Determination of Young's modulusby Searle's method (2021). "Determination of Young's

modulusby Searle's method." from [Link]
s-modulusby-Searle---s-method_3051/.

Kalra, A., Lowe, A. and Jumaily, A.A., 2016. An overview of factors affecting the skins Youngs
modulus. J. Aging Sci,  4(2), p.1000156.

Mizubayashi, H., S. J. Li, H. Yumoto, and M. Shimotomai. "Youngs modulus of single phase
cementite." Scripta materialia 40, no. 7 (1999).

Voigt, M., Bojsen-Møller, F., Simonsen, E.B. and Dyhre-Poulsen, P., 1995. The influence of tendon
Youngs modulus, dimensions and instantaneous moment arms on the efficiency of human
movement. Journal of biomechanics,  28(3), pp.281-291.

. Yamaguchi, K., Adachi, H. and Takakura, N., 1998. Effects of plastic strain and strain path on youngs
modulus of sheet metals. Metals and Materials, 4(3), pp.420-425.

Wang, James C. "Young's modulus of porous materials."  Journal of materials science 19, no. 3 (1984):
801-808.

Treacy, MM JEBBESSEN, Thomas W. Ebbesen, and John M. Gibson. "Exceptionally high Young's
modulus observed for individual carbon nanotubes." nature 381, no. 6584 (1996): 678-680.
Katz, J. Lawrence. "Anisotropy of Young's modulus of bone."  Nature 283, no. 5742 (1980): 106-107.
Wachtman Jr, J.B. and Lam Jr, D.G., 1959. Young's modulus of various refractory materials as a function
of temperature.  Journal of the American Ceramic Society,  42(5), pp.254-260.
Pritz, T. "Apparent complex Young's modulus of a longitudinally vibrating viscoelastic rod."  Journal of
Sound and Vibration  77, no. 1 (1981): 93-100.

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Appendices:

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