Power Series (Module - 03) Learning outcomes

Learning outcomes

Functions given by power series.

Taylor series.
Laurent series.
Singularities and Poles.
Residues.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE August 3, 2020 3 / 12

 Power Series (Module - 03) Complex series - Preliminaries

Series of the complex terms:

Let (a1 + ib1 ) + (a2 + ib2 ) + ... + (an + ibn ) + ... → (1) be an infinite
series of complex terms. Where, a0 s and b0 s are real numbers.
Converge of the series:
If the series (1) Σan and Σbn converge to the sums A and B respec-
tively, then the series (1) is said to be converge to the sum A + iB.
Also, if the series is a convergent series, then

lim (an + ibn ) = 0.

n→∞

Absolutely convergent of the series:

The series (1) is said to be absolutely convergent if the series

|a1 + ib1 | + |a2 + ib2 | + ... + |an + ibn | + ...

is convergent since |an | ≤ |an + ibn | and |bn | ≤ |an + ibn |, it follows
that an absolutely convergent series is convergent.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE August 3, 2020 4 / 12

 Power Series (Module - 03) Complex series - Preliminaries

Series of the complex functions:

Let Σun (z) = u1 (z) + u2 (z) + ... + un (z) + ... → (2) be an infinite
series of complex functions.
Converge of the complex functions:
The series(2) converge to the sum S(z) and Sn (z) be the sum of its
first n terms. Then the series (2) is said to be uniformly convergent in
a region R, if corresponding to any positive number ε, there exists a
positive number N (depending on ε and z), such that for every z in R
|S(z) − Sn (z)| < ε for n > N .
Uniformly convergent of the complex functions:
The series(2) is said to be uniformly convergent in a region R if there
is a convergent series of the positive constants ΣMn such that
|un (z)| ≤ Mn for all z ∈ R.
Note: A uniformly convergent series(Σfn (z)) of continuous complex function is itself
R
continuous(S(z) is continuous in R) and can be integrated term by term(Σ c un (z)dz =
R
c S(z)dz).
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE August 3, 2020 5 / 12
 Power Series (Module - 03) A general form of geometric series - Preliminaries

Geometric series:
A finite geometric series has a form:
n
X a(1 − rn+1 )
Sn = a(1 + r + r2 + · · · + rn ) = a ri ⇒ Sn =
1−r
i=0

An infinite geometric series has the same form as the finite

geometric series except there is no last term:
∞
X a
Sn = a(1 + r + r2 + · · · ) = a r i ⇒ Sn = .
1−r
i=0

a
1 If |r| < 1 then the infinite geometric series converges to 1−r .
2 If |r| ≥ 1 then the series does not converge(diverge).
The number r is called the ratio of the geometric series because it is
the ratio of consecutive terms of the series.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE August 3, 2020 6 / 12

 Power Series (Module - 03) Power series - Preliminaries

.Power series:
An infinite series of the form
Σan (z − z0 )n = a0 + a1 (z − z0 ) + a2 (z − z0 )2 + ... + an (z − z0 )n + ...
is called a power series. It is a series in powers of (z − z0 ).
If Σan (z − z0 )n is converges at z = z0 then it converges absolutely for all z such that
|z − z0 | < R, where an ’s are complex coefficients and R is a non-negative real number, R
can be zero or infinity.

Note:
If R > 0 then the series converges absolutely to an analytic function for |z − z0| < R,
the series diverges to an analytic function for |z − z0 | > R and no conclusion can be
drawn about convergence on the boundary of |z − z0 | = R.
The disk |z − z0 | < R is called the disk(region) of convergence. z0 is called the centre
of convergence and R is called the radius of convergence.
If R = ∞ the function f (z) is entire function and if R = 0 the series only converges
only at the point zP= z0.
A particular case ∞ n 2 n
n=0 an z = a0 + a1 z + a2 z + · · · + an z + · · · , when z0 = 0.
The function f (z) and its higher derivatives have same radius of convergence.
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE August 3, 2020 7 / 12
 Power Series (Module - 03) Power series - Preliminaries

Region of convergence
Let the power series Σan (z − z0 )n .
The convergence region of the series can be obtained by the ratio test
 an+1 (z − z0 )n+1 
   
 an+1 
lim   = |z − z0 | lim 
 
n→∞  an (z − z0 )n  n→∞ an 
|z − z0 |
= <1
R
= |z − z0 | < R.

The power series converges if |z − z0 | < R.

The power series diverges if |z − z0 | > R.  
Note: The ratio test states that let limn→∞  an+1
an  = R
 

If R < 1 then the series converges absolutely,

If R > 1 then the series divergent,
If R = 1 then the limit fails to exist or inconclusive.
Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE August 3, 2020 8 / 12
 Power Series (Module - 03) Taylor’s series - Preliminaries

.Taylor’s series:
Let f (z) be an analytic at any points within a circle C with centre z0 and radius R. Then
at each point z within C,

f 0 (z0 ) f 00 (z0 ) f n (z0 )

f (z) = f (z0 ) + (z − z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + · · · + (z − z0 )n + ···
1! 2! n!

Then, the R.H.S of the series is converges to f (z) whenever |z − z0 | < R.

Taylor’s series of expansion of f (z) in powers of (z − z0 ) or about z = z0 is represented in
the form of power series
f n (z0 ) f (z)dz
f (z) = ∞ n 1
P R
n=0 an (z − z0 ) , where an = n!
= 2πi C (z−z0 )n+1 , n = 0, 1, 2, ....
Note:
Special case: Put z0 = 0 in Taylor series, we get

∞
f 0 (0) f 00 (0) 2 f n (0) n X f n (0) n
f (z) = f (0) + z+ z + ··· + z + ··· = z
1! 2! n! n=0
n!

is called Maclaurin’s series of expansion of f (z).

A function which is analytic at a point z0 then there exist a Taylor’s series about the
same point.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE August 3, 2020 9 / 12

 Power Series (Module - 03) Some standard Maclaurin’s series

Maclaurin’s series of expansion of standard functions

z2 z3 zn
ez = 1 + z
+ ··· = ∞
P
1!
+ 2!
+ 3! n=0 n! , for|z| < ∞.
z3 z5 (−1)n z 2n+1
z
+ ··· = ∞
P
sin z = 1!
− 3!
+ 5! n=0 (2n+1)!
, for|z| < ∞.
z2 z4 P∞ (−1)n z 2n
cos z = 1 − 2!
+ 4!
+ ··· = n=0 (2n)!
, for|z| < ∞.
3 5 P∞ 2n+1
z z z z
sinh z = 1!
+ + · · · = n=0 (2n+1)!
3!
+ 5!
, for|z| < ∞
z2 z4 P∞ z2n
cosh z = 1 + 2! + 4! + · · · = n=0 (2n)! , for|z| < ∞.
1
= (1 + z)−1 = 1 − z + z 2 − z 3 + · · · = ∞ n n
P
1+z n=0 (−1) z , for|z| < 1.
1
= (1 − z)−1 = 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + · · · = ∞ n
P
1−z n=0 z , for|z| < 1.
1
= (1 + z)−m = ∞ n
P
(1+z)m n=0 (−mn)z , for|z| < 1.
(m+n−1)! n
1
= (1 − z)−m = ∞
P
(1−z)m n=0 (m−1)!n! z , for|z| < 1.
z2 z3 z4
log(1 + z) = z − 2
+ 3
− 4
+ · · · , for|z| < 1.
2 3 4
− log(1 − z) = z + z2 + z3 + z4 + · · · , for|z| < 1.
2 3 4
h i
log(1 − z) = − z + z2 + z3 + z4 + · · · , for|z| < 1.
n n(n−1) 2 n(n−1)(n−2) 3 Pn n!
(1 + z)m = 1 + 1!
z + 2!
z + 3!
z + ··· = k
k=0 (n−k)!k! z , for|z| < 1.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE August 3, 2020 10 / 12

 Power Series (Module - 03) A simple procedure to get Taylor’s series

The procedure to get Taylor’s series expansion of f (z):

To obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) about z = a
Put w = z − a ⇒ z = w + a. Then f (z) = f (w + a) = φ(w)(say).
Write the Maclaurin’s series expansion of standard functions or
direct expansion.
Then, substitute w = z − a we get required Taylor’s series
expansion.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE August 3, 2020 11 / 12

 Power Series (Module - 03) Taylor’s Series - Examples

Example: Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = z1 at z = 1.

Soln: Given f (z) = z1
To expand the Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = z1 about z − 1
Put w = z − 1 ⇒ z = 1 + w.
f (z) = z1 = 1+w
1
= (1 + w)−1 = 1 − w + w2 − w3 + · · · , for|w| < 1
Now, substitute w = z − 1
f (z) = 1 − (z − 1) + (z − 1)2 − (z − 1)3 + · · ·, for|(z − 1)| < 1
This is the required Taylor’s series expansion of f (z) = z1 about z − 1.
Example:
1 Expand f (z) = ez as Taylor’s series about z = 1 and z = 3.
1
2 Expand f (z) = z2
P∞
In powers of (z+1) or prove that z −2 = n=1 (n + 1)(z + 1)n , if
|z + 1| < 1.
In powers of (z-2), state the region of validity of the expansion in
each cases.
3 Expand f (z) = sinh z and cosh z in Taylor’s series about z = iπ.
z−1
4 Expand f (z) = z+1
as Taylor’s series about z = 0 and z = 1.

Dr. M. Chandru (VIT-Vellore) Complex Variables and PDE August 3, 2020 12 / 12