Unit-3

Metal Forming

CO3: Analyze the forming process behavior for conventional and

advanced metal forming processes.
Deep Drawing

Bending
 Electromagnetic
forming
Explosive Forming

Electrohydraulic forming
Rolling Mill
• A rolling mill consists of one or more roll stands, motor drive, reduction gears, and flywheel
and coupling gears between units.

• The roll stand is the main part of the mill, where the rolling process is performed.

• It basically consists of housings in which bearings are fitted, which are used for mounting the
rolls.
•
Depending upon the profile of the rolled product, the body of the roll may be either flat for
rolling sheets (plates or strips) or grooved for making structural members (channel, I-beam,
rail).

• Machines used for performing rolling operations on metals are called rolling mills. Different
desings of rolling mills use separate arrangement of rolls.
Two High Rolling Mill

• Simple, robust and widely used design.

• Two rolls: rotate about the horizontal axis
and in opposite directions.
• Lower roll-fixed
• Upper roll- raised or lowered to vary the
gap
• For several reductions: Two high
reversing mill is used for saving handling
time.
• Both hot and cold rolling can be done.
Three high Rolling Mill

• 3 rolls in a single vertical plane

• Direction of material movement is
revered after each pass by raising to
upper roll gap and lowering to lower
roll gap.
• Top and Bottom rolls are drive rolls
• Middle roll rotates by friction.
• Elevators and manipulators are used
for material handing.
 Four high Rolling Mill
• Two work rolls of small diameter
compared with roll used in two high
rolling mills.
• Two support rolls: Dia 3 times time of
work rolls.
• Lower roll force and power requirement
• Lower cost
• Ease in replacement.
• Deflect more under roll force due to low
strength and rigidity
• Take care of above sentence by
providing support rolls.
• Reversing mill
• Tandem rolling: Series of 4 high rolling
mills.
 Cluster Mill
• Use of small work rolls having support of
large size back-up rolls.
• Cluster mill is used when rolling loads
are so large that the backup rolls
themselves start to bend and need to be
supported.
• Work rolls
• Intermediate rolls: support the work rolls
(driving rolls)
• Bearing rolls: Support the driving rolls.
• Well suited for rolling of thin sheet or foil
of high strength metals and alloys.
Forging
• Forging can be defined as a method of shaping the material by
compression between a pair of dies.
• One of the die is fixed and another is moving
• Applications: small component (Bolts, rivets, gears, connecting rod) to
huge components (Shaft for turbine, machine structural components etc.)
• Forgings usually have great strength, as compared with other methods of
producing products.
 Basic Forging Operations

• Smith Forging: (Probably the most ancient metal working process) A hot
workpiece is given the desired shape by using hand held tools and hammers.
These days, power-driven hammers are used to impart the repeated blows.
The anvil and hammer are mostly flat.
• Drop forging: The impact loads are applied to the workpiece to cause the
metal flow for filling up the cavity formed by the two halves of the closed die.
• Press Forging: Instead of repeated blows, a gradual force is applied in press
forging.
Basic Forging Operations
Upset forging (Upsetting):
• Operation in which height is reduced
and cross section is enlarged is known
as upsetting.
• Upsetting is used when a portion of job
required to be forged (Eg: Forging of
bolt head at one end of the rod).
• It may be either open or closed.
• Conditions to avoid buckling regarding
unsupported length to be forged.
Basic Forging Operations
Swagging
• It is a special variation of impact
forging where the repeated blows
are obtained by a radial movement
of shaped dies.
• This operation is generally used for
reducing the diameters and tapering
of bars and tubes.
Classification of Forging

Forging is classified into three categories:

1. Open-die Forging (Hand Forging, Power Forging)

2. Impression-die Forging

3. Closed-die Forging.
Open-die Forging

• Open-die forging is a hot forging process in which metal is shaped by hammering or pressing between flat or
simple contoured dies.

• In open die forging the dies do not completely cover the workpiece. Instead, there are open spaces that allow
various aspects of the workpiece to move from direct hot die contact, and to cooler open areas.

• In this type of forging, metals are worked above their recrystallization temperatures. Because the process
requires repeated changes in workpiece positioning.

• The workpiece cools during open die forging below its hot-working or recrystallization temperature. It must be
reheated before forging can continue.

• Due to friction, the material at the die interface flows less. Material flow increases while moving away from the
die interface. The forged product thus become defective known as barrelling (due to its shape like a barrel). Use
of lubricant can reduce it.

• The material at interface cools rapidly due to which develops greater resistance to deformation than at its
centre. Consequently, the material away from the interfaces deforms more as compared to interface.
 Impression-die Forging/Precision Forging

• As the name implies, two or more dies containing impressions of the part shape are brought together,
the workpiece undergoes plastic deformation until its enlarged sides touch the die side walls
• During the process, flash is formed, as some of the soft metal from the workpiece flows outside the die
impression.
• As the flash cools, it imparts deformation resistance to the workpiece, strengthening the final product.
• This builds pressure inside the bulk of the workpiece, aiding material flow into unfilled impressions.
• The finished part closely resembles the die impression. Because metal flow is restricted by the die
contours, this process can yield more complex shapes and closer tolerances than open-die forging
processes.
 Closed-die Forging
• The material is fully constrained in the cavity created by upper and lower die halves.
• In closed-Die Forging, no flash is formed and the workpiece is completely surrounded by
the dies. In this process, for example, a billet with carefully controlled volume is deformed
(hot or cold) by a punch in order to fill a die cavity without any loss of material.
• Therefore, proper control of the volume of material is essential to obtain a forging of
desired dimensions. Undersized blanks in closed-die forging prevent the complete filling
of the die, while oversized blanks may cause premature die failure or jamming of the dies.
• Press used for closed-die forging is of two types: (i) Hydraulic and (ii) Mechanical.

 A hydraulic press for closed-die forging has the same principle as that of a press for
smith or flat-die forging except the construction of the dies. In smith forging the press
dies have flat surface, while in a closed-die forging the press dies have shaped
impressions cut on dies.
 Mechanical forging presses of the crank type have found wide application in forging
practice. They are used for the production of rivets, screws, and nuts where a high
operating speed is desired. In capacity, they range from 50,000 to 8,000,000 kg and
speeds from 35 to 90 strokes per minute. Most engineering metals and alloys can be
forged with closed die forging processes; among them are carbon and alloy steels,
aluminum alloys and copper alloys.
Difference between
Impression and Closed
Die forging
•
 Advantages of Forging
• 1. Directional strength: Forging produces predictable and uniform grain size and flow characteristics. These qualities translate into
superior metallurgical and mechanical qualities, and deliver increased directional strength in the final part.

• 2. Structural strength: Forging also provides a degree of structural integrity that is unmatched by other metalworking processes. It
eliminates internal voids and gas pockets that can weaken metal parts. Predictable structural integrity reduces part inspection
requirements, simplifies heat treating and machining, and ensures optimum -part performance under field-load conditions.

• 3. Variety of sizes: Open die forged part weights can run from a single pound to over 400,000 pounds.

• 4. Variety of shapes: Shape design is just as versatile, ranging from simple bar, shaft and ring configurations to specialized shapes.

• 5. Metallurgical spectrum: Forgings can be produced from literally all ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

• 6. Material savings: Forging can measurably reduce material costs since it requires less starting metal to produce many part shapes.

• 7. Reduced rejection rules: By providing weld-free parts produced with cleaner forging quality material and yielding improved structural
integrity, forging can virtually eliminate rejections.

• 8. Production efficiencies: Using the forging process, the same part can be produced from many different sizes of starting ingots or
billets. This flexibility means that forged parts of virtually any grade can be manufactured more quickly and economically.
Limitations of Forging

• 1. The forged parts often need to be machined before use.

• 2. Tooling for complicated geometry may be expensive and require multiple passes on the same
workpiece.

• 3. The rapid oxidation of metal surfaces at high temperature results in scaling which wears the dies.

• 4. Initial cost of dies and maintenance cost is high.

Applications of Forging

• Typical parts made by forging are crankshafts and connecting rods for engines, turbine disks, gears,
wheels, bolt heads, hand tools, and many types of structural components for machinery and
transportation equipment.
 EXTRUSION
• Extrusion is the process in which metal is forced to flow through a
shape-forming die.
• A metal billet, heated to the appropriate temperature, is fed into
the cylindrical container of the extrusion press and is forced by the
action of a ram through a steel die whose orifice has the desired
shape to produce the solid or hollow section.
• The metal emerges from the die as a continuous bar, which is cut
to the required lengths.
• Extrusion products have uniform cross sectional area similar to
the die shape.
• The cross-section that can be produced vary from solid round,
rectangular, to L shapes, T shapes, tubes and many other different
types.
• Extrusions, often minimize the need for secondary machining, but
are not of the same dimensional accuracy or surface finish as
machined parts.
• Extrusion differs from drawing in that the metal is pushed, rather
than pulled under tension.
• It can be performed under both hot and cold conditions.
 Cold extrusion
• Cold extrusion is the process done at room temperature or slightly elevated temperature (below
recrystallization temperature).

• This process can be used for most materials subject to designing robust enough tooling that can withstand
the stresses created by extrusion.

• Cold extrusion can be used with any material that possesses adequate cold work ability–e.g., lead, tin,
aluminum alloys, copper, titanium, molybdenum, vanadium, steel.

• Typical parts which are cold extruded are collapsible tubes, aluminium cans, cylinders etc

• The advantages of cold extrusion are:

1. No oxidation takes place.

2. Good mechanical properties due to severe cold working

3. Good surface finish with the use of proper lubricants.

 Hot extrusion
• Hot extrusion is performed at elevated temperatures (above recrystallization temp),
approximately 50 to 75% of the melting point of the metal.

• Good lubrication is necessary due to the high temperatures and pressures and its detrimental
effect on the die life as well as other components.

• Hot extrusion helps reduce the work load but it poses more problems such as cooling
arrangement and rapid die wear.

• Typical parts produced by hot extrusion are trim parts used in automotive and construction
applications, window frame members, railings, aircraft structural parts.
Types of Extrusion

• Extrusion processes can be classified as:

• Direct
• Indirect
• Hydrostatic
• Impact.
Direct (forward) extrusion
• In this process a ram forces the preheated billet through the die.
• The billet slides relative to the container wall and therefore, the wall friction increases the ram force
considerably.
• The whole billet is required to move forward (direct extrusion), resulting in a large frictional loss, and high
working load. The container is subjected to high radial stresses.
• A dummy block or pressure plate is placed at the end of the ram in contact with the billet.
• The process can be compared like squeezing toothpaste out of a tube.

• The process is generally used to produce profiled sections, thin-walled tubular parts, straight tubular
shapes, and hollow bar products.
Indirect (reverse, inverted or backward) extrusion
• Indirect extrusion is a process that forces the metal confined in
the cavity to flow in a direction opposite to that of the ram travel.
• The difficulty encountered in direct extrusion related to frictional
loss can be avoided by backward extrusion.
• The die moves toward the billet and except at the die, there is no
relative motion at the billet-container interface.
• Frictional force is absent between the billet and the container.
Frictional force acts only at die-container interface. Work load is
reduced and also it is independent of the billet length.
• Thus, the power required for extrusion is less than for direct
extrusion.
• In practice, a hollow ram carries a die, while the other end of the
container is closed with a plate.
• Frequently, for indirect extrusion, the ram containing the die is
kept stationary, and the container with the billet is made to move.
• Backward extrusion is useful in forming a variety of cylindrical
shapes such as nuts, sleeves and tubular rivets.
Hydrostatic extrusion
• In this process, instead of applying the load on the billet directly by the ram, a fluid medium
can be used.
• The friction loss at the billet-container interface is eliminated.
• The chamber is filled with a fluid that transmits the pressure to the billet, which is then
extruded through the die.
• There is no friction along the walls of the container.
• Because the billet is subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure, it may have an irregular cross
section.
• Because of the pressurized fluid, lubrication is very effective, and the extruded product has
good surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
• The limitation with this process is the practical limit of fluid pressure that may be used
because of the constraint involving the strength of the container and the requirement that the
fluid does not solidify at high pressure.
• Pressures are typically on the order of 1400 MPa (200 ksi).
• Hydrostatic extrusion usually is carried out at room temperature, typically using vegetable
oils as the fluid.
• Long wires also have been extruded from an aluminum billet at room temperature and at an
extrusion ratio of 14,000, which means that a 1-m billet becomes a 14-km-long wire.
• In spite of the success obtained, hydrostatic extrusion has had limited industrial applications,
mainly because of the somewhat complex nature of the tooling, the experience needed with
high pressures and the design of specialized equipment,
 Impact extrusion
• It is a form of indirect extrusion and is particularly suitable for hollow shapes.

• It is usually performed on a high-speed mechanical press. The punch descends at a high speed and strikes the
blank, extruding it upwards.

• The thickness of the extruded tubular section is a function of the clearance between the punch and the die
cavity. Although the process is performed cold, considerable heating results from the high-speed deformation.

• Thin walled cans may be obtained by using impact extrusion. This process is limited to soft and ductile
materials (lead, tin, aluminum and copper) and is normally performed under cold conditions.
High Energy Rate Forming Processes
•

Source Capacity/Weight Distance/Velocity Energy Time Power

Press 500kN 0.15 m 75kJ 0.5 sec 150kW

Hammer 42kN 6 m/sec 77kJ 0.06 sec 1.25MW
Water 26N 240 m/sec 76kJ 0.0007 sec 107MW
front
 Explosive forming
• A shock wave is generated in the fluid
medium by detonating an explosive charge.
• There is a greater hazard of die failure in the
confined operation due to inevitable lack of
control in explosive forming.
• Different types of explosives used for the
operation.
• TNT and dynamite for higher energy.
• Gun powder for lower energy.
• The distance between the explosive charge
and free surface of water (in unconfined
forming) should be atleast twice the standoff
distance.
 Electrohydraulic Forming
• Electric discharge in the form of sparks is used to generate a shock wave in a
fluid.
• Capacitor bank is charge using charging circuit, subsequently, the switch is
closed, resulting in a spark within the electrode gap to discharge the capacitors.
• Energy level is lower than that in explosive forming and the peak pressure
depends on the amount of energy discharge through spark.
 Electromagnetic Forming

• The workpiece has to be electrically conductive.

• The electrical energy first stored in the capacitor
bank
• This energy is then discharged through a coil by
closing the switch
• The coil produces a magnetic field.
• The intensity depends on the current value.
• Metallic workpiece setup its own magnetic field
due to induced current.
• Due to these magnetic fields, the rigidly held coils
repels the workpiece into the die.
• Short life of coil is a major problem.