Unit 3: Topic 3.1 & 3.

2 - Empires Expand & Maintain Power

Ottoman Case Study Documents
Historical Developments

● Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade to establish large empires
in both hemispheres. (3.1)
● Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military professionals, became more
common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations and resources. (3.2)
● Rulers continued to use religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize their rule. (3.2)

Today’s Inquiry Questions

● How and why did the Ottoman Empire develop and expand from 1450 to 1750?
● What methods did Ottoman Sultans (rulers) use to legitimize and consolidate power in the Ottoman Empire?

Part 1: Topic 3.1 - Development and Expansion of the Ottoman Empire

Document #1 - Map of Ottoman Expansion, 1300 - 1683

Document #2 - The History of Mehmed the Conqueror (1453 CE), by Kritovoulos

Mehmed II (1432-1481) was an Ottoman ruler who expanded the Ottoman Empire in Asia Minor and
organized the attack on Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire’s capital. He utilized both land and naval
assaults on the city. This military accomplishment was a defining moment for the Ottomans; conquering
Constantinople meant that the West could not claim military superiority over the Muslim world. Kritovoulos
was a Greek who was a servant and admirer of Mehmed II and while he wasn’t there for the siege, he
collected the eyewitness accounts of those that were present. In this excerpt, Sultan Mehmed the
Conqueror and the Ottoman armies have gained access to the harbor of Constantinople, much to the
surprise of the “Romans” or Byzantines.

The Romans [Byzantines] when they saw such an unheard-of thing actually happen, and warships lying at
anchor in the Horn--which they never would have suspected--were astounded at the impossibility of the
spectacle, and were overcome by the greatest consternation [feelings of anxiety/dismay] and perplexity.
They did not know what to do now, but were in despair. In fact they had left unguarded the walls along the
Horn for a distance of about thirty stadia, and even so they did not have enough men for the rest of the
walls, either for defense or for attack, whether citizens or men from elsewhere. Instead, two or even three
battlements had but a single defender. . . .

Then, with fine insight, the Sultan summoned the shield-bearers, heavy infantry, and other troops and
said: “Go to it, friends and children mine! It is time now to show yourselves good fighters!” They
immediately crossed the moat, with shouts and fearful yells, and attacked the outer wall. All of it, however,
had been demolished by the cannon. There were only stockades of great beams instead of a wall, and
bundles of vine-branches, and jars full of earth. At that point a fierce battle ensued close in and with the
weapons of hand-to-hand fighting. They heavy infantry and shield-bearers fought to overcome the
defenders and get over the stockade, while the Romans [Byzantines] and Italians tried to fight these off to
guard the stockade. . . .

The Sultan followed them up, as they struggled bravely, and encouraged them. He ordered those in
charge of the cannon to put the match to the cannon. And these, being set off, fired their stone balls
against the defenders and worked no little destruction on both sides, among those in the near vicinity.

So then, the two sides struggled and fought bravely and vigorously. Most of the night passed, and the
Romans were successful and prevailed not a little. Also, Giustinianni and his men kept their positions
stubbornly, and guarded the stockade and defended themselves bravely against the aggressors.

Sultan Mehmed saw that the attacking divisions were very much worn out by the battle and had not made
any progress worth mentioning, and that the Romans and Italians were not only fighting stoutly but were
prevailing in the battle. He was very indignant at this, considering that it ought not to be endured any
longer. Immediately he brought up the divisions which he had been reserving for later on, men who were
extremely well armed, daring and brave, and far in advance of the rest in experience and valor. They were
the elite of the army; heavy infantry, bowmen, and lancers, and his own bodyguard, and along with them
those of the division called Janissaries.

Calling to them and urging them to prove themselves now as heroes, he led the attack against the wall,
himself at the head until they reached the moat. There he ordered the bowmen, stringers, and
musketeers to stand at a distance and fire ro the right, against the defenders on the palisade and on the
battered wall. They were to keep up so heavy a fire that those defenders would be unable to fight, or to
expose themselves because of cloud of arrows and other projectiles falling like snowflakes. . . .

. . . Instead the hapless Romans were destined finally to be brought under the yoke of servitude and to
suffer its horrors. For although they battled bravely . . . They abandoned the palisade and wall where they
had been fighting, and thought of only one thing--how they could get away safe themselves.

. . . Sultan Mehmed, who happened to be fighting quite nearby, saw that the palisade and the other part of
the wall that had been destroyed were now empty of men and deserted by the defenders. He noted that
men were slipping away secretly and that those who remained were fighting feebly because they were so
few. Realizing from this that the defenders had fled and that the wall was deserted, he shouted out:
“Friends, we have the City! We have it! They are already fleeing from us! They can’t stand it any longer!
The wall is bare of defenders! It needs just a little more effort and the City is taken! Don’t weaken, but on
with the work with all your might, and be men and I am with you!”

Stadia = Greek measure of distance, 660 ft or 1/8th of a mile

Heavy infantry = heavily armed and armoured infantryman that were trained to mount frontal assaults and/or anchor
the defensive center of a battle line
Janissaries = a member of the Turkish infantry forming the Sultan's guard between the 14th and 19th centuries
Musketeers = a soldier armed with a musket.
Document #3 - Letter from Sultan Selim I (of the Sunni Ottoman Empire) and Shah Isma’il (of the Shi’a
Safavid Empire)
By the 16th century the Ottomans were invading Muslim territory to expand their state and influence. A conflict
between the Shi’a Safavids and the Ottomans began in 1502. Shah Ismai’l wanted to remove the Ottomans from their
land. The Ottomans eventually won at the Battle of Chaldiran. Before the war, however, the two rulers exchanged
diplomatic letters.

. . . It has been heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright community of Muhammad (prayers and
salutations upon its founder!) to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, that you
have unfurled the banner of oppression in the cause of aggression, that you no longer uphold the commandments
and prohibitions of the Divine Law, that you have incited your abominable Shi’a faction to unsanctified sexual union
and to the shedding of innocent blood, that like they “Who listen to falsehood and consume the unlawful” [Qu’ran
V:42] you have given ear to idle deceitful words and heave eaten that which is forbidden.

. . . should you lift up the hand of oppression from the heads of your subjects ruined by tyranny and sedition, should
you take up a course of repetance, become like one blameless and return to the sublime striaght path of the Sunna of
Muhammad (Prayers and salutations upon him and God’s satisfaction upon his immaculate family and his rightly-
guided companions all!). For “My companions are like the stars: whomever you choose to follow, you will be guided
aright” and finally should you consider your lands and their people part of the well-protected Ottoman state, then shall
you be granted our royal favor and our imperial patronage. . .

On the other hand, if your evil seditious [inciting rebellion] habits have become a part of your nature, that which has
become essential can never again be accidental.

Then, with the support and assistance of God, I will crown the head of every gallows tree with the head of a crown-
wearing Sufi and clear that faction from the face of the earth--”The party of God, they are the victors” [Qu’ran V:56]; I
will break the oppressors’ grip with the power of the miraculous white hand of Moses, for “God’s hand is over their
hands” [Qu’ran XLVIII:10]. Let them remove the cotton of negligence from the ears of their intelligence and, with their
shrouds on their shoulders, prepare themselves for “Surely that which you are promised will come to pass” [Qu’ran
VI: 134]. . . the triumphant troops. . . will wreak ruin upon you and drive you from that land.
Document #4 - An image of the Siege of Rhodes (an island in Greece which had been a stronghold of
Christian knights) from the Süleymannâme, a chronicle of the Sultan Suleiman’s life.
Document #5 - Ottoman miniature from the Süleymanname depicting the execution by elephant of a defeated
enemy in Belgrade.
Document #6 - Ottoman Siege of Esztergom in 1543, by Sebastian Vrancks.

Document #7 - Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq: The Turkish Letters, 1555-1562

At Buda I made my first acquaintance with the Janissaries; this is the name by which the Turks call the infantry of the
royal guard. The Turkish state has 12,000 of these troops when the corps is at its full strength. They are scattered
through every part of the empire, either to garrison the forts against the enemy, or to protect the Christians and Jews
from the violence of the mob. There is no district with any considerable amount of population, no borough or city,
which has not a detachment of Janissaries to protect the Christians, Jews, and other helpless people from outrage
and wrong.

A garrison of Janissaries is always stationed in the citadel of Buda. The dress of these men consists of a robe
reaching down to the ankles, while, to cover their heads, they employ a cowl which, by their account, was originally a
cloak sleeve, part of which contains the head, while the remainder hangs down and flaps against the neck. On their
forehead is placed a silver gilt cone of considerable height, studded with stones of no great value.

These Janissaries generally came to me in pairs. When they were admitted to my dining room they first made a bow,
and then came quickly up to me, all but running, and touched my dress or hand, as if they intended to kiss it. After this
they would thrust into my hand a nosegay of' the hyacinth or narcissus; then they would run back to the door almost
as quickly as they came, taking care not to turn their backs, for this, according to their code, would be a serious
breach of etiquette. After reaching the door, they would stand respectfully with their arms crossed, and their eyes bent
on the ground, looking more like monks than warriors. On receiving a few small coins (which was what they wanted)
they bowed again, thanked me in loud tones, and went off blessing me for my kindness. To tell you the truth, if I had
not been told beforehand that they were Janissaries, I should, without hesitation, have taken them for members of
some order of Turkish monks, or brethren of some Moslem college. Yet these are the famous Janissaries, whose
approach inspires terror everywhere.
 Part 2: Topic 3.2 - Legitimizing and Consolidating Power

Document #8 - Topkapi Palace Video (click to watch the video)

Document #9 - Suleymaniye Mosque Video (click to watch the video)