Reviewer in science 9
Circulatory and Respiratory System
Trachea is the empty tube that serves as passageway of air into the lungs
Bronchi are the two branching tubes that connect the trachea to the lungs
Bronchioles are the hairlike tubes that connect to the alveoli
Alveoli are the airsacs that allow gas exchange in the lungs
Air first enters your lungs and then into the left part of your heart. It is then driven by
your heart into the bloodstream, all the way through your body. The heart pumps blood, which
transports essential nutrients, oxygen, and other chemicals to every cell in your body. Once it
reaches the cells, oxygen processes the nutrients to release energy. Carbon dioxide is given off
during this process. The blood delivers carbon dioxide into the right portion of your heart, from
which it is pumped to the lungs. Carbon dioxide leaves your body through the lungs when you
exhale.
Another name for the circulatory system is the cardiovascular system.
. Heart – pumps the blood throughout the body
. Blood vessel – carries the blood throughout the body
Arteries - carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the cells, tissues and organs of
the body
Veins - carry deoxygenated blood to the heart
Capillaries - the smallest blood vessels in the body, connecting the smallest arteries to the
smallest veins - the actual site where gases and nutrients are exchanged
. Blood – carries the materials throughout the body
The atria are the receiving chambers of the heart, accepting blood from the body (right atrium)
and from the lungs (left atrium). The ventricles are the pumping chambers, moving blood to the
lungs (right ventricle) and into the body (left ventricle)
The heart has two pumps. Each pump has two chambers, the upper and lower chambers. The
upper chamber is the atrium that receives blood coming in from the veins. The lower chamber
is the ventricle that forces the blood out into the arteries. There is a valve between each atrium
and ventricle to prevent the blood from flowing backwards. The valves are like one-way doors
that keep the blood moving in only one direction. Valves control movement of blood into the
heart chambers and out to the aorta and the pulmonary artery
All of the muscle tissues of the heart do not contract at the same time. Different parts of the
heart contract at different times. When the top portion contracts, the bottom part relaxes.
When the bottom contracts, the top relaxes. When a chamber contracts, it becomes smaller
and the blood inside gets squeezed or pumped out.
When you inhaled the diaphragm contracts….When you exhaled the diaphragm compress or
relaxed or expand
Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance
In the Mendelian patterns of inheritance, the effects of the recessive gene are not observed
when the dominant gene is present
Many characteristics have more complex inheritance patterns than those studied by Mendel.
They are complicated by factors such as codominance, incomplete dominance, multiple alleles,
and sex-linked traits.
Incomplete dominance occurs when the phenotype of the offspring is somewhere in between
the phenotypes of both parents; a completely dominant allele does not occur.
Codominance occurs when both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the
heterozygote.
Many genes have multiple (more than two) alleles. An example is ABO blood type in humans.
There are three common alleles for the gene that controls this characteristic. The alleles IA and
IB are dominant over i.
In humans, XX chromosomes determine femaleness and XY determine maleness.
A sex-linked trait is on the X chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes; they can
inherit or carry the trait without being affected if it acts in a recessive manner.
Sex-limited traits are those that are expressed exclusively in one sex.
Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one than in the other
sex.
Genes are located in the chromosomes.
DNA contains the information needed to form and control the physical make-up and chemical
processes of an organism.
DNA is a double-stranded helix made up of repeating units of nucleotides.
A nucleotide is composed of the following: sugar and phosphate molecules, and nitrogeneous
bases. The base can either be adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine.
Biodiversity and Environment
Index of diversity = Number of species x number of runs/Number of trees
Measuring popular density= no of individuals/Size of area
Population is a group of organisms of the same species living in a certain place.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life in an area.
Communities with many different species (a high index of diversity) will be able
to withstand environmental changes better than communities with only a few
species (a low index of diversity).
Population sizes vary among organisms. They change with the number of births
and when they move into an ecosystem. They also change when members die or
move out of an ecosystem.
Limiting factors are environmental conditions that keep a population from
increasing in size and help balance ecosystems.
The carrying capacity is affected by changes in the environment.
Extinction occurs when the last member of a species dies.
When the population of a species begins declining rapidly, the species is said to
be a threatened species.
A species is in endangered whenits population is so low that it is nearly extinct.
Human actions have resulted in habitat loss and degradation that has
accelerated the rate of extinction.
The principal causes of deforestation are illegal logging, kaingin farming, forest
fires, and conversion of agricultural lands to housing projects, and typhoon.
The effects of deforestation include soil erosion, floods, and depletion of wildlife
resources.
The major cause of wildlife depletion is the loss of habitat.
Coral reef destruction is caused by dynamite fishing and muro-ami, while
mangrove destruction is caused by overharvesting and conversion of the area into
other uses.
In eutrophication, nutrients are washed away from the land to enrich bodies of
water. It causes excessive growth of aquatic plants and algae and results in algal
bloom, which eventually die and decompose. The process depletes the oxygen
dissolved in water, causing fish and other aquatic organisms to die.
Acid rain is a result of air pollution mostly from factories and motor vehicles.
Sustainable development means that a society should live under the carrying
capacity of the environment.
ENVIRONMENT: Life Energy
Through the process of photosynthesis, plants and other chlorophyll-bearing
organisms produce food for themselves.
In photosynthesis, plants capture light energy and convert it into chemical
energy stored in food
The summary equation for photosynthesis is as follows:
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast found in the leaves of plants.
Essentially, the two major stages in photosynthesis are:
o Light reaction phase
o Calvin Cycle
Improved farming practices enhance photosynthesis that result in good harvest.
Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria of the cells.
Organisms release stored energy in food through the process of respiration.
Respiration breaks down glucose into carbon dioxide, water and energy (ATP) in
the presence of oxygen.
The summary equation of respiration is as follows: Glucose + oxygen carbon
dioxide + water + ATP
The breakdown of glucose involves three major steps: glycolysis, Krebs cycle;
electron transport chain
