Lesson 1.

3: Learning Theories

Learning a. Explain the basic principle of the different theories of learning.

Outcomes b. Make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning
c. Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively
d. Explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism
e. Explain Banduras’s social learning theory.
f. Give specific applications of each theory in teaching.
Time Frame 5 hours/1 week
Introduction With new researches, explanations provided but the basic principles of
behaviorism appeared not satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories came
into view which maintained some of the behaviorist concepts but excluded
others, and added new ideas which later came to be associated with the
cognitive views of learning. The neo-behaviorist, then, were transitional
group, bridging the gap behaviorism and cognitive theories learning.

Activity ACTIVITY 1 (BEHAVIORISM)

1. Observation
a. Choose a place where you can observe adult-child interactions – such
as mall, in church, parks or at the playground, etc. Spend one hour
observing such adult-child interactions. Focus your attention on the
stimulus – response – consequence patter you observe.
b. Describe the consequences you observe. (It is better to write or
scribble the details on the spot or as soon as you finish your
observation).

ACTIVITY 2 (CONNECTIONISM)

Primary Law How I would apply the Primary Law

Law of Readiness

Law of Effect. Indicate

Specifically how you will
use positive/negative
reinforcements (rewards)

Law of Exercise

ACTIVITY 3
Working on Maze
ACTIVITY 4
Reflecting Chart of Tolman and Bandura
Reflecting on the different theories of both psychologists. Write your own
theory as a future teacher.

YOUR YOUR
TOLMAN BANDURA
REFLECTION REFLECTION

Activity 5: WORD PUZZLE/GARDEN OF HERBS

What are the herbs approved by the Department of Health?

A C A P U L K O C V B N L L K
B M O T S A A N G G U B A T W
C M P N B H L P I F D S G F O
D Q B A W A N G S D X C U H K
F A A N L S A M B O N G N Q W
Z Z Y X C A C V B N M T D T K
D Z A C G V Y N H G S R I A L
G Q B P U A S A Q F B N U Y E
O X A O N Y E R B A B U E N A
L C S W D A S D F G R E S T J
P A N S I T P A N S I T A N O
N I Y O G N I Y O G A N A S F

1. For ringworm and other skin (fungal) infections.

2. For non-insulin dependent diabetic patients
3. For blood pressure control.
4. For use antiseptic disinfect wounds for mouthwash or tooth decay
and gum infection.
5. For cough and asthma
 6. For intestinal worms, particularly ascaris and trichina.
7. For urinary stones
8. For mouthwash
9. For arthritis and gout
10. For relief from body aches and pains.

Analysis Activity 1: BBEHAVIORISM

Answer the questions.

1. What kind of stimuli for children’s and adult behavior did you
observe?

2. What kinds of behaviors on the part of children elicit reinforcement

and punishment consequences from the adult?

3. What kind of behaviors of adults are reinforced or punished by the

children?

4. What kinds of reinforcement and punishments seem to be most

“successful”?

5. Given this experience, what are your thoughts about operant

conditioning? Do you think children reinforce and punish adults
reinforce and punish them? How might the two be interdependent?

Activity 3: WORKING ON A MAZE

1. How did you solve maze A.? What strategy did you use? (trial and
error, examined the maze before proceeding with your pen etc.

2. Was it easier to solve maze B? Why?

Activity 5: WORD PUZZLE/GARDEN OF HERBS

Reflection Questions;

1. As a student, what factor influence learning?

2. What are the negative implications of technology to

intellectual and social development of young
children?
Abstraction People learn through repetition. Learner is a passive blank slate shaped by
environmental stimuli, both positive and negative reinforcement. This topic
helps you understand behaviorism and its connection to learning
reinforcement.

BEHAVIORISM

This particular learning theory assumes that the learner is essentially passive,
simply responding to their environmental stimuli. Behavioral theorists
therefore believe that a learner basically begins as a clean slate, and their
behavior is shaped by positive/negative reinforcement

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable

behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning
and reinforcement (rewards and punishment). It does not give much attention
to the mind, and the possibility of thought processes
occurring in the mind. Contributions in the
development of the behaviorist theory largely
came from Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and
Skinner.

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiological is well

known for his work in classical conditioning
or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most
renowned experiment involved meat, a dog
and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring
the dog’s salivation in order to study
digestion. This is when he stumbled upon
classical conditioning.

Pavlov’s Experiment.

Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response

from the dog. Placing dog food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog
initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell
was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After
conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produce
salivation (conditioned response). This is classical conditioning.
 \\\\\

Figure 1
Pavlov’s Experiment Schematic

PAVLOV ALSO HAD THE FOLLOWING FINDINGS:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound
of the bell, it well salivate at the other similar sounds

Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will
eventually cease in response to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an
elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with
food.

Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells

(stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and
which would not.

Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to

associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light
may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will
salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

CONNECTIONISM

Connectionism is a learning theory developed by George Siemens and Steven

Downs. It stresses the connections and combinatorial creativity. All
the knowledge is out there – it’s a matter of making the connections. Siemens
(2004) states, “A community is the clustering of similar areas of interest that
allows for interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and thinking together.”
For example, if a learner is trying to learn how Donald Trump has risen to
power, they may start on a Facebook post that a friend made, which could
then take them to an article, but the text is dense and confusing, so instead
the student the student scroll down to the comments sections and finds
another link to blog, and from the blog there is an embedded YouTube video
that they watch to more fully understand the issue. The student has used
various forms of gathering information using the internet, and has gleaned
the most salient information by using many different modes to more fully
understand the issue.

Edward Lee Thorndike

1904-1990

Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R

framework of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago he
wrote a text book entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the first one to
use this term. He explained that learning is the result of associations forming
between stimuli and responses. Such associations or “habits” become
strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.
The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain
responses came to be repeated than others because of rewards. The main
principle of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could
be adequately explained without considering any unobservable internal
states. Thorndike’s theory on connectionism stated that learning has taken
place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is
formed. He came up with three primary laws.

Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning

theory that lead to the development of operant conditioning within
Behaviorism. Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing
associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from the
consequences of our behavior.
Skinner wasn’t the first psychologist to study learning by consequences.
Indeed, Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of
Edward Thorndike.
 Figure 1
Simplified graph of the result of the puzzle box experiment.

He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encouraged to escape to reach
a scrap of fish placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box and
time how long it took to escape. The cats experimented with different ways
to escape the puzzle box and reach the fish.
Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When
it had escaped it was put in again, and once more the time it took to escape
was noted. In successive trials the cats would learn that pressing the lever
would have favorable consequences and they would adopt this behavior,
becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever.
Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect” which stated that any
behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated,
and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be
stopped.
THORDIKE’S THEORY ON CONNECTIONISM stated that learning has
taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response
is formed. He came up with three primary laws:

Law of Effect.
The Law of Effect stated that a
connection between a stimulus and
response is strengthened when the
consequence is positive (reward) and
the connection between the stimulus
and the response is weakened when
the consequence is negative.
Thorndike later on, revised this “law”
when he found that negative reward,
seemingly pleasurable consequences
do not necessarily motivate
performance.

Law of Exercise.
Tell us that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond in practice the stronger
it will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this.
However, like the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to revise when
Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance
performance.

Law of Readiness.
This states that, the more readiness the learner has to respond to the
stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready
to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person.
Example, if the teacher says, “Okay we will now watch the movie (stimulus)
you’ve been waiting for.” And suddenly the power goes off, the students will
feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but were
prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not at all ready to respond
to stimuli and is asked to respond, that becomes annoying. For instance, the
teacher asks the question and expects the students to respond right away when
he is still not ready. This will be annoying to the student. This is why teacher
should remember to say the question first, and wait for a few seconds before
calling on anyone to answer.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and reward (laws of

effect/exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they
belong to the same action (law of readiness)
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered
situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

Behaviorism: Tolman & Bandura Generalization:

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Usually, people who worked on a maze activity, which you just did, would
say they found the second maze easier. This is because they say that the two
mazes were identical, except that the entrance and exit points had been
reversed. Their experience in Maze A was much easier for them to answer
Maze B. People are building mind maps of events that they perceived. These
mental maps help them to respond to other things or tasks later, particularly
if they see the similarity. You may start responding with trial and error
(behavioral), but later on your response becomes more internally driven
(cognitive perspective). This is what neo-behaviorism is all about. It has
behavioral aspects, but it also has a cognitive perspective.

There are two neo-behaviorism-reflecting theories that stand out. Edward

Tolman's purposive behaviorism and Albert Bandura's theory of social
learning. Both theories are influenced by behaviorism (focused on internal
elements and learning).

Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

Purpose behaviorism has also been referred to as sign learning theory and
is often seen as a link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman 's
theory was based on the psychological views of the Gestalt Psychologist and
the behaviorist John Watson.
Tolman believes that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves
building belief in the acquisition of knowledge about the environment and
then the discovery of knowledge through purposeful and objective behavior.

Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism

learns by pursuing
signs for a goal, i.e. learning is acquired through
meaningful behavior. He stressed that the
organized aspect of learning is acquired through
meaningful behavior. He emphasized that the
organized aspect of learning is that the stimuli
allowed in are not connected by simple one-to-one
switches to the outgoing reactions. Rather, the
incoming impulses are usually worked out and elaborated in the central
control room into a tentative cognitive environment map. And it is this
tentative map, indicating routes and pathways, and environmental relations
that finally determines what kind of response the animal will finally make.

Tolman's form of behaviorism underscored the relationship between stimuli

rather than stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (sign) would
be associated with already meaningful stimuli (significant ones) through a
series of pairings; there was no need for reinforcement to establish learning.
In your labyrinth activity, the new stimulus or "sign" (maze B) has become
associated with the already meaningful stimulus, the signicate (maze A). So
you may have connected the two stimuli, Labyrinth A and Labyrinth B, and
used your knowledge and experience in Labyrinth A to learn how to respond
to Labyrinth A.

Tolman’s Key Concepts

This is a learning theory that was in response to

behaviorism. Psychologist who promoted this
idea claimed that behaviorism failed to explain
cognition. In this theory, mind is an information
processor. It emphasizes understanding the
concept as a whole instead of just the piece.

This is the learning theory that was taught in

developing online education using Blooms
Taxonomy. Examples of cognitivist strategies
for learning higher-level thinking are starting a lesson with a hook to create
interest, a review quiz to promote prior learning, using learning outcomes,
chunking content into organized bite-sized pieces, using graphic organizers,
and the student takes on an active role on learning. The teacher gives lots of
encouragement and positive feedback.

Social Learning Theory:

Albert Bandura
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of
observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of
others. Bandura (1977) states: “Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not
to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own
actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is
learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms
an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this
coded information serves as a guide for action. Social learning theory
explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction
between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.

The component processes underlying observational learning are:

1. Attention - includes modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence,

complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics
(sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement).

2. Retention - includes symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic

rehearsal, motor rehearsal)

3. Motor Reproduction - includes physical capabilities, self-observation

of reproduction, accuracy of feedback.

4. Motivation, including external, vicarious and self-reinforcement.

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of the others and the
outcomes of those behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
4. Social learning can be considered a bridge or a transition between
behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.

People are often to reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura
suggested that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is several
possible ways;
1. The observer is reinforced by the model
2. The observer reinforce by a third person
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s
behavior vicariously.
 1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and
punishment have indirect effects on learning.
2. Reinforcement ad punishment influence the extent to which an
individual exhibits a behavior that has been learned
3. The expectation of reinforcement process that promote learning.

1. Learning without performance. (through observation and actual

imitation)
2. Cognitive processing during learning (attention)
3. Expectations (consequences)
4. Reciprocal causation (person, behavior and environment)
5. Modeling (live models, and symbolic models)

1. Attention – mental focus or concentration, willingness of the child

to observe and mimic the behavior of a model.
2. Retention – To encode the behavior in the memory, ability to store
information.
3. Motor Production – To actually perform the behavior observe
4. Motivation/Reinforcement – Force that drives one to act.

COGNITIVISM

Cognitivism revived the psychological study of thinking, developing

scientifically rigorous ways of studying unobservable mental activity. In this
module you will encounter different questions on how cognitivism brings on
the development of learning, and you will find answers or solution to these
questions.

What is Cognitivism?

Cognitivism is "the psychology of learning which emphasizes human

cognition or intelligence as a special endowment enabling man to form
hypotheses and develop intellectually" (Cognitivism) and is also known as
cognitive development. The underlying concepts of cognitivism involve how
we think and gain knowledge. Cognitivism involves examining learning,
memory, problem solving skills, and intelligence. Cognitive theorists may
want to understand how problem solving changes throughout childhood, how
cultural differences affect the way we view our own
academic achievements, language development, and much more. (Feldman,
Cognitivism)

How Does Learning Occur?

Cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental

structures and, as such, are closer to the rationalist end of the epistemology
continuum (Bower & Hilgard, 1981). Learning is equated with discrete
changes between states of knowledge rather than with changes in the
probability of response. Cognitive theories focus on the conceptualization of
students’ learning processes and address the issues of how information is
received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. Learning is concerned
not so much with what learners do but with what they know and how they
come to acquire it (Jonassen, 1991b). Knowledge acquisition is described as
a mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner.
The learner is viewed as a very active participant in the learning process.

Which factors Influence Learning?

Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes

the role that environmental conditions play in
facilitating learning. Instructional
explanations, demonstrations, illustrative
examples and matched non-examples are all
considered to be instrumental in guiding
student learning. Similarly, emphasis is
placed on the role of practice with corrective
feedback. Up to this point, little difference
can be detected between these two theories.
However, the “active” nature of the learner is
perceived quite differently.

The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of the learner that
lead up to a response and acknowledges the processes of mental planning,
goal-setting, and organizational strategies (Shuell, 1986). Cognitive theories
contend that environmental “cues” and instructional components alone
cannot account for all the learning that results from an instructional situation.
Additional key elements include the way that learners attend to, code,
transform, rehearse, store and retrieve information. Learners’ thoughts,
beliefs, attitudes, and values are also considered to be influential in the
learning process (Winne, 1985). The real focus of the cognitive approach is
on changing the learner by encouraging him/her to use appropriate learning
strategies.

How Does Transfer Occur?

According to cognitive theories, transfer is a function of how information is

stored in memory (Schunk, 1991). When a learner understands how to apply
knowledge in different contexts, then transfer has occurred. Understanding
is seen as being composed of a knowledge base in the form of rules, concepts,
and discriminations (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991). Prior knowledge is used to
establish boundary constraints for identifying the similarities and differences
of novel information. Not only must the knowledge itself be stored in
memory but the uses of that knowledge as well. Specific instructional or real-
world events will trigger particular responses, but the learner must believe
that the knowledge is useful in a given situation before he will activate it.

Classroom Implications

In a classroom environment, there are many variables that influence and

contribute to learning. When creating and implementing a learning
environment, it is imperative that the teachers not only create a setting that
promotes learning, but also take the time to understand each child.
Classrooms are widely diverse and complex. Students learn differently and
are at various developmental levels. Teachers who properly manage their
classrooms and establish expectations will be able to incorporate diverse
teaching philosophies and create an excellent learning environment for each
student. It is important that teachers create a learning environment that
encourages students to do their best and makes learning interesting. This
creates a motivational climate within the classroom.

There are two factors that are critical to motivate students, value and effort.
(Classroom Management) Students must understand that the work they are
performing is worthwhile. Value measures the importance of a student's work
to himself and others. Effort is the amount of time and energy students put
into their work. Understanding the value of academic tasks and the effort
needed to complete those tasks can motivate students to perform better in the
classroom environment (Classroom Management)

Cognitive Development Implied in the Classroom (“Piaget’s Theory”)

 Teachers should carefully assess the current stage of a child's

cognitive development and only assign tasks for which the child is
prepared. The child can then be given tasks that are tailored to their
developmental level and are motivating.
 Teachers must provide children with learning opportunities that
enable them to advance through each developmental stage. This is
achieved by creating disequilibrium. Teachers should maintain a
proper balance between actively guiding the child and allowing
opportunities for them to explore things on their own to learn
through discovery.
 Teachers should be concerned with the process of learning rather than
the end product. For example, the teacher should observe the way a
child manipulates play dough instead of concentrating on a finished
shape.
 Children should be encouraged to learn from each other. Hearing
others' views can help breakdown egocentrism. It is important for
teachers to provide multiple opportunities for small group activities.
  Piaget believed that teachers should act as guides to children's
learning processes and that the curriculum should be adapted to
individual needs and developmental levels.

Examples of Cognitive Games in the Classroom

Cognitive games are designed to help stimulate various regions of the brain.
These games are used to improve reflexes, help people learn, promote critical
thinking, and help people learn different patterns of association. Cognitive
games are helpful when used to learn a foreign language and memorize new
material. Various learning techniques are used in the classroom because there
are various learning styles. There are many games that promote and influence
cognitive learning.

Examples of cognitive games include:

Educational Websites and Computer Games

Most educational websites computer games focus on stimulating a young
child's senses while engaging them in various cognitive tasks. Below are three
of the many learning websites that are available to enhance cognitive
development in young children. Example, PBS kids Educational Games,
Spelling City, Cognitive Fun Games etc.

Sorting Games
Sorting games require individuals to utilize recognition and reasoning.
Teachers can engage children in games in which the children sort items by
various criteria, such as color, size, texture, and other physical attributes of
the items. A more advanced approach to sorting is discussing how the items
are similar. This process promotes critical thinking.

Flash Cards
Flash cards can be used various tasks. This involves notecards or an even
scrap of paper in which two parts of information is written on either side of
the notecard. These can be as simple as having cards with a red dot on one
side and the word red on the other. Flash cards are typically used in a
classroom for drills or in private study. These cards are used to aid
memorization. Pre-made flash cards are available for many subjects.
Teachers and students may also make homemade flash cards, depending on
how and what they are studying. Flash cards may also be personalized and
printed from certain websites. (Flashcards) Flash cards can be utilized into
various games as well.

Board Games
Teachers may include board games in their classrooms to promote cognitive
development. Unlike computer and video games, boardgames are tangible.
Children can manipulate different pieces in the game. Board games can be
implemented to enhance mathematical and linguistic skills and enhance a
child's ability to understand and follow directions. Example, monopoly and
bingo

Puzzles
Finding a solution to a puzzle develops a child's problem solving
[Link] who actively solve puzzles
that they are able to touch and piece together
are more likely to understand certain concepts
and develop their own theories about those
concepts.

CONSTRUCTIVISM

In this unit you will be introduce to many of

the issues understanding and applying
constructivism and constructivist principles for instructional design
purposes.

Students learn new things through experience. They build knowledge through
experiences and interactions. In cognitive learning, the students are taught to
do something in constructivism. The students are encouraged to discover
something on their own; this is known as self-directed learning. The major
difference is that cognitive learning is about building on prior knowledge,
and constructivism is about building new ideas and concepts based on your
own discoveries.

What are the principles of constructivism?

1. Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed

Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that

learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This
prior knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge an individual
will construct from new learning experiences (Phillips, 1995).

2. Learning is an active process.

The second notion is that learning is an active rather than a passive process.
The passive view of teaching views the learner as ‘an empty vessel’ to be
filled with knowledge, where constructivism states that learners construct
meaning only through active engagement with the world (such as
experiments or real-world problem solving). Information may be passively
received, but understanding cannot be, for it must come from making
meaningful connections between prior knowledge, new knowledge, and the
processes involved in learning.
3. All Knowledge is socially constructed
Learning is a social activity - it is something we do together, in interaction
with each other, rather than an abstract concept (Dewey, 1938). For example,
Vygotsky (1978), believed that community plays a central role in the process
of "making meaning." For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow
up will influence how they think and what they think [Link], all teaching
and learning is a matter of sharing and negotiating socially constituted
knowledge. For example, Vygotsky (1978) states cognitive development
stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone of
proximal development as children and their partner's co- construct
knowledge.
4. All knowledge is Personal
Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing
knowledge and [Link] means that same lesson, teaching or activity may
result in different learning by each pupil, as their subjective interpretations
[Link] principle appears to contradict the view the knowledge is socially
constructed. Fox (2001, p. 30) argues (a) that although individuals have their
own personal history of learning, nevertheless they can share in common
knowledge, and (b) that although education is a social process, powerfully
influenced by cultural factors, nevertheless cultures are made up of sub-
cultures, even to the point of being composed of sub-cultures of one. Cultures
and their knowledge-base are constantly in a process of change and the
knowledge stored by individuals is not a rigid copy of some socially
constructed template. In learning a culture, each child changes that culture.
5. Learning exists in the mind

The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within the
human mind, and that it does not have to match any real world reality
(Driscoll, 2000). Learners will be constantly trying to develop their own
individual mental model of the real world from their perceptions of that
world. As they perceive each new experience, learners will continually
update their own mental models to reflect the new information, and will,
therefore, construct their own interpretation of reality.

What are the three main types of constructivism?

Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories:

Cognitive constructivism based on the work of Jean Piaget, social

constructivism based on the work of Lev Vygotsky, and radical
constructivism. According to the GSI Teaching and Resource Center (2015,
p.5): Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is something that is
actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive structures.
Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive development.

Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new

information to existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the
appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual framework to
accommodate that information. According to social constructivism learning
is a collaborative process, and knowledge develops from individuals'
interactions with their culture and society.

Social constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky (1978, ) who

suggested that, every function in the child's cultural development appears
twice: first, on the social level and, later on, on the individual level; first,
between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological).

Radical constructivism was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld (1974) and

states that all knowledge is constructed rather than perceived through
senses. Learners construct new knowledge on the foundations of their
existing knowledge. However, radical constructivism states that the
knowledge individuals create tells us nothing about reality, and only helps
us to function in your environment. Thus, knowledge is invented not
discovered. The humanly constructed reality is all the time being modified
and interacting to fit ontological reality, although it can never give a ‘true
picture’ of it. (Ernest, 1994, )

What is the role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom?

The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative problem-
solving environment where students become active participants in their own
learning. From this perspective, a teacher acts as a facilitator of learning
rather than an instructor. The teacher makes sure he/she understands the
students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and
then build on them (Oliver, 2000).

Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually

adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the learner's level of
performance. In the classroom, scaffolding can include modeling a skill,
providing hints or cues, and adapting material or activity (Copple &
Bredekamp, 2009).

Features of a Constructivist Classroom

Tam (2000) lists the following four basic characteristics of constructivist
learning environments, which must be considered when implementing
constructivist teaching strategies:
1) Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.
2) Teachers and students will share authority.
3) The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or guide.
4) Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students.

Now let us turn to applying what we have learned about learning theories
Application that guide the teaching practice of educators like your. As an example, try
thinking of how to apply Thorndike’s Connectionism by following the
instructions below.
a. Choose a topic you want to teach
b. Discuss the ways you can apply the three primary laws while
you teach the topic.

Prepare a 2-minute recorded speech on your response. Request a fellow

student and/ or teacher to comment on it.

Closure Congratulations learner for finishing this lesson! You may have arrived
already at a conclusion at this point that there is no single or perfect learning
theory that applies to every student. What is more important to remember is
that, for the novice learner, behaviorism will be applied to novice learner
where they study fact based on information, cognitivism will be applied to
established learner where they make connections using fact based
information, while constructivism will be applied to sophisticated-learners
where they use fact based information and knowledge of connections to
create greater understanding of a content area.

The typical classroom has myriads of learners who have different

experiences, needs and learning styles. Teaching and learning methodologies
have to be constantly revised, changed and modified. Therefore, different
learning theories should be utilized to accommodate a variety of learner, in
order to create an environment that will be beneficial to both the teacher the
learners.

You are about to begin Lesson 4 in the next page. This lesson will help you
understand why becoming knowledgeable about learner- centred pedagogical
approaches and knowing the learning theories on which they are founded will
help you successfully develop your skillset or teaching competencies.

Said teaching competencies of a Filipino teacher like you in the near future
are expected to become proficient in what is referred to as the PHILIPPINE
PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS or PPST.

Let us now proceed to Lesson 4.