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Set Theory

Set theory

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SUBHENDU KUNDU
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114 views24 pages

Set Theory

Set theory

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SUBHENDU KUNDU
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© © All Rights Reserved
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2.1 | aS Introduction George Cantor, a great German mathematician developed the theory of set. This is one of the most fundamental concepts of, ‘mathematics and is now used in almost all branches of science, technology, commerce and economics. Modem mathematics is systematized and becomes more logical because of the ‘advent of set theory. The theory has established coordination among different branches of mathematics namely geometry, algebra, calculus etc. The solutions of complicated problems of science and commerce become easier by the application of set theory. Not only that, the theory helps to base the subject probability on a solid logical foundation. This chapter deals ‘with the basic concepts of sets. a rad ax Important Symbols Meaning ‘complement of set A B (read as, A isa superset of B or A contains B ). ‘Symbolically, B is a subset of A (le, BCA), if xe H > x€ A (le, x belongs o B implies that x belongs o A ) If B is nota subset of A, then there is atleast one in B which is not an element of A and we write Bq as, B is not contained in A) or ADB (read a5, A dog contain B ). For examples, {i Let A= {1 2, 3,4, 5, 6} and B= {1, 3, 5} Clearly, xeB> xe A. Hence, BCA ie, Bisa of A Lif) Let, A = {x:xis a letter of English alphabet} and B | isa vowel of English alphabet}. Clearly, xe B+x€A ; hence B is a subset of 4. i] A = (x[x is a letter of the word “Statistics"} and B={acits} Clearly, xe B>.x€A ; hence B is a subset of A. @ “Te srnbot “i ued vo denote “implies thar- @ WB ina subset ofA (ie, BCA), then the elements of A a cline exactly the same as those of B or some more addon tothe elements of B @ 255 Equal sets ‘Two sets A and B are said to be equal if every element f is also'an element of A and every element of A is also: element of B and written as A = B. Symbolically, A BCA and ACB ie, ifxeB>xeA and yeAsyeB. Ifthe sets A and B are not ‘equal, we write AB. For examples, {i 1 = (1,2,3,4) and B= (2, 4,1,3) then A = UW) bet C= (-1,-2) and D = {x[x fs a rot 243x+2 =0). Wehave, 22+3x+2=0 of xt+2xex42 of x(x+2)-+1(+2) = 0 or, (42/41) =0 1 Hence, by definition, D = {-2.-1) Clealy the sets C and D are ‘equal’ sets ie, C= WI) Let A= (1,2,3,4,5) and B = (1,5,5)- Clearly, BGA but AGB ; hence A and B se equal Set ie, A+B, @ 258 Proper subset and superset x=-2 orx ICA and B are two sets such that every element of B & ‘an element of A (ie, 8 C A) and there is at least one in A which does not belong to B, then B is called | subset of A and A is called a superset of B The {Sa proper subset of A* is represented by the BCA or, ADB. Symbolically, 8 is a proper subset of A reBoxeA and Ae For examples, IW) Let A = {1, 2,3, 4,5, 6} and B = (2, 4,6), Clearly, every element of B is also an element of A and there are elements in A which do not belong to B viz. 1, 3and 5. Therefore, B Is a proper subset of A and A is a superset of B ie, BCA Let P = (x|2x<3) and Q = (xj1 x€ Cie, AC C. (Proved) @ 26410468 and BCA then, A=B and conversel ince ACB xeA2%EB a) That is, every element of set Ais also an element of set B. SA «. (2) Thatis, every element of set B is also an elementof set A By the definition of equal sets itis evident from (1) and (2) that, A = B. Conversely, if A = B then ie ACB and ie, BCA (Proved) root: | Again, B yeBoyea xeAoxeB yeBayea eo Uh car Set of Sets If the elements of a set are themselves sets, then the set is called a set of sets. A set of sets is also called a family of sets, or elass of sets. For examples, Ti) $= {{a}, (6, ¢}, {6,4}, (a, b,c)} is'a set of sets Wl] Let A= {1,23}, B= {2,5}, C= {2,46}, D=(1,3,5) and ¢ is the ‘null set. Then, P = {4,4,B, CD) is a family of sets. Lill) Consider India as a set whose elements are its citizens, then United Nations may be considered as a set of nations ‘of which India is an element. *o BOSE Power set The power set of a given set A is the set of al its subsets and, is denoted by P(A). Symbolically, P(A) = {X|X&A}. For examples, Let, A = (1, 2,3}; then the subsets of A are ; {a} null set ¢ [since null set is a subset of every set] Ib} three subsets of A containing one element : (1), (2), {3} [c) three subsets of A containing two elements : (1, 2}, (2 3}, (1) {Id} one subset containing three elements : (1, 2, 3} ‘Therefore, the power set of A is P(A) = (4, (1), (2), (8), (1,2), (2,3), (3,1 (1.2.39) From the above example we note that the power set P(A) consists of 8 = 23 elements when A has 3 elements. In general, the power set of a given set A will contain 2" lementsifA isfinite and contains n elements. For this reason the power set of a given set A is also denoted by 24, r- 36 | yl en chhaya Business Mathematics an G@theorem If A Isa finite set and contains n elements, then the power | set of A has 2" elements Prof; Clearly, the null set ¢ Is a subset of A. Number of subsets of A containing 1 element = "C, Number of subsets of 4 containing 2 elements = "C, Sy Number of su sof A containing 3 elements = and s0 on Number of subsets of A containing n elements ="C, | ‘Therefore, the number of elements in the power set of | Ate, in P(A) Lt" + "Cyt =14" a, =adnr {putting x = 1 in the binomial expansion (Lexy = 14 "Cre Gxt 4" ,x"] | 2" (Proved) @ RI Venn Diagram The relationship between sets can be better understood with the help of pictorial representation. These diagrams are called Venn-Euler diagrams or simply Venn diagrams. The concept ‘of such pictorial presentation of sets and operations on sets ‘was first Introduced by Euler and subsequently in the nineteenth century it was developed by British logician John Venn. In Venn diagram, sets are represented by points Inside closed curves. The universal set U is generally represented by points inside a rectangle, is subsets (A, B etc.) are represented by points inside closed curves (usually circles), drawn within the rectangle. The closed curves (or ctcles) representing the subsets A and B of U overlap each other if they have some | ‘common elements ; these circles are non-intersecting when A_| and B have no common elements. For the sake of ‘understanding the universal set U or its subsets are shaded in different manner by colors. {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) be the universal set and A = (2, 4,6,8) be one of its subsets. Venn diagram of U and A has been shown in Fig. 1 ‘The set A has been shaded by horizontal lines. .d Statistics [Semester III] Iu) Let, U = (x\xisreal) and A = {(x/0 reAv(reBvre0) wxnon Roxy] © 3 1eAVreBVxeC > (reAVxeB)vxeC 2 x€(AUB)vzeC = x€(AUB)UC Thus, reAU(BUC) > xe(AUB)UC + AUBUC)S(AUB)UC a) 2 ifxeP > x€Q then P&Q] ‘Again, let_y be an arbitrary element of the set ([Link])U C. Then by definition of union of sets we get. ye(AUB)UC 2 ye(AUB)vyec (WeAvyeB)vyeC yeAvyeBvyeC yeAvyeBvyeQ) yeAvye(BUQ) yeAU(BUO) Thus, ye (AUB)UC > ye AU(BUO) (AUB)UCCAUBUC) @ [= ifyeP > yeQ then PCQ] By the definition of equal sets it is evident from (1) and @) that AU (BUG) = (AUB)UC [> P©QandQ¢P implies P= Q] (Proved) euyus Proof til Let x be an arbitrary element of the set AN(B0C) ‘Then by definition of intersection of sets we get, xeAN(BNC) XEAArE(BNO) xEAA(KEBAXEO) xEAAxEBArEC (weAnxeB)AxEC xe(ANB)AxeC xE(ANB)NC Thus, xe AN (BNC) = xe(ANB)NC 2 ANNO S(AnaA)NE 1) [: fxeP2x€Q then PCQ] ‘Again, let y be an arbitrary element of the set (ANB) NC. Then by definition of intersection of sets we get, ye(ANB)NC YE(ANB)AyEC (eAayeByayeC yeAyeBAyeC YEANEBAYEO) vuyuvus vuus wi Nace > yeAnye(Bno = yean(ano) Thus, ye(ANB)NC = yeAN(BNo (ANB)NCSAN(BNC) (2) [eye P > yeQ then PS Q] By the definition of equal seis itis evident from (1) and (2) that, AN (BNC) = (ANB)NC |: PQ and QEP implies P = Q| (Proved) © 2132 Distributive taws For any three sets A, B and C, prove that, (AU B)N(AUO) (ANB) U(ANG, ti) AUBNe tu] an(Bue Prool {i Let x be an arbitrary element of the set AU (BN C) ‘Then by definition of union and intersection of sets we eet, xeAU(BNO) xeAvxe(BNC) xeAV(xeBAxEC) (eAvxeB)A(reAVreO) > x€(AUB)Axe(AUC) 3 x€(AUB)N(AUG, ‘Thus, xe AU (BNC) > x€(AUB)Q (AUG, AU(BN© S(AUB)N(AUO) [+ fxeP>x€Q then PEQ) (1) ‘Again, let y be an arbitrary element of the set (AUB)N (AUC). Then by definitions of union and Intersection of sets we get, ye(AUB)N(AUC) ye(AUB)Aye(AUC) WeAvyeBayeavyeO) yeav(yeBAyeC) yeAvye(BOC) yeAau(Bnc) ‘Thus, ye (AUB)N(AUC) = yeAU(BNC) 4 (AUB) N(AUO)SAU(BNG [: Hye P>yeQ then PEQ| «(2) Dy definition of equal ses itis evident from (1) and (2) that AU(BOC) = (AUB)N(AUC) Is PSQ and QGP smplics P= Q | (Proved) vay puavs 3 chhaya Business Mathematics and Statistics [ ‘Semester III] | A Proof i Let x be an arbitrary element of the set A.B) ‘Then by definitions of union and intersection of gets xe AN (BUC) 2 reAnxe (BUC) 9 2 reAA(reBVxEO) 2 (xeEAAxEB)V(xEAATEC) 2 re(ANB)VxE(ANC) 2 re(ANB)U(ANG) Thus, xe AN (BUC) > xe (ANB)UIANG) AN (BUC) (ANB)U(ANG) [y if xe P>xeQ then PCQ] | ‘Again, let_y be an arbitrary element of (ANB) U(ANC). Then by definitions of union intersection of sets we get, ye(ANB)U(ANO) ye(ANB)vye(ANno) (earyeB)VeAAyeO) YEA (yEBV YEO) yeAnye (BUC) yeAN (BUC) Thus, ye(ANB)U(ANG) = yean(BUO (ANB UANGEAN(BUS) (> HyePayeQ then PEQ) =| By definition of equal sets it is evident from (1) that AN (BUG) = (AN B)UAN [+ PQ and QP implies P= Q) © 2133 De Morgan's laws For any two sets A and B, prove that, Ml AUB} = acne AcuBe vouvus by definition of complement of a set we get xe (AUB x€AUB xeANxER xeA Axe BE xeAcnne Thus. rE (AU BE > re ACN BE & (AUBYES Aen pe Iv xe PsxeQ then PS Q) guus in, et y be an arbitrary element of the set A B° Then by definition of complement of a set we get, yearn > yeacnyeBo 3 yeAnyes = ye(auay Thus, ye ASN BE ye (AUB) AENBEG (AU BYE = y@AUB (+ re P= xe Q then PSQ) (2) By definition of equal sets itis evident from (1) and (2) that (AUB). = AEN BE [is PSQ and Q&P implies P= Q) (Proved) Proot (i Let x be an arbitrary element ofthe set (A) B)¢. Then. by definition of complement ofa set we get, xe (ANB) > x@(ANB) > x@AvxeB > xeAtvxeB® 3 xeAUBE ‘Thus, x € (A B)® xe ACU BE (AN By’ S ACU BE [v ifxeP>xeQ then POQ) --(1) Again, let y be an arbitrary element ofthe set A°U B Then by definition of complement of set we get, yeacune yeatvyese yeavyes yeann ye(An aye ‘Thus, ye ASU Be > ye (AN BE ACU BES (AN BYE [: ifyeP>yeQ then PSQ) ~-(2) By definition of equal ses its evident from (1) and (2) that (ANB) = ACU BE {y PSQ and Q&P implies P = Q) (Proved) =<23—___ Observe that x€(AUB) implies xe Axe (le, x€A or xB), Clearly, the symbol U replaced by symbol Ayala, x (A0)B) implies xe A Axe (le, xe A and xe), Clearly, the symbol 1) Is replaced by ‘and’ If I appears alter the symbol « But, x4 (AUB) i vug FICC appears ater the Mes xe AAXED (le, x@A and xe B) set Theay Kops ffliey | 45 Clearly, the symbol UIs replaced by ‘and’ IC appears after the symbol ¢ Again, x¢ (ANB) implies x¢AvxeB (le, x€A or x¢ B). ye symbol (ts replaced by ‘or’ If I appears after the Clearly, symbol ¢ ‘The two set operations, union (U) and intersection (1) obey the ‘dual’ law. According to this law, if we have a set identity with union and intersection then the dual relation obtained by interchanging union and intersection (le, replacing U by and () by U) also becomes an identity For example, the dual of AU (81\C) is AN (BUC) = (ANB)U(ANC) Ifthe set identity with union and intersection involves the universal set U and the null set ¢, the dual set identity is, obtained by interchanging U and (7 [Link] the sets U and |. ‘Thus, the dual of (AN¢)U(UNA)=A is (AUU)N@UA)=A 6G) Ordered Pair and Cartesian | ls 3% Product G@ Ordered pair | If two objects or elements @ and b are paired in the form | (a,b) where a and b appear as the first and second elements, | then the form (a,b) is called an ordered pair. Clearly, if ab, | then (a,b) and (b,) represent different ordered pair; in | | (AUB)N(AUC) other words, (a, b) #(b, a) when a#b. For example, (2,3) represents an ordered pair in two dimen: ‘geometry because in two dimensional coordi and (3, 2) represent two different points. ‘Two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are said to be equal if and b = d; symbolically, (a,b) = (@d)3.a=cnb=d G Cartesian product of two sets Let A and B be (wo given sets, The cartesian product of A and Bs the set ofall ordered palrs (x,y) where xe A and yeB and is denoted by AxB (read as “A cross 8”), Symbolically, | AxB= (sy) :x@AAyEB) ‘The cartesian product Ax B is also called the product set of A and B For example IA = (a,b,c) and B= (1,2) then nal coordinate te plane (2, 3) AX B= {(a, 1); (4,2), (b, 1) (b,2),(6, 1), (.2)) (1) Again, BXA = {(1, a), (1, B), (1,0), (2,4), (2,B), (2,0)} (2) Prom (1) and (2) itis evident that, Ax Be Bx A | $215 1s not included in the current CU BCom syllabus. ec er oo eer Proot: Since A CB; hence, xeA=xeB. Proot ( ti 6 | wien 5 chhaya Business Mathematics and Statistics & ge Important results on cartesian a product of sets © WA,B and C are three sets and ACB then AX CSBxC Proof: By problem, ACB reAaxeB a) Let (x,y) be an arbitrary element of Ax C. Then by definition of cartesian product of two sets we get, (my eaxc = xeAnyeC = xeBayeC [using (t)} > GyeBxe Thus, (x,y) €Ax C3 (zy) €BxC 4 AXCSBXC (Proved) @ Mf A,B,C and D are four given sets and A&B, CSD, then, AxCSBxD a) Again, C&D; Q) Now, consider an arbitrary element (x,y) of AxC. Then by definition of cartesian product af two sets we get, (eax yecayeD = xeAayeC = xeBAyeD fusing (1) and (2)] = @yeBxD Thus, (x,y) Ax C> (x,y) €BxD = AxCCBxD (Proved) @ WA, B and C be any three sets, prove that, Ax (BUC) =(AxB)U(AxO) Let (x,y) be an arbitrary element of Ax(BUC) ‘Then by definition of cartesian product and union of two ‘sets we get, (ye Ax (BUC) = xeAnye(BUC) 2 xEAAVeBvyEO) = (reAnyeB)V (neAAyeC) 2 eye (AxB)v wy) E(AxO) > i YEAxB UXO) Thus, (x, y) €AX(BUC) = (x,y) €(A%B)U(AxC) Ax (BUC)S(AxB)U(AxC) (1) ‘Again, let (a,b) be an arbitrary clement — of (AxB)U(Ax). Then by definitions of cartesian product and union of two sets we get, (a, b)E(AXB)UA% 0) @ For any three sets A, B and C, prove that, Proof: {Semester II) = (ab) e(AxB)V (a,b) E (Ax) 3 (aeAAbeB)V(aeANbEC) 2 acAn(beBy bEC) > acAnbe(BUC) > (a,b) €Ax (BUC) Thus, (a,b) €(AxB)U(AXC) = (a,b) Ax (BUG) 4 (AxB)U(AX@)SAx(BUC) By the definition of equal sets it is evident from (1) (2) that Ax(BUO =(AxB)U(AXC) (Proved) ‘Ax (BNC)=(AxB) (Ax C) | | Proof: Let (x.y) be an arbitrary element of A x (BC) . Tha by the definitions of cartesian product and intersect of ovo sets we get, (yeAx(BNO), xeAAVE(BNC) xEAAEBAYEO) (REAAYEB)AEAAYEC) (uYE(AXB)AC yE(AxO) (ye(AxB)A(AxO) Us, (9 EAx (BNC) > (x,y) €(AXB)N(AXO) = AX (BNC) © (Ax B)N(Ax 0) ~(l Again, let (a,b) be an arbitrary element (AxB)1(AxC). Then by the definitions of product and intersection of two sets we get, (a,b) €(AxB) (Ax) > (ab) E(AxB) A (a,b) e (Ax 0) > (@EANbEB)A(aeANbEC) * GEAA(bEBAbEC) > @eAnbe(enc) Thus, (@ BW E(AXB)N(AXC) > (a,b) cAx (BNO # (AX B)N(AXC)SAx (BNC) Y By the definition of e« ib avidie 1) and Hee ual sets, eis evident from (0) AK(BNC) = (Ax B)N(AxC) (Proved) For any three sets A,B and C, prove that, AX(B-0)= (Ax 2) (Ax) Let (x,y) be an arbitra 74 “lement of A x (B= 0) TN wa vases a cartesian product and difleren®” GN eAx(e-c) > FEAN YE (B~C) Bouse = (a,b) €Ax(BNO) sitisli Proof 3 reAA(veBAyeC) 3 (KEAAYEB)A(REANYEC) 2 (HY E(AXB) A(x y) @(AXO) > (& Y)E(AXB)-(AxO) Thus, (x €Ax(B-O) > (xy) E(AxB)-(AxO) Ax(B-C)S(AxB)-(Ax0) (ab) be an arbitrary element of (Ax B)-(AxC). Then by the definitions of cartesian product and difference of two sets we get, (a,b) € (Ax B)-(Ax ©) (a,b) € (Ax B) A (a,b) € (AX 0) ay Again, let > (@eAADEB)A(@EAAKEO) > aeAn(beBabeo) 3 acArbe(B-O) > (ab)EAx(B-O) Thus, (a,b) €(AxB)-(Ax ©) > (a,b) eAx(B-C) (Ax B)-(Ax 0) SAX (B-O) (2) By the definition of equal sets it is evident from (1) and (2) that Ax(B=C) = (AXB)-(AxC) (Proved) For any four sets A, B,C and D, prove that, (Ax B) (xD) =(ANC)x (BND) Let (x, y) be an arbitrary element of (A x B) (Cx D) ‘Then by the definitions of cartesian product and intersection of sets we get, (xy) €(AxB)N(CxD) (9) €(AXB)A (ay) €(CxD) (xeAnyeB)A(xeCAyeD) (xEAArEC)A(yeEBAyeD) xe (ANC) Aye(BND) = (xy) E(ANO (BND) ‘Thus we see that, (2, €(AxB)N(OxD) = (Hye (ANC) x (BND) (AxB)N(CxD)S(ANC) (BND) (1) ‘Again, let (a,b) be an arbitrary clement of (AD C)x (BOD). Then by the definitions of cartesian product and intersection of sets we get, (a, b) (AN) x (BND) ae (AN) Abe (BND) (ac AnaeO)A(beBAbeD) (ae AAbeB)A(aeCnbeD) (a, b) €(AxB) A (a, b) (CD) (a, bye (Ax B)N(CxD) vuaua vavuys set mean Really | 47 Thus, we see that (a,b) (ANC) x (BND) = (a,b) €(AxB)N(CxD) (ANC) x (BND) S (Ax.B)N (Cx D) (2) By the definition of equal sets itis evident from (1) and (2) that (AxB)N(CxD) = (ANC) x (BND) (Proved) 2G Number of Elements in a Set Let A be a finite set. Then we shall denote the number of elements of A by the symbol n(A) or |A|. Thus n(V) = 5 if V=(a,¢,i,0,u}; m(A)=1 if A is a singleton set ; n(@) = 0 if @ Is a null set. @© 217170 ind the numberof elements In the union of two ale ete IfA and B are two finite ses, prove that, n(A UB) =n(A) + n(B)-n(ANB) Proot: Let n(A) = p, n(B)=q and n(ANB) =r. Then from the Venn diagram of Fig. 33 it is evident that, n(A~B) = n(A)— (ANB) = =@) and n(B—A) = n(B)~n(AN)B) = (2) From the Ven diagram itis also evident thatthe entire shaded region represents the set AUB and it is composed of the separate regions: (a=B) (ANB) Fig. 33 ] the region representing the set (A-B) (shaded by horizontal lines). Lil] the region representing the set (A1B) (shaded by slanting lines) and {ill} the region representing the set (B~A) (shaded by vertical lines) ‘Accordingly, (A~B), (AMB) and (B~A) are disjoint sets and their union is the set AUB. Therefore, the ‘number of elements in AU B = the sum of the numbers of elements in (A~B), (A(B) and (B-A) 0, MAUB) = n(A~B)-+n(ANB)+n(B—A) por+r+q—r [using (1) and (2)) pta-r or, m(AUB) = n(A)+n(B)~m(ANB) (Proved) Statistics [Semester III] 43 | Oana Jy clihaya Business Mathematics and | Solution: Set-theor () 3A (i) 4¢B (li) COD etic notations ofthe given statement yy, © Cleary, ithe sets A and B are dsjoint,then ANB = #shenes, | yy pr. Q= 4 where ¢ is the null set. (AB) = m(9) = 0, Therefore, A and B are disjoint sets | 9 Represent the ollowingsets in Tabula (0 Roti then n(A UB) = n(A)+n(B) | @ setoffactors of 30 @ From the Venn diagram we see that the sets (AB) and (i) X= (asa isaperfectsquareand 21andzeN). and R, itis Again, @EN implies a@ER but bER does not imply DEN. Therefore, N is a proper subset of R (ie, NCR) and R isa superset of N (ie, RN) Finally, peZ implies pe R but qeR does not imply €Z. Therefore, Z is a proper subset of R (ie, ZR) and R isa superset of Z (ie, RZ). 6. State with reasons whether the sets defined in each of the following cases are equal : @ X=¢6,¥= 19) (W) A ={x:x?-3x+2 = 0) {x +2 isa digitin the number 212) (ui) P = (xrx isan integerand -2 rE(ANBALE(ANC) > xE(ANB)-(ANOI ‘ Thus re AN(B-C) > FELANB)=(AN A0(B-C)S(ANB)-(ANG) [: tere zeal ‘Again, let_y be an arbitrary element of (AD B)-(ANC). Then by definition of intersection of two sets we get, yel(ANB)-(ANO} @ yE(ANB)AyE(ANC) (eAnyeBAyeAnyec) yeanyeBryec) yeArye(B-O) yeAn(B-C) Thus, ye (ANB)-(AN OI @ yeanB (ANB)-(ANGSAN(B-C) sue xeA-(BUC) *EAATE(BUC) FEAN(2EBAxEC) (GEARZEB)A(XEAAXEO) *€(A-B)axe(A-0) *€(A-B)N(A-C) Ths, 6A-(BU m se(A-B) (AO) # A(BUQS(A-B)N(A-C) , [: repoxeQ Ain ¥ be an arbitrary element of (45 BOA- 0). Then by the definition 04 SERRA ey et YE(A-B)N(A-C) > yea- ~B) Aye (A-C) " © VeAnyeByayeanyec) * YEANGEBAyeC) > yeAAye(BUC) (Bu), Thus, ye (A-B)N(A-C) > yeA-(BUC) (A-B)N(A-C)S A~ (BU) -Q) By definition of equal sets itis evident from (1) and (2) that A-(BUO) = (A-B)N(A-C) (+ PQ and QP implies P = Q) (Proved) 19. If BCA, then prove that, B~A = ¢. Solution: By problem, BCA; +. xeBoxeA. Now, if possible, let us assume B-A#¢. Then, there is at least one element x (say) in B—A Now, reB-A > xeBAx€A > xeAAxEA [v xeB2 xe]. But the statement x A Ax¢A cannot be true. Hence, our assumption B-A#¢ is wrong. ‘Therefore, we must have, B-A= 4. (Proved) 20. Applying the laws of algebra of sets, prove that, () A-B=Be-Ae (i) (AUB)N (AUB) =A (ii) (AUB)NA=A (Wy) AN(B-A) = Solution: (i) Wehave, A-B = ANB = BNA {by commutative law] = BEN(A5)© [by complement law] = Be—AS (Proved) (@) (AUB) (AUB = AU (BN BF [by distributive law] =AU@ [by complement law] = A_ [by identity law] (Proved) (W) (AUB)NA =(AUB)N(AUS) [by identity law] =AU(BN¢) [by distributive law] =AU6 [by identity law) =A [by identity law] (Proved) (i) AN (B-A) = AN(BNAD = AN(AENB) [by commutative law] =(ANAD OB [by associative law] = 9B [by complement law] =¢ [by identity law] (Proved) 21. Applying set algebra, show that () (AUB)-€ = (A-C)U(B-C) (Wi) (AN B)-C = (A-C)N(B-C) (iil) A~(BU ©) = (A~B)N(A-C) Solution: @ (AUB)~ (auBynct [where C’ Is the complement of C) Set Theory Koen fi Aay | 53 = (ANC')U(BNC’) [by distributive law] (Proved) (A-C)U(B-C) (i) (AN B)-C = (AN B)NC’ [where C’ is the complement of C] = (ANB)N(C/NC’) [by idempotent law] (ANB)NCINC! [by associative law] AN (BNC)INC! {by associative law] (anc/ynainc’ [by commutative law) (BNC)M(ANC’) [by associative lawl ANC!) N(BNC’) [by commutative law] =(A-C)N(B-C) (Proved) = AN(BU OE = ANN) Iby De Morgan’s law] = (ANA)N(B°N C5) [by idempotent law] nrang@ncy) =Anans9ncy = ANID (ANB [by commutative law] [by associative law] (ii) A-(GUQ) [by associative law) Iby associative law] = (ANC) (AN BD = (ANBO (ANC), [by commutative law) = (A-B)Q(A-C) (Proved) 2. Applying set operations, find the HCF of the three ‘numbers 15, 40 and 105. Solution: Let A,B and C be the respective sets of factors of the numbers 15, 40 and 105. Then, A = {1,3,5, 15}; B= {1,2,4,5,8, 10,20, 40} and C= (1,3,5,7, 15, 21, 35, 105) By definition of intersection, ANBNC={1,5) Clearly, the HCF of the given three numbers the element of the set (ABC) having greatest value of sets, we get 23. Using set operations find the LCM of the three numbers 12, 15 and 20. Solution: Let A, B and C be the respective sets of multiples of the numbers 12, 15 and 20, Then we have, A = (12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, 120, B = (15, 30, 45, 60,75, 90, 105, 120, 135, --} C = {20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, -.} Bal iMiDecae, >) chhaya Business Mathematics By definition of intersection of sets it is evident that, ANBOC = {60, 120, 180, --} Clearly, the LCM of the given three numbers = the element of the set A B/C having lea 24, Applying set operations, prove that, 2+ 3 Solution: Let us define sets A and B as follows A= a, b}; B= {x,y,z} Clearly, n(A) = 2 and n(B) Again, A.B = @; therefore A and B are disjoint sets. And, AUB = {a,b,x,y,z}; (AUB) = Now, the sets A and B are disjoint. n(AUB) = n(A) + n(B) 0, 5=2+3 (Proved) 25. Inan examination, 45% of the candidates have passed in English, 40% have passed in Bengali, while 30% have passed in both the subjects. Find the total number of ‘candidates if90 of them have failed in both the subjects. Solution: Let A and B be the sets of candidates who passed in English and Bengali respectively. By question, we have, n(A) = 45% candidates, n(B) = 40% candidates and n(A1 B) = 30% candidates Now, using the formula, (AUB) = n(A)+n(B)-n(A0B) we get, n(AU B) =45% candidates + 40% candidates ~ 30%. candidates =55% candidates ‘Therefore, it is evident that 55% candidates passed in at least ‘one of the two subjects. Hence, (100-55)% = 45% candidates failed in both the subjects £45 candidates failed In both the subjects when total ‘number of candidates = 100 = 90 candidates failed in both the subjects when total number of candidates = foes Therefore, the required total number of candidates = 200, 26. It ts known that in a group of people, each of whom ‘speaks at least one of the languages English, Hindl and ‘Bengali; 31 speak English, 36 speak Hindi and 27, Bengali. Ten speak both English and Hindi, 9 both English and Bengall, 11 both Hindi and Bengall, Using a Venn diagram or otherwise, prove that the contains atleast 64 people and not more than 73 people, Solution: Let A, B and C denote the sets of people who can speak English, Hind! and Bengal! respectively. Then by problem, we have, and Statistics [Semester II] 16, (0) (A) = 31, (B) (ANB) = 10, n(CNA) = 9 and (B10) = 1h is ach people of the group can Itis also given that each peopl oa ‘one of the three languages. Therefore, total number of k inthe group = n(AU BUC). Hence, we are to obtain te and the greatest values of n(AU BU C) Now, using the formula, mAUBUC) = n(A) + n(B) +n(C)~ (ANB) —n(BO.C)—m(COA)+mAN ay 31436+27-10-11-9+(ANBNg of, (AU BUG) = 644+(AN BNC) “| From (1) it is evident that the value of n(AU BUC) is when n(A B/C) is least ie, when n(ABNC) <6) when there is no people in the group who can speak allt languages viz. English, Hindi and Bengali). ‘Therefore, the least number of people in the group =| Again, from (1) itis evident that the value of n(4 UBUG greatest when the value of (AB C) is greatest. Nomt greatest value of n(ANBN © = the minimum of the & numbers n(4. B), n(B0.C) and n(COA) ie, the mina ofthe three numbers 10, 11 and 9 ie, 9. ‘Therefore, greatest number of people in the group =61+9=73 (Proved) 21. Inasurvey concerning the smoking habits of consus ‘was found that 50% smoke cigarette A, 45% smal 40% smoke C, 25% smoke A and B, 10% smoke B asf 16% smoke C and A, 8% smoke all the three ‘What percentage (1) do not smoke (ii) smoke oa brand and (il) smoke exactly wo brands of cgarel# Salutin: tet x, ¥, 2. denote the sets of consumers who 4 cigarettes of A,B and C brands respectively. Them! Problem we have, n(X) = 50% consumers, n(¥) =. consumers, n(Z) = 40% consumers, n(X)* consumers, (YZ) = 10% consumers, n(Z0X)=™ consumers, n(XAYN Z) = 8% consumers. | Fig. 34 () Now, using the formula, n(XUYUZ) = n(X)+.n(¥) 4 n(Z)=n(XNY) -n(¥Z)- (ZX +m(XN YNZ) we get, n(XU YUZ) = 50+ 45+ 40-25-10-16+8 =135—43 = 92 Hence, percentage of consumers who use at least one of the three brands of cigarettes = (XU YUZ) = 92 Therefore, (100-92)% = 8% of consumers have no smoking habit. early, the percentage of consumers who smoke only A brand cigarette = n(X 1. °°) [ie, the region of the set X which has been shaded by vertical lines in Venn diagram 34], From the Venn diagram it is evident that mXNYENZ, = AQ) = n(XN ¥)— (ZX) + (XN YNZ) = 50-25-16+8 = 58-41 = 17 Therefore, cigarette (ii) Let D denotes the set of consumers who smoke exactly ‘wo brands of cigarettes. Clearly, D is the union of the following three disjoint sets: XNYNZ*, XNYNZ and XA YNZ (the regions representing these sets have been shaded by horizontal lines in Venn diagram 34]. D=(XNYNZUCENYNZ)U(KNYENZ) on, n(D) = n(XNYNZ*)+n(XEN YNZ) +n(XN NZ) @ 17% consumers smoke only A brand Set Theory Rornbiiey [Ps [nen y= n(x YNZ) +1n(vnz)- nx ¥Z)) +In(ZX)-nXN YNZ) (25-8) + (10-8) + (16-8) 174248 = 27 ‘Therefore, 27% consumers smoke exactly two brands of cigarettes 28. A factory inspector examined the defects in hardness, finish and dimensions of an item. After examining 100 items he gave the following report: All three defects 5, defect in hardness and finish 10, defect in dimensions and finish 8, defect in dimensions and hardness 20, Defect in finish $0, in hardness 23 and indimensions 50. The inspector was fined, why ? Solution: Let X, ¥ and Z denote the sets of items having defects in hardness, finish and dimensions respectively. By problem, we have, n(X) = 23, n(¥) = 30, n(Z) = n(XNY) = 10, n(¥NZ) n(x YNZ) = 5 Clearly, the number of items having defect in hardness alone = n(XNY°NZ9) ie the region of the set X_ which has been shaded by vertical lines in Venn diagram 34}. From the Venn diagram it is evident that, mx ven ze) = n(X) (XA) = (ZX +nXNVNZ) = 23-10-2045 = 28-30 = -2 Clearly, the number of elements in any set can never be negative. Hence, the report ofthe inspector must be incorrect. For this reason the inspector was fined. 6° EXERCISE 2 ti EEE SECTION @ 1. Define with examples: () Finite and infinite sets (u) Null set (il) Universal set (iv) Singleton set () Equal sets (i) Subset and proper subset (vii) Union of two sets (vil) Intersection of two sets (lx) Disjoint sets (2) Complement of a set (ji) Diflerence of two sets (ai) Power set 2. Write short notes on: (0) Concepts of sets, subset, equality of two sets; universal set and null set, inite and infinite sets. (W) Union, intersection and difference of wo sets. (ii) Universal set and subset (lv) The three set operations (union, intersection and ‘complementation), 3, When are two sets A and B sald tobe disjoint sets? Define the complement of a set B. 4, Prove that, the intersection of sets is associative, Also verlfy this result by Venn diagram, 5. State De Morgan's laws of sets. Verify the laws in terms of Venn diagram. Which of the following two statements Is correct? State with reasons. (i) Subset ofa finite set isa finite set (W) Subset of an infinite set is an infinite set,

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