FOUNDATIONS OF ORGANISATION SYSYTEMS, INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
Any organization would feel proud of success of the organization because of its employees.
The success of the organization might be determined depending on individuals’ contribution
to the organization. That is, what has an individual added to the growth of the organization?

Organizations are a collection of individual who come together to achieve a given goal(s)
which they cannot achieve alone. The organization, individual, come to exhibit their skills,
knowledge, talents and in turn to contribute a talent to the organization. Individuals’ interaction
with the organization might be affected depending on the following individual characteristics.
These include;

A. Biographic characteristic; age, gender marital status, tenure, intelligence etc.

(i) Age: There is a wide spread perception that performance reduces with age and other say the
older the greater the experience. As people grow older they become less productive on the job.
In other studies, it has been discovered that age has a direct relationship with employee turnover
in organizations. When a person grows older his/her speed, agility, strength and coordination
decrease leading to low productivity. There is also an effect of age and job satisfaction.

(ii) Gender: There is a debate that men perform better than women on job, but others say
women perform better than men the same way. There are also studies that have found out that
at work there is no difference in problem solving, analytic skills, competitive climate,
motivation, sociability or learning abilities as regards gender.
- Studies also have found out that women conform more to authorities than men.
- In difference, mother might prefer part time jobs than father, and have flexible work
schedules than men.
- Women are less stable employees than men.

(iii) Marital status: On studies of marital status and productivity married people are much
satisfied with their work than their unmarried counterparts. Marriage makes a job more
valuable and committed to their jobs.

(iv) Tenure: this is expressed in terms of work experience. This is related with work
productivity. This is a major explanation for turnover in an organization. Tenure should be
considered when looking for employees.
Other individual determinants might include;
(v). Intelligence (IQ)/expertise/training
High value is placed on intelligence at places of work. Highly intellectual people earn more
money, attain higher levels of education emerge as leader etc.. Jobs which require intelligence,
it means that the higher one IQ the greater the performance and the lower the IQ, the lower the
performance.
Intelligence might be
- Number aptitude (speed and accuracy in arithmetic
- Verbal comprehension (ability to understand what bread)
- Perceptual speed (ability to identify visual similarities)
Perceptual visualization – ability to imagine an objective if its position changed.

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Memory – ability to recall and retain past information

(vi). Physical abilities (Skill, proficiency, size): This is required in jobs demanding stamina.
This might include stamina, flexible factor.

(vii). Religion/culture; this is a driving factor which makes individuals perform or not perform
in given organizations. These are sometimes referred to as elements that highly work to
determine the belief or perception of an employee.

(viii) Sexual orientation and gender; Discrimination of sexual orientation and gender might
influence performance of organization e.g. funding organization depends on sexual
orientations.
Advantage of working as individual members
(a) Make people work hard because they do not have others to support them.
(b) Single views are used in making decisions (quick decision)
(c) A blame is only to an individual not to others
(d) Person takes responsibility and does not project shortcomings or blame.

Disadvantages of working as individuals

(a) Frustration arises among employees that they are working alone
(b) Cannot provide beyond the individual’s efforts
(c) Work overload might be overwhelming

GROUP BEHAVIOUR
A group is defined as two or more individuals interacting and interdependently come together
to achieve particular objectives. In a group people interact primarily to share information and
to make decisions to help each group members perform within his/her responsibility. For
example, groups might be clubs, football team, and unions.

A group should have cohesiveness which would be able to maintenance of members, influence
over members, self-esteem, and productivity among others. Groups might either be; (i) formal
or (ii) informal groups
(i) Formal groups are those defined by the organization structure, with designated work
assignments. Behaviour of the group should be directed by the organizational goals e.g.
a group of waitresses in a hotel, work associations.
(ii) Informal group; these are alliances that are neither formally structured, nor
organizationally determined. These are naturally formed in a work environment
(members from different department who eat lunch together)
Though such groups are informal, their interaction might deeply affect their behaviour and
performance of the organization. Formal groups can also be informing of command and task
groups whole informal groups might be interested and friendship groups.
Formal
a) Command groups; these are groups comprised of individuals who report directly to the
managers e.g. head teachers and teachers form a command group.
b) Task Group: People working together to achieve a goal. (their boundaries are not limited
to immediate supervisors)

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Informal
a) Interest groups: People, who may not be aligned into a common command or task group,
may be interest groups. These came up naturally e.g. employee to fight for a friend who
has been fired or improve their working conditions.
b) Friendship group: groups may develop because members have a common characteristic.
The friendship group beyond the work environment.

Groups can also be classified as;

c) Command groups: This comprise of the managers and his or immediate subordinate (ass
managers Acts)
d) Task groups: Organizationally determined represents those working together to complete
a task.
e) Interest group: People working together to attain specific objectives in which they are
concerned e.g. move together to support a friend, seek improved working condition etc.
f) Friendship group: These brought together because they share one or more common
characteristics. These are used informal groups.
Informal groups provide a great service in satisfying members’ social needs. There are various
ways in which groups are studied. These are referred to as sociometry which include;
i. Social networks: Specific set of linkages among a defined set of individuals.
ii. Clusters: Groups that exist within a social group
iii. Prescribed clusters: Formal groups such as departments., work teams, task forces, etc.
iv. Emergent clusters: Informal and unofficial groups
v. Coalitions: Clusters of people who come to achieve a certain purpose.
vi. Cliques: Relatively permanently informal grouping that involve friendship.
vii. Liaison: Individual who connect two or more groups but not any member to any group.
viii. Bridge: individual who serve as linking pairs by belonging to two or more of any
cluster.
ix. Isolate: Individual not connected to any social network.

An individual as a group member their various roles he/she is supposed to perform. A role is
an expected behaviour or pattern attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social
unit. The way we perform roles might depend on;
(i) Role perceptions: An individual’s views on how he/she is supposed to act in a given
situation.
(ii) Role expectation: What one thing will come out of his role at the end of work.
(iii) Psychological contracts: The unwritten contract/agreement that set out what
management expects from the employees and vice versa.
(iv) Role conflict: A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role
expectations.

Note: Our roles in group might depend on the norms of the groups, which are expected
standards to behave within a group. Norms might be brought about bytwo aspects; (a)
conformity and (b) reference group

(a) Conformity which Is the adjusting one’s behaviour to align with the norms of a group.
(b) Reference group importance of group to which one belongs or hope to belong, and with
whose norms individuals are likely to conform.

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Why do people join groups?
There are several properties of groups in organizations that make people join the groups. These
include;
i. Role: Members in a group should have roles; a role is a set of expected behaviour patterns
attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. In groups these are
given roles to which members choose to participate in some.
ii. Role identity: Certain behaviours or attitudes consistent with a role
iii. Role perception; our view on how we are supposed to act to a given situation
iv. Role expectation: The way others believe you should act in a given situation which is
governed psychological contracts.
v. Role conflict: When an individual is confronted with divergent role expectations, the
result is a role conflict.
vi. Norms: These are acceptable standards within a group that are shared by the group
members (do’s and don’ts of the groups). Performance norms, appearance norms, social
arrangement norms, resource allocation norms.
vii. Status: This is a socially defined position or rank given to a group or group members by
others status might be due to power, person’s ability to contribute to a goal or individual
personal characteristics (good looks, money, personality)
viii. Size: The size of the group might affect its behaviour as well as its performance. In quest
to solve a bigger problem, a larger group might be successful than a smaller one. But the
bigger the group might bring about social leafing. Social leafing for individuals to put in
less effort if working in a group than individuals.
ix. Cohesiveness: This is a degree to which members are attracted to their own groups and
motivated to stage in the group. Cohesiveness has been found to be related to
productivity.
x. Security: Staying in a group at work places might reduce insecurity as they belong to a
group. The bigger the group, the security one develops as regards his or her job, business,
organization, etc.
xi. Status: Members would like to be recognized and status if the groups they belong to are
good or reputable. And the opposite might be true.
xii. Self-esteem: Belonging to a group might provide one with (rotary club) feelings of self-
worth. Belonging to a group is likely to improve one’s self esteem, and feeling of worth.
xiii. Affiliation benefits: people join groups to establish social identity, prestige and respect.
This also helps them to fulfil their social needs. Most time members join groups from
which they benefit physically, emotionally or socially. For example, groups that provide
allowances to their members might be liked more than those that do not.
xiv. Power: If one cannot achieve something as an individual, a group can achieve it. For
example, business people form groups to achieve their targets (KACITA).
xv. Goal achievement: A group is usually a pool of talent(s), knowledge, power in order to
accomplish a goal (committees and boards of organizations). Goals of the groups can
easily be achieved across the various goal lines.
xvi. Fairness is a group: This can be in form of equity (fairness), distributive and procedural
justice, interpersonal justice, etc.
Other benefits include;
xvii. Characteristic of other group members
xviii. Satisfy important psychological and social needs of the members intending to join the
groups.

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xix. People join groups to attain what you won’t have attained as an individual. People join
micro finance and SACCO to pool resources to do bigger projects which they would not
undertake as individuals.
xx. To gain knowledge that they did not have as individuals; for example, through seminars,
workshops, etc.

Group formation
The group formation model has five stages. These include;
(a) Forming: This is the first stage, and greatly covered by uncertainties about purpose,
structure, leadership. It is characterized with uncertainty of the group’s purpose, structure
and leadership. It is greatly testing time
(b) Storming stage: It is one of the intergroup conflicts where members have to accept the
existence of a group. They are conflicts on who will lead the groups. At this stage,
members accept the group but with resistance to constraints groups impose to individuals.
For example, paying membership fees.
(c) Norming stage: This is when the group structure solidifies and the group has common
set expectations. At this stage, close relationship develops between members. There is
strong cohesion and identity of members to the group or organization, and the vice versa.
(d) Performing stage: This is the group stage when it is fully functioning and accepted. At
this stage the structure is set, functions and accepted. This is greater performance in a
group at this stage.
Note: Permanent work groups, performance is at the best at this stage
(e) Adjournment: This is a characterized by concerns of wrapping up the activities of a
group than task performance. If the group, team or taskforce is temporary, after the task
has been performed then it adjourns.
Group and decision making
Two levels are better than one level in organizations management and operation. But this does
not mean that the group decisions are better than those from individuals.

Advantages of groups
(a) There is generation of more complete information as different views are shared and
integrated in the final decision(s).
(b) There is increased diversity in views to make wide spectrum decisions.
(c) Group decision lead to increased acceptance if solutions by people and those who receive
them.
(d) Group decisions are taken to be more accurate and efficient than those from individuals.
Because they are thought to have been thoroughly digested.
(e) There is more creativity in groups than for individuals
(f) Achieve higher or big when we work in groups; capital, thoughts, resource mobilization,
ideas, skills, competences, philosophy, etc.
(g) Greater chances of winning more resourceful people to join you than an individual.

Disadvantages of groups
(a) Group decision are time consuming due to involvement of many people and processes.
This drags the process of taking decisions in organizations.
(b) There is conformity pressure in groups which does not reflect the true picture of an
individual. For example, an individual in a group with the right decision might be
suffocated by the majority because they are many.

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 (c) In making decisions, one or few members might dominate the majority and influence
their decisions. Later, this might be taken to be the decision of the group.
(d) Group decisions might suffer from ambiguous responsibilities. People might be
allocated tasks which they cannot manage just in the view that every member must have
what to do as far as the group roles are concerned.
(e) When undertaking activities in groups everything to be undertaken might require to
have a quorum. If quorum is not obtained even things that require urgency might not be
attended.
(f) No one in a group can make independent decision even when he is 100% sure that it is
correct.
(g) Group are dominated with group influence, i.e. people might be influenced to change
their original good behavior to alternative behaviours.
(h) In group dynamics, majority win even if wrong they are not right. This means that
minority are ever suppressed and their views are very buried.
(i) When group members are scattered over a large area, it become difficult for them to
operate. They might need technology to harness their meeting and operations.
(j) Sometimes making decisions in groups requires extensive convincing of members so
as the right decision is made. The makes a person raise extra efforts so as for the right
decision to be undertaken.
(k) There might conflict motives in an organization. Different people might come to the
group with different motives. This might stagnate the group as people fight so hard to
serve their own interest than those that promote the group.

TEAMS
Understanding teamwork
Sometime it is not worthy to hire individual in management, but, it would be of value to hire
teams. You might find that bringing on one employee is not enough it would require to bring a
team e.g. football players, IT e.g. You hire a manager on the entire team to lay a fibre cable for
your company.

Why hire teams?

When speed is needed to undertake a task a team might be better as there will be no hiring and
training of recruits. Team reduces time in which work is done, increase in production and
usually it shares a common mission and vision towards a goal to be attained. The team usually
has a focus on attain the goal(s) of the organization.

Difference between teams and group

Groups: Two or more people interacting and are interdependent, who come together to achieve
a certain objective. There is no need to engage collective objective. The performance of the
group members is a summation of each group members’ contribution.

Team: A group whose individuals’ efforts or results are equal to the results that is greater than
the sum of the individual inputs. It creates a synergy through coordinated effort. In looking for
a positive synergy that will allow organs increase productions, and teams are better.

Types of teams in organizations

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a) Problem solving teams: Group of employees from the department who meet a few days
in a week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency and working environment
(discuss processes and methods).
b) Self-managed work teams: These are group of 10-15 people who take on responsibilities
of their former supervisors (planning, assigning tasks, make decisions, take actions).
c) Cross-functional teams: These are groups of employees from the same hierarchical levels,
but from different work areas who come together to accomplish a task. (heads of
department – planning, tooling, designing, engineering etc.)
d) Production team: These are teams that are engaged in direct production of good and
services. If they are in the same departments, they might be required to have the same skills
while those in the different departments might have the same or different skills.
e) Virtual teams: These are physically dispersed members who work together to achieve
goals. There are usually connected with technology(ICT), video conferencing. When
operating as virtual teams there should trust between team members, team progress should
be monitored and achievements of the team should be communicated to members.
Advantage of a team work;
i. As you have several people struggling to attain the same goal, the different people might
bring multiple perspectives/ skills on board.
ii. Working in teams brings about greater openness to new ideas
iii. Where greater and rigorous analysis might be needed, working in teams might provide
multiple interpretation of the decisions made.
iv. Working in teams bring about increased creativity and various skills and talents are
included in the team.
v. There is increased chances of a problem to be solved when people work in teams than as
individuals or groups.
vi. Teams offer greater insightful and analysis of ideas and options than individual approach
to work.

Disadvantages
i. No face to face discussion
ii. Less flexibility when working in teams due to particular roles assigned to people.
iii. Teams are more task oriented than emotional or affection orientation.
iv. Less satisfaction as individuals.

Effectiveness of a team (group) might be due to;

(i) Work design
This might include autonomy, skills and significance

(ii) Composition of a team

i. Ability
ii. Personality
iii. Roles and diversity
iv. Size

(iii) Context
i. Adequate resources
ii. Leadership
iii. Performance evaluation and reward system

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(iv) Process
i. Specific goals
ii. Team efficacy
iii. Conflict levels (conflicts in a group are not necessarily bad but can improve the
organizational effectiveness)
iv. Social loafing (Individuals can hide inside the group. Successive team work as
individuals is jointly accountable for the team purpose, goal and approaches

Team effectiveness model - Components of team effectiveness.

Components of an effective team is categorized into four; context, composition, work design,
process.
(a) Context
i. Adequate resources: Scarcity of resources reduces the ability of the team to achieve
the desired organizational goals.
ii. Leadership and structure: The team cannot function adequately if they cannot agree
on who leads, or who does what in their process of achieving the organizational goals.
iii. Climate of trust: To achieve the desired goal(s), there should be trust among the team
members.
iv. Performance evaluation and reward systems: When members are working as a team,
there should be a recognition or reward system to honour outstanding or the best
performers on the given task(s) being undertaken.

(b) Composition
i. Ability of members: This largely depends on the quality of the members in the team.
Performance of the team might depend on the skills possessed by the team members,
their technical expertise, decision making, and their interpersonal skills, among others.
ii. Personality: Personality has an influence on the employee behavior. A team is likely
to have people with different personalities. Negative personality as regards to the work
is likely to influence the performance of the employees negatively while positive
personality is likely to influence their performance positively.
iii. Allocating roles: Teams are composed because different roles are supposed to be acted
which cannot be done by individuals. This might require different people to be
incorporated in a team to undertake the different roles supposed to be performed by the
teams.
iv. Diversity: Diversity in the composition of the teams might affect the team performance,
but, teams can also look for similarities to perform. Diversities might be in skills,
attitudes, perceptions, emotions among others.
v. Size of the team: In team formation and management. A smaller the team (5 – 9 people)
is better than a bigger team
vi. Members flexibility: A team with flexible members is better than a team which has
rigid members. Flexibility in a team helps it to make quick changes in its processes that
a team with members who are rigid and cannot easily allow changes to be made.
vii. Members preference: Members preference are key in any team on top of other
required aspects from all the members. In teams, there are some people who might
require to work alone. Such members if incorporated in a team they might be affected
by the performance of other team members.
(c) Work design
i. Autonomy: Some members in a team would require to have freedom in whatever they
do. This freedom would help them work alone.

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 ii. Skill variety: The work design in a team should give the opportunity to the team
members to use different skills and talents. If they are not given the opportunity they
might not work adequately.
iii. Task identity: This is the ability to complete the whole task(s) or products as intended
to achieve. Team members should be able to stay in a team until the who task projected
to be achieved is achieved and in the desired time.
iv. Task significance: This is work on tasks that have substantial influence or impact to
others.

(d) Team process

i. Common purpose: an effective team should have direction, purpose and commitment
for the members of the team. All the team members should be able to see the direction
and goal to be achieved by the team members. This would help the team members
achieve the goal effectively and efficiently.
ii. Specific goals; successive team should have outlined goals which are measurable,
realistic and achievable. The would help the team members to have hope of achieving
the team goals, and can quantify what has been achieved and what still has to be
achieved.
iii. Team efficacy; an effective team should have a belief that they can succeed in whatever
they would like to achieve. Teams which are always successful they have a belief that
they will succeed in their endavours.
iv. Conflict levels; conflicts might improve the efficiency of teams and might not be bad
as it is always anticipated. Conflicts in a team might raise competition and might also
set teams to re-organize themselves. Teams that might avoid conflicts are likely to
become apathetic and stagnant. Relationship conflicts based on interpersonal
incompatibilities, tension, and animosity towards other would be a stumbling block to
the team’s success.
v. Social leafing; these are members hiding in a team or a group. This can cost the group
because their effort cannot be realized/identified. Effective teams make members
accountable at individual and team levels.

How can you change individual into teams?

(a) Selection: Already some people have skills of being team players. When hiring a team,
the technical skill of a person being able to work as a team should be mandatory.
(b) Training: Members can be trained to become team members.
(c) Reward: In order to boost teams, rewards should be more cooperation than
competition. If a team becomes competitive among its own members, it might not
achieve its goals.

Why teams might not be the answer in achieving organizational goals

(a) Team requires increased communication among members.
(b) Conflicts would affect performance.
(c) Meeting all the time might be a disadvantage.
(d) Having excessive costs to undertake a task as members want to work in teams.
(e) Some tasks might require individuals, but one might want to work as a team.