BSC 1 Math 1
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First Year
Mathematics, Paper - I
ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY
MADHYA PRADESH BHOJ (OPEN) UNIVERSITY - BHOPAL
Reviewer Committee
1. Dr Piyush Bhatnagar 3. Dr Rajkumar Bhimtae
Professor Professor
Govt MLB College Bhopal Govt College Vidisha, MP
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Professor
Govt C.S. Azad (PG) College, Sehore
Advisory Committee
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Hon'ble Vice Chancellor Professor
Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University, Bhopal Govt MLB College Bhopal
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Registrar Professor
Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University, Bhopal Govt C.S. Azad (PG) College, Sehore
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Dy Director Printing Professor
Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University, Bhopal Govt College Vidisha, MP
COURSE WRITERS
V K Khanna, Formerly Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi
S K Bhambri, Formerly Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi
Units: (1.0-1.2, 1.2.1, 1.3-1.4, 1.6, 1.8-1.12, 2.0-2.2, 2.4, 2.5-2.9, 4.0-4.6, 4.7-4.16)
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Units: (1.5, 1.7, 2.2.1, 2.3, 3, 5)
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SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Algebra and Trigonometry
UNIT-1: Matrix Unit-1: Matrix
Rank of a Matrix, Normal and Echelon Form of a Matrix, (Pages 3-71)
Characteristic Equations of a Matrix, Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors,
Linear Independence of Row and Column Matrix.
UNIT-2: Solving Matrix Equations Unit-2: Solving Matrix Equations
Cayley Hamilton Theorem and Its Use in Finding Inverse of a (Pages 73-97)
Matrix, Application of Matrix to Solve a System of Linear
(Homogenous and Non-Homogenous) Equations, Theorems on
Consistency and Inconsistency of a System of Linear Equations,
Solving Linear Equations up to Three Unknowns.
UNIT-3: Equations and Polynomial Unit-3: Equations and Polynomial
Relation Between the Roots and Coefficients of a General Polynomial (Pages 99-134)
Equation in One Variable, Transformation of Equations, Reciprocal
Equations, Descartes' Rule of Signs.
UNIT-4: Logic and Propositional Calculus Unit-4: Logic and Propositional
Logic - Logical Connectives, Truth Tables, Tautology, Calculus
Contradiction, Logical Equivalence, Algebra of Prepositions, (Pages 135-199)
Boolean Algebra - Definition and Properties, Switching Circuits
and Its Applications, Logic Gates and Circuits.
UNIT-5: Expansion of Trigonometric Functions, Hyperbolic Unit-5: Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions and Series Functions, Hyperbolic
De - Moivre’s Theorem and Its Applications, Direct and Inverse Functions and Series
Circular and Hyperbolic Functions, Expansion of Trigonometric (Pages 201-269)
Functions, Logarithm of Complex Quantities, Gregory’s Series,
Summation of Trigonometrical Series.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
UNIT 1 MATRIX 3-71
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Matrix: Basic Introduction
1.2.1 Various Matrix Forms
1.3 Rank of a Matrix
1.4 Normal and Echelon Form of a Matrix
1.5 Characteristic Equations of a Matrix
1.6 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
1.7 Linear Independence of Row and Column Matrix
1.8 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.9 Summary
1.10 Key Terms
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.12 Further Reading
UNIT 2 SOLVING MATRIX EQUATIONS 73-97
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Cayley – Hamilton Theorem
2.2.1 Cayley – Hamilton Theorem and Its Use in Finding Inverse of a Matrix
2.3 Application of Matrix to Solve a System of Linear
(Homogeneous and Non-Homogeneous) Equations
2.4 Theorems on Consistency and Inconsistency of a System of Linear Equations
2.4.1 Solving Linear Equations up to Three Unknowns
2.5 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Terms
2.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.9 Further Reading
UNIT 3 EQUATIONS AND POLYNOMIAL 99-134
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Equation and Polynomial - Basics
3.3 Relation Between the Roots and Coefficients of a General Polynomial Equation in One Variable
3.4 Transformation of Equations and Reciprocal Equations
3.5 Descartes’ Rule of Signs
3.6 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
3.7 Summary
3.8 Key Terms
3.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.10 Further Reading
UNIT 4 LOGIC AND PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 135-199
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Logical Connectives and Logical Operations
4.3 Truth Tables
4.4 Tautology and Contradiction
4.5 Logical Equivalence
4.6 Algebra of Logical Prepositions
4.7 Propositions
4.8 Boolean Algebra - Definition and Functions
4.9 Boolean Algebra - Theorems and Properties
4.10 Switching Circuits and Its Applications
4.11 Logic Gates and Circuits
4.12 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
4.13 Summary
4.14 Key Terms
4.15 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.16 Further Reading
UNIT 5 EXPANSION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS,
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS AND SERIES 201-269
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 De - Moivre’s Theorem and its Applications
5.3 Hyperbolic Functions
5.4 Inverse Circular and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
5.5 Gregory’s Series
5.6 Expansion of Trigonometric Functions
5.7 Logarithm of Complex Quantities
5.8 Summation of Trigonometrical Series
5.9 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
5.10 Summary
5.11 Key Terms
5.12 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.13 Further Reading
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Algebra is one of the broad parts of mathematics, together with number theory,
geometry and analysis. In its most general form, algebra is the study of mathematical NOTES
symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols, it is a unifying thread of
almost all of mathematics. It includes everything from elementary equation solving
to the study of abstractions, such as groups, rings, and fields. The more basic
parts of algebra are called elementary algebra, the more abstract parts are called
abstract algebra or modern algebra. Elementary algebra is generally considered to
be essential for any study of mathematics, science, or engineering, as well as such
applications as medicine and economics. Abstract algebra is a major area in
advanced mathematics, studied primarily by professional mathematicians. The roots
of algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonians, who developed an advanced
arithmetical system with which they were able to do calculations in an algorithmic
manner. The Babylonians developed formulas to calculate solutions for problems
typically solved today by using linear equations, quadratic equations, and
indeterminate linear equations. Abstract algebra was developed in the 19th century,
deriving from the interest in solving equations, initially focusing on what is now
called Galois Theory. Augustus De Morgan discovered relation algebra and
proposed system of logic. Josiah Willard Gibbs developed an algebra of vectors
in three-dimensional space, and Arthur Cayley developed an algebra of matrices.
Principally, algebra is a branch of mathematics dealing with symbols and the
rules for manipulating those symbols. In elementary algebra, those symbols represent
quantities without fixed values, known as variables. Just as sentences describe
relationships between specific words, in algebra, equations describe relationships
between variables. Building a solid conceptual understanding of algebra is absolutely
fundamental.
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships between
side lengths and angles of triangles. The field emerged in the Hellenistic world
during the 3rd century BC from applications of geometry to astronomical studies.
The Greeks focused on the calculation of chords, while mathematicians in India
created the earliest-known tables of values for trigonometric ratios also called
trigonometric functions, such as sine. Throughout history, trigonometry has been
applied in areas, such as geodesy, surveying, celestial mechanics, and navigation.
Trigonometry is known for its many identities, which are equations used for rewriting
trigonometrical expressions to solve equations, to find a more useful expression,
or to discover new relationships.
‘Algebra’ is, therefore, a branch of pure mathematics that studies the rules
of operations and relations and the various related concepts, while ‘Trigonometry’
is another branch of mathematics that deals with triangles and the relationships
between their sides and the angles between the sides. Both these fields of
mathematics study the relationships between variables.
Self - Learning
Material 1
Introduction This book, Algebra and Trigonometry, is designed to be a comprehensive
and easily accessible book covering the basic concepts of algebra and trigonometry.
It will help readers to understand the basic concepts of matrix, solving matrix
equations, equations and polynomial, logic and propositional calculus, logic gates
NOTES and circuits, expansion of trigonometric functions, hyperbolic functions and series.
The book is divided into five units that follow the self-instruction mode with each
unit beginning with an Introduction to the unit, followed by an outline of the
Objectives. The detailed content is then presented in a simple but structured manner
interspersed with Check Your Progress Questions to test the student’s
understanding of the topic. A Summary along with a list of Key Terms and a set of
Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises is also provided at the end of each unit
for understanding, revision and recapitulation.
Self - Learning
2 Material
Matrix
UNIT 1 MATRIX
Structure NOTES
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Matrix: Basic Introduction
1.2.1 Various Matrix Forms
1.3 Rank of a Matrix
1.4 Normal and Echelon Form of a Matrix
1.5 Characteristic Equations of a Matrix
1.6 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
1.7 Linear Independence of Row and Column Matrix
1.8 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.9 Summary
1.10 Key Terms
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.12 Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In mathematics, a matrix (plural matrices) is a rectangular array of numbers,
symbols, or expressions, arranged in rows and columns, more generally it is a
table consisting of abstract quantities that can be added and multiplied. Principally,
a matrix is defined as an ordered rectangular array of numbers which can be used
to represent systems of linear equations. The horizontal lines in a matrix are termed
as rows and the vertical lines are termed as columns. A matrix with m rows and n
columns is called an m-by-n matrix, written as m × n, where m and n are called its
dimensions. The dimensions of a matrix are always given with the number of rows
first followed by the number of columns. The rank of a matrix is the maximum
number of independent rows or the maximum number of independent columns. In
fact, any matrix can be reduced to Echelon form by elementary row operations. A
system of equations is called consistent if and only if there is a common solution to
all of them, otherwise it is called inconsistent.
In linear algebra, an eigenvector or characteristic vector of a linear
transformation is a nonzero vector that changes at most by a scalar factor when
that linear transformation is applied to it. The corresponding eigenvalue is the factor
by which the eigenvector is scaled. Geometrically, an eigenvector, corresponding
to a real nonzero eigenvalue, points in a direction in which it is stretched by the
transformation and the eigenvalue is the factor by which it is stretched. If the
eigenvalue is negative, the direction is reversed. An eigenvector of a matrix cannot
correspond to two different eigenvalues and an eigenvalue of a matrix can and will
correspond to different eigenvectors. The columns (or rows) of a matrix are linearly
dependent when the number of columns (or rows) is greater than the rank, and are
linearly independent when the number of columns (or rows) is equal to the rank.
Self - Learning
Material 3
Matrix In this unit, you will study about the basics of matrix, various matrix forms,
rank of a matrix, normal and echelon form of a matrix, characteristic equations of
a matrix, eigenvalues, eigenvectors, and linear independence of row and column
matrix.
NOTES
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Define matrix and its various types
Explain various operations performed on matrices
Find the rank of a matrix
Explain the various elementary transformations performed on matrices
Understand about the normal and echelon form of a matrix
Define the characteristic equations of a matrix
Reduce a matrix to Echelon form
Understand eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Discuss about the linear independence of row and column matrix
1.2 MATRIX: BASIC INTRODUCTION
What is a Matrix?
Let F be a an array and n, m be two integers 1. An array of elements F of the type
a11 a12 a13 ... a1n
a21 a22 a23 ... a2n
am1 am2 am3 ... amn
is called a matrix F. We denote this matrix by (aij), i = 1, ..., m and j = 1, ..., n. We
say that it is a m × n matrix (or matrix of order m × n). It has m rows and n columns.
For example, the first row is (a11 a12 ..., a1n) and first column is,
a11
a21
am1
Also, aij denotes the element of the matrix (aij) lying in ith row and jth column and
we call this element as the (i, j)th element of the matrix.
For example, in the matrix,
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
Self - Learning
4 Material
a11 = 1, a12 = 2, a32 = 8, i.e., (1, 1)th element is 1 Matrix
(1, 2)th element is 2
(3, 2)th element is 8
Notes:
NOTES
1. Unless otherwise stated, we shall consider matrices over the field C
of complex numbers only.
2. A matrix is simply an arrangement of elements and has no numerical
value.
1 2 3
4 5 6
Example 1.1: If A = , find a11, a22, a33, a31, a41.
7 8 9
0 1 2
Solution: a11 = Element of A in first row and first column = 1
a22 = Element of A in second row and second column = 5
a33 = Element of A in third row and third column = 9
a31 = Element of A in third row and first column = 7
a41 = Element of A in fourth row and first column = 0
Types of Matrices
1. Row Matrix: A matrix which has exactly one row is called a row matrix.
For example, (1 2 3 4) is a row matrix.
2. Column Matrix: A matrix which has exactly one column is called a column
matrix.
5
6
For example, is a column matrix.
7
3. Square Matrix: A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number
of columns is called a square matrix.
1 2
For example, is a 2 × 2 square matrix.
3 4
4. Null or Zero Matrix: A matrix each of whose elements is zero is called a null
matrix or zero matrix.
0 0 0
For example, is a 2 × 3 Null matrix.
0 0 0
5. Diagonal Matrix: The elements aij are called diagonal elements of a square
1 2 3
4 5 6
matrix (aij). For example, in matrix,
7 8 9
the diagonal elements are a11 = 1, a22 = 5, a33 = 9 Self - Learning
Material 5
Matrix A square matrix whose every element other than diagonal elements is zero, is
called a diagonal matrix. For example,
1 0 0
NOTES 0 2 0 is a diagonal matrix.
0 0 3
Note that, the diagonal elements in a diagonal matrix may also be zero. For
example,
0 0 0 0
and are also diagonal matrices.
0 2 0 0
6. Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are equal, is called
a scalar matrix. For example,
1 0 0 0 0 0
5 0
, 0 1 0 , 0 0 0 are scalar matrices.
0 5 0 0 1 0 0 0
7. Identity Matrix: A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are all equal to 1
(unity) is called identity matrix or (unit matrix). For example,
1 0
is an identity matrix.
0 1
8. Triangular Matrix: A square matrix (aij), whose elements aij = 0 when i < j is
called a lower triangular matrix.
Similarly, a square matrix (aij) whose elements aij = 0 whenever i > j is called
an upper triangular matrix.
For example,
1 0 0
1 0
4 5 0 , 2 0 are lower triangular matrices
7 8 9
1 2 3
1 2
0 4 5, are upper triangular matrices.
and
0 0 6 0 3
Algebra of Matrices
Equality
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if,
(i) A and B are of same order.
(ii) Corresponding elements in A and B are same. For example, the following
two matrices are equal.
3 4 9 3 4 9
=
16 25 64 16 25 64
Self - Learning But the following two matrices are not equal.
6 Material
Matrix
1 2 3
1 2 3
4 5 6
4 5 6 7 8 9
As matrix on left is of order 2 × 3, while on right it is of order 3 × 3 NOTES
The following two matrices are also not equal.
1 2 3 1 2 3
7 8 9 4 8 9
As (2, 1)th element in LHS matrix is 7 while in RHS matrix it is 4
Addition of Matrices
If A and B are two matrices of the same order then addition of A and B is defined
to be the matrix obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A and B.
For example, if
1 2 3 2 3 4
A = 4 5 6 , B =
5 6 7
1 2 2 3 3 4 3 5 7
Then, A + B = 4 5 5 6 6 7 =
9 11 13
1 2 2 3 3 4 1 1 1
=
A – B =
4 5 5 6 6 7 1 1 1
Also,
Note that addition (or subtraction) of two matrices is defined only when A and B
are of the same order.
Properties of Matrix Addition
(i) Matrix addition is commutative.
i.e., A+B=B+A
For, (i, j)th element of A + B is (aij + bij) and of B + A is (bij + aij), and they
are same as aij and bij are real numbers.
(ii) Matrix addition is associative,
i.e., A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
For, (i, j)th element of A + (B + C) is aij + (bij + cij) and of (A + B) + C is
(aij + bij) + cij which are same.
(iii) If O denotes null matrix of the same order as that of A then,
A+O=A=O+A
For (i, j)th element of A + O is aij + O which is same as (i, j)th element
of A.
(iv) To each matrix A there corresponds a matrix B such that,
A + B = O = B + A.
For, let (i, j)th element of B be – aij. Then (i, j)th element of A + B is,
aij – aij = 0.
Self - Learning
Material 7
Matrix Thus, the set of m × n matrices forms an abelian group under the composition
of matrix addition.
1 2 3 0 1 2
Example 1.2: If A = 4 5 6 and B = 3 4 5
NOTES
Verify A + B = B + A.
Solution: A + B =
FG 1 0 2 1 3 2IJ = 1 3 5
H 4 3 5 4 6 5K 7 9 11
B+A=G
F 0 1 1 2 2 3IJ = 1 3 5
H 3 4 4 5 5 6K 7 9 11
So, A+B=B+A
Example 1.3: If A and B are matrices as in Example 1.2
1 0 1
and C = , verify (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
1 2 3
1 3 5
Solution: Now A + B =
7 9 11
0 3 6
So, (A + B) + C = 1 1 3 0 5 1
=
7 1 9 2 11 3 8 11 14
Again, B+C=
FG 0 1 1 0 2 1
=
IJ 1 1 3
H3 1 4 2 5 3 K 4 6 8
So, A + (B + C) =
FG 1 1 2 1 3 3
=
IJ
0 3 6
H4 4 5 6 68 K
8 11 14
Therefore, (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
1 2
Example 1.4: If A = 3 4 , find a matrix B such that A + B = 0.
5 6
b11 b12
Solution: Let, B = b21 b22
b31 b32
1 b11 2 b12 F0 0I
Then, A + B = 3 b21 4 b22 = 0 0 GG JJ
5 b31 6 b32 H0 0K
It implies, b11= – 1, b12 = – 2, b21 = –3, b22 = – 4,
b31 = – 5, b32 = – 6
F 1 2 I
Therefore required B = 3 4GG JJ
H 5 6K
Multiplication of Matrices
The product AB of two matrices A and B is defined only when the number of columns
of A is same as the number of rows in B and by definition the product AB is a matrix
G of order m × p if A and B were of order m × n and n × p, respectively. The
Self - Learning following example will give the rule to multiply two matrices:
8 Material
d1 e1 Matrix
a1 b1 c1
d2 e2
Let, A = a b c B =
2 2 2
d3 e3
Order of A = 2 × 3, Order of B = 3 × 2 NOTES
So, AB is defined as,
a1d1 b1d 2 c1d3 a1e1 b1e2 c1e3
G = AB = a d b d c d a e b e c e
2 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 3
g11 g12
= g
21 g 22
g11 : Multiply elements of the first row of A with corresponding elements of the
first column of B and add.
g12 : Multiply elements of the first row of A with corresponding elements of the
second column of B and add.
g21 : Multiply elements of the second row of A with corresponding elements of the
first column of B and add.
g22 : Multiply elements of the second column of A with corresponding elements of
the second column and add.
Notes: 1. In general, if A and B are two matrices then AB may not be equal to BA.
For example, if
1 1 1 0 1 0
A= , B= then AB =
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1
and BA = . So, AB BA
0 0
2. If product AB is defined, then it is not necessary that BA must also be
defined. For example, if A is of order 2 × 3 and B is of order 3 × 1, then
AB can be defined but BA cannot be defined (as the number of columns
of B the number of rows of A).
It can be easily verified that,
(i) A(BC) = (AB)C.
(ii) A(B + C) = AB + AC.
(iii) (A + B)C = AC + BC.
2 –1 7 0
Example 1.5: If A = 0 3 and B = –2 –3 write down AB.
2 7 ( 1) ( 2) 2 0 ( 1) ( 3)
Solution: AB =
0 7 3 ( 2) 0 0 3 ( 3)
16 3
= 6 9
Example 1.6: Verify the associative law A(BC) = (AB)C for the following matrices.
–1 0 1 5 1 1
A= , B= , C=
7 – 2 7 0 2 0
Self - Learning
Material 9
Matrix
1 0 1 5 1 0 5 0
Solution: AB =
7 2 7 0 7 14 35 0
1 5
NOTES = 21 35
1 51 1 1 10 1 0 11 1
BC = 7 0 2 0 7 0 7 0 7 7
1 0 11 1 11 0 1 0
A(BC) = 7 27 7 77 14 7 14
11 1
= 91 21
1 51 1 110 1 0
(AB)C = 21 35 2 0 21 70 21 0
11 1
= 91 21
Thus, A(BC) = (AB)C
Example 1.7: If A is a square matrix, then A can be multiplied by itself. Define
A2 = A. A which is called power of a matrix. Compute A2 for the following matrix:
1 0
A=
3 4
Solution: A2 =
FG 1 0IJ FG 1 0IJ = 1 0
H 3 4K H 3 4K 15
16
Similarly, we can define A3, A4, A5, ... for any square matrix A.
Scalar Multiplication of Matrix
If k is any complex number and A, a given matrix, then kA is the matrix obtained
from A by multiplying each element of A by k. The number k is called Scalar.
For example, if
A=
FG 1 2 3 IJ and k = 2
H4 5 6K
2 4 6
Then, kA =
8 10 12
It can be easily shown that,
(i) k(A + B) = kA + kB (ii) (k1 + k2)A = k1A + k2A
(iii) 1A = A (iv) (k1k2)A = k1(k2A)
0 1 2
Example 1.8: (i) If A = 2 3 4 and k1 = i, k2 = 2, verify,,
4 5 6
(k1 + k2) A = k1A + k2A
Self - Learning
10 Material
Matrix
0 2 3 7 6 3
(ii) If A = ,B= , find the value of 2A + 3B.
2 1 4 1 4 5
0 i 2i 0 2 4
Solution: (i) Now k1A = 2i 3i 4i and k2A = 4 6 8 NOTES
4i 5i 6i 8 10 12
0 2 i 4 2i
So, k1A + k2A = 4 2i 6 3i 8 4i
8 4i 10 5i 12 6i
0 2 i 4 2i
Also, (k1 + k2) A = 4 2i 6 3i 8 4i
8 4i 10 5i 12 6i
Therefore, (k1 + k2)A = k1A + k2A
0 4 6
(ii) 2A = 4 2 8
21 18 9
3B =
3 12 15
21 22 15
So, 2A + 3B =
7 14 23
1 2
Example 1.9: If A = – 3 0 find A2 + 3A + 5I where I is unit matrix of order 2.
1 2 1 2 5 2
Solution: A2 = =
3 0 3 0 3 6
3 6
3A =
9 0
FG 1 0IJ , 5I = 5 0
5
I=
H 0 1K 0
5 2 3 6 5 0
So, A2 + 3A + 5I =
3 6 9 0 0 5
3 8
=
12 1
0 1 0 i
Example 1.10: If A = , B = show that, AB = – BA and
1 0 i 0
A2 = B2 = I.
0 1 0 i i 0
Solution: Now, AB = =
1 0 i 0 0 i
0 i 0 1 i 0
BA = =
i 0 1 0 0 i
Self - Learning
Material 11
Matrix So, AB = – BA
Also, A2 =
FG 0 1IJ FG 0 1IJ = FG 1 0IJ = I
H 1 0K H 1 0K H 0 1K
NOTES B2 =
0 i 0 i
=G
F 1 0IJ = I
i 0 i 0 H 0 1K
This proves the result.
Example 1.11: In an examination of Mathematics, 20 students from college A,
30 students from college B and 40 students from college C appeared. Only 15
students from each college could get through the examination. Out of them 10
students from college A and 5 students from college B and 10 students from college
C secured full marks. Write down the above data in matrix form.
Solution: Consider the matrix,
20 30 40
15 15 15
10 5 10
First row represents the number of students in college A, college B, college
C respectively.
Second row represents the number of students who got through the
examination in three colleges respectively.
Third row represents the number of students who got full marks in the three
colleges respectively.
Example 1.12: A publishing house has two branches. In each branch, there are
three offices. In each office, there are 3 peons, 4 clerks and 5 typists. In one office
of a branch, 6 salesmen are also working. In each office of other branch 2 head-
clerks are also working. Using matrix notation find (i) the total number of posts of
each kind in all the offices taken together in each branch, (ii) the total number of
posts of each kind in all the offices taken together from both the branches.
Solution: (i) Consider the following row matrices,
A1 = (3 4 5 6 0), A2 = (3 4 5 0 0), A3 = (3 4 5 0 0)
These matrices represent the three offices of the branch (say A) where
elements appearing in the row represent the number of peons, clerks, typists,
salesmen and head-clerks taken in that order working in the three offices.
Then, A1 + A2 + A3 = (3 + 3 + 3 4 + 4 + 4 5 + 5 + 5 6 + 0 + 0 0 + 0 + 0)
= (9 12 15 6 0)
Thus, total number of posts of each kind in all the offices of branch A are the
elements of matrix A1 + A2 + A3 = (9 12 15 6 0)
Now consider the following row matrices,
B1 = (3 4 5 0 2), B2 = (3 4 5 0 2), B3 = (3 4 5 0 2)
Then B1, B2, B3 represent three offices of other branch (say B) where the
elements in the row represents number of peons, clerks, typists, salesmen and head-
clerks respectively.
Self - Learning
12 Material
Thus, total number of posts of each kind in all the offices of branch B are the Matrix
elements of the matrix B1 + B2 + B3 = (9 12 15 0 6)
(ii) The total number of posts of each kind in all the offices taken together from
both branches are the elements of matrix,
(A1 + A2 + A3) + (B1 + B2 + B3) = (18 24 30 6 6) NOTES
Example 1.13: Let A =
FG 10 20IJ where first row represents the number of table
H 30 40K
fans and second row represents the number of ceiling fans which two manufacturing
units A and B make in one day. The first and second column represent the
manufacturing units A and B. Compute 5A and state what it represents.
50 100
Solution: 5A =
150 200
It represents the number of table fans and ceiling fans that the manufacturing
units A and B produce in five days.
2 3 4 5
Example 1.14: Let A = 3 4 5 6 where rows represent the number of items
4 5 6 7
of type I, II, III, respectively. The four columns represents the four shops A1, A2, A3,
A4 respectively.
1 2 3 4 1 2 2 3
Let, B= 2 1 2 3 , C= 1 2 3 4
3 2 1 2 2 3 4 4
Where elements in B represent the number of items of different types delivered at
the beginning of a week and matrix C represent the sales during that week. Find,
(i) The number of items immediately after delivery of items.
(ii) The number of items at the end of the week.
(iii) The number of items needed to bring stocks of all items in all shops to 6.
F3 5 7 9 I
Solution: (i) A + B = G 5 JJ
GH 7 5 7 9
7 7 9 K
Represent the number of items immediately after delivery of items.
F2 3 5 6 I
(ii) (A + B) – C = G 4 JJ
GH 5 3 4 5
4 3 5 K
Represent the number of items at the end of the week.
(iii) We want that all elements in (A + B) – C should be 6.
F4 3 1 0 I
Let D = G 2 JJ
GH 1 3 2 1
2 3 1 K
Then (A + B) – C + D is a matrix in which all elements are 6. So, D represents
the number of items needed to bring stocks of all items of all shops to 6.
Self - Learning
Material 13
Matrix Example 1.15: The following matrix represents the results of the examination of
B. Com. class:
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
NOTES
9 10 11 12
The rows represent the three sections of the class. The first three columns represent
the number of students securing 1st, 2nd, 3rd divisions respectively in that order and
fourth column represents the number of students who failed in the examination.
(i) How many students passed in three sections respectively?
(ii) How many students failed in three sections respectively?
(iii) Write down the matrix in which number of successful students is shown.
(iv) Write down the column matrix where only failed students are shown.
(v) Write down the column matrix showing students in 1st division from three
sections.
Solution: (i) The number of students who passed in three sections respectively
are 1 + 2 + 3 = 6, 5 + 6 + 7 = 18, 9 + 10 + 11 = 30.
(ii) The number of students who failed from three sections respectively are 4,
8, 12.
1 2 3
(iii) 5 6 7
9 10 11
4
(iv) 8 represents column matrix where only failed students are
12 shown.
F 1I
(v) GG 5JJ represents column matrix of students securing 1st division.
H 9K
Transpose of a Matrix
Let A be a matrix. The matrix obtained from A by interchange of its rows and
columns, is called the transpose of A. For example,
FG 1 IJ 1 2 F I
If, A =
0 2
then transpose of A = 0 1 GG JJ
H2 1 0 K 2 0 H K
Transpose of A is denoted by A.
It can be easily verified that,
(i) (A) = A
(ii) (A + B) = A + B
(iii) (AB) = BA
Example 1.16: For the following matrices A and B verify (A + B) = A + B.
1 2 3 2 3 4
A= , B=
4 5 6 1 8 6
Self - Learning
14 Material
F1 4 I F2 I
1 Matrix
Solution: A = G 2 JJ B = G 3 JJ
GH 3 5
6 K GH 4 8
6K
3 5
NOTES
So, A + B = 5 13
7 12
3 5 7
Again, A + B =
5 13 12
3 5
So, (A + B) = 5 13
7 12
Therefore, (A + B) = A + B
1.2.1 Various Matrix Forms
Following are the various types of matrix forms:
Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices
A square matrix A = [aij] is called a symmetric matrix if aij = aji for all i and j.
For example,
2 1 4
1 0 3 , 6 3
3 2
4 3 1
A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be skew-symmetric if aij = –aji for all i and j.
Remember that aii = –aii (for i = j)
aii = 0, i.e., all the diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are zero.
For example,
0 2 3
0 –4
4 0 , 2 0 4
3 4 0
If A denotes the transpose of a square matrix A, then A is symmetric when A = A,
and A is skew-symmetric when A = –A.
Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian Matrices
A square matrix A = [aij]nn is said to be Hermitian if aij a ji and is said to be
skew-Hermitian if aij a ji , i.e., Hermitian if A*= A, and skew-Hermitian if
A* = –A or A = –A*.
Self - Learning
Material 15
Matrix It is clear from above that the principal diagonal elements of a Hermitian
matrix are purely real, since when j = i, aii aii aii is real and the principal diagonal
elements of skew-Hermitian are purely imaginary or zero. The matrices,
NOTES 2 3 i 4 3i 2i 4 3i 3 i
3 i 5 6i and 4 3i 0 6i are Hermitian and skew-
4 3i 6i 1 3 i 6i 4i
Hermitian matrices.
Orthogonal and Unitary Matrices
A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AA = I.
A square matrix A is said to be unitary if A * A = I, where A* = ( A) is the conjugate
transpose of A.
Example 1.17: Prove that every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the
sum of symmetric and skew- symmetric matrices. Give an example.
Solution: Let A be a square matrix and AT its transpose. Then we have,
1 1
A ( A AT ) ( A AT )
2 2
= B + C (say) ...(1)
1 1
Where, B ( A AT ) and C ( A AT )
2 2 ...(2)
1 1
Now, BT ( A AT )T ( AT A) B
2 2
1 1
and C T ( A AT )T ( AT A) C ( ( AT )T A)
2 2
Thus B is a symmetric matrix and C is a skew-symmetric matrix.
Hence, from Equation(1) we conclude that a square matrix can be expressed
as the sum of a symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.
Uniqueness of Equation (1),
Let A = D + E ...(3)
Where D is a symmetric and E is skew-symmetric matrix so that DT = D and
E = –E.
T
1 1
Then AT ( D E )T ( D T E T ) D.E ...(4)
2 2
On adding and subtracting Equations (3) and (4) respectively, we get
1 1
D ( A AT ) B and E ( A AT ) C which proves the uniqueness of Equation(1).
2 2
Example 1.18: If A and B are Hermitian matrices then show that AB + BA is
Hermitian and AB – BA is skew-Hermitian matrix.
Solution: Since A and B are Hermitian matrices, we have A* = A and B* = B
Now (AB + BA)* = (AB)* + (BA)* = B*A* + A*B*
= BA + AB = (AB + BA)
Self - Learning
16 Material
(AB + BA) is Hermitian matrix Matrix
Again (AB – BA)* = (AB)* = (BA)* = B*A* – A*B*
= BA – AB = (AB – BA)
(AB – BA) is skew-Hermitian matrix. NOTES
Example 1.19: If a non-singular matrix A is symmetric, then A–1 is also symmetric.
Solution: If A is symmetric A = AT ...(5)
If A is non-singular then A–1A = I = IT
= (AA–1)T ( I=A–1A = AA–1 )
= (A–1)T AT ( (AB)T = BT AT
A–1A = (A–1)TA ( AT = A)
or A–1 = (A–1)T, by right cancellation law.
Hence, A–1 is symmetric by definition.
Example 1.20: Prove that if A is an orthogonal matrix then |A| = ± 1.
Solution: Since A is orthogonal,
AAT I AAT I ; But, I 1
A AT I A . A 1 ( A AT and I 1)
2
A 1 A 1
1 1 1 i
Example 1.21: Show that is unitary .
3 1 i 1
Solution: Let A be the given matrix then,
1 1 1 i T 1 1 1 i
A* 1 i 1 A *
3 3 1 i 1
1 1 1 i 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 i 2 0 1 0 I
Now A * A
3 1 i 1 3 1 i 1 3 0 1 i 2
1 0 1
Similarly AA* = I. Hence A is unitary.
1 2
Example 1.22: If A = 3 4 , show that AA and AA are symmetric.
1 2
Solution: Let A =
3 4
1 3
A =
2 4
Self - Learning
Material 17
Matrix
1 2 1 3 1 4 38 5 11
AA = = =
3 4 2 4 3 8 9 16 11 25
1 3 1 2 1 9 2 12 10 14
NOTES A = = =
2 4 3 4 2 12 4 16 14 20
AA and AA are symmetric matrices.
Example 1.23: If A and B are both symmetric. Show that AB is symmetric if and
only if AB = BA.
Solution: Since, A and B are symmetric, A = A and B = B
Hence (AB) = BA = BA
Given is AB = BA, so that (AB) = AB
AB is symmetric.
Also if AB is symmetric, then (AB) = AB
But (AB) = BA = BA
AB = BA.
1 2 6
Example 1.24: Express 3 5 8 as the sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric
4 9 7
matrices.
1 2 6
Solution: Let, A = 3 5 8
4 9 7
1 3 4
A = 2 5 9
6 8 7
5
1 2 5
1 5 17
(A + A) = 5 which is symmetric.
2 2 2
5 17 7
2
1
0 –2 1
1 1 1
(A – A) = 0 – which is skew-symmetric.
2 2 2
1 1 0
2
Self - Learning
18 Material
Matrix
1 1
We know that A = (A + A) + (A – A)
2 2
5 1 NOTES
1 2 5 0 –2 1
1 2 6
3 5 8 5 17 1 1
= 5
+ 0 –
2 2 2 2
4 9 7
5 17 7 1 1 0
2 2
1 2 2
1
Example 1.25: Show that the matrix 2 –1 2 is orthogonal.
3
2 2 –1
1 2 2
1
Solution: Let A = 2 –1 2
3
2 2 –1
1 2 2
1
A = 2 –1 2
3
2 2 –1
1 2 2 1 2 2
1
AA = 2 –1 2 2 –1 2
9
2 2 –1 2 2 –1
1 4 4 2 2 4 2 4 2
1
= 2 2 4 4 1 4 4 2 2
9
2 4 2 4 2 2 4 4 1
9 0 0 1 0 0
1
= 0 9 0 0 1 0 I
9
0 0 9 0 0 1
AA = I A is orthogonal.
1 1 –1
3 6 2
1 –2
Example 1.26: Show that 0 is orthogonal.
3 6
1 1 1
3 6 2
Self - Learning
Material 19
Matrix
1 1 –1
3 6 2
1 –2
Solution: Let A = 0
NOTES 3 6
1 1 1
3 6 2
1 1 1
3 3 3
1 –2 1
A =
6 6 6
–1 1
0
2 2
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
3 6 2 0
3 6
–
3 6 2
1 2 1 4 1 2
0
AA = 0 0
3 6 3 6 3 6
1–1
1 1 2
0
1 1 1
3 6 2 3 6 3 6 2
1 0 0
= 0 1 0 I
0 0 1
A is orthogonal.
1 i –1 i
2 2
Example 1.27: Show that is unitary..
1 i 1– i
2 2
1 i –1 i
2 2
Solution: Let A =
1 i 1– i
2 2
1 i 1 i
2 2
A =
1 i 1– i
2 2
Self - Learning
20 Material
Matrix
1 i 1 i
2 2
A* = A =
(1 i ) 1 i
2 2 NOTES
1 i 1 i 1 i –1 i
2 2 2 2
A*A=
(1 i ) 1 i 1 i 1– i
2 2 2 2
1 i2 1 i2 1 i 1 i –1 i
2
4 4 2 2
=
–(1 i ) (1 i ) 2 1 i 1 i 1– i
2
4
4 2 2 2
1 i2 1 i2 –(1 i ) 2 (1 i ) 2
1 0
4 4 4 4
= = 0 1 I
–(1 i ) 2
(1 i ) 2 1 i2 1 i2
4
4 4 4
A is unitary.
Example 1.28: If A and B are orthogonal matrices of the same order, show that AB
and BA are also orthogonal.
Solution: Since A and B are orthogonal matrices.
AA = AA = I
BB = BB = I
Now, (AB) (AB) = AB(BA)
= A(BB) A
[Since matrix multiplication is associative]
= AIA
= (AI)A
= AA= I
Similarly, we can show that (AB)(AB) = I
AB is an orthogonal matrix.
Also, (BA) (BA) = BA(AB)
= B(AA)B
B
BA is also an orthogonal matrix.
Self - Learning
Material 21
Matrix Adjoint Matrix
The adjoint matrix of A is obtained by replacing the elements of A by their respective
cofactors and then transposing.
NOTES If A = [aij] and B = [Aij] where Aij is the cofactor of aij in A then we have the adjoint
matrix of A, written as
Adj A = [Aij]' = [Aji]
a11 a12 a13 A11 A21 A23
If A = a21 a22 a23 , Adj A = A A22 A32
12
a31 a32 a33 A13 A23 A33
a22 a23 a21 a23
where A11 = + , A = – , etc.
a32 a33 12 a31 a33
Example 1.29: Find the adjoint of the following given matrix.
1 2 3
0 2 1
4 5 2
1 2 3
Solution: A = 0 2 1
4 5 2
2 2
A11 = 4 – 5 –1
5 1
0 1
A12 = – –4 –4
2
0 2
A13 = 8
–4 5
–2 3
A21 = 19
5 2
1 3
A22 = 14
–4 2
1 2
A23 = – 3
–4 5
–2 3
A31 = –8
2 1
1 3
A32 = – –1
0 1
1 –2
A33 = 2
0 2
Self - Learning
22 Material
A11 A21 A31 1 19 8 Matrix
A32 = 4 14 1
Adj A = A12 A22
A13 A23 A33 8 3 2
Example 1.30: Find the adjoint of the following matrix: NOTES
1 2 3
A = 0 4 5
1 0 6
Solution:
1 2 3
A = 0 4 5
1 0 6
4 5 0 5 0 4
A11 = = 24 A12 = – =5 A13 = = –4
0 6 1 6 1 0
2 3 1 3 1 2
A21 = – = –12 A22 = =3 A23 = – =2
0 6 1 6 1 0
2 3 1 3 1 2
A31 = = –2 A32 = – = –5 A33 = =4
4 5 0 5 0 4
A11 A21 A31
A32
Adj A = A12 A22
A13 A23 A33
Therefore,
24 –12 –2
–5
Adj A = 5 3
–4 2 4
Check Your Progress
1. What is a matrix?
2. When a matrix is termed as square matrix?
3. What is a diagonal matrix?
4. Define identity matrix.
5. What is matrix equality?
6. How is matrix addition commutative?
7. Define symmetric matrix.
8. What are Hermitian and skew-Hermitian matrices?
9. When is a square matrix orthogonal?
10. How is adjoint matrix obtained?
Self - Learning
Material 23
Matrix
1.3 RANK OF A MATRIX
Suppose we have a 3 × 4 matrix
NOTES 1 2 3 4
A= 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12
If we delete any one column from it we get corresponding 3 3 submatrix.
The determinant of any one of these is called a minor of the matrix A. Thus
1 2 3 1 2 4 1 3 4 2 3 4
5 6 7
, 5 6 8
, 5 7 8
, 6 7 8
are called minors of A.
9 10 11 9 10 12 9 11 12 10 11 12
These are 3 3 determinants (sometimes called 3-rowed minors).
Similarly, if we delete any one row and two columns of A, we get correspond-
ing 2-rowed minors.
Definition: Let A be an m n matrix. We say rank of A is r if (i) At least one
minor of order r is non zero and (ii) Every minor of order (r + 1) is zero.
Example 1.31: Find rank of the matrix
1 2 4
1 2 4
2 4 8
3 6 9
Solution: Now 3 × 3 minors of this matrix are
Since it is 3 × 4 matrix, it cannot have a minor with order larger than 3 × 3.
1 2 4 1 2 4 1 2 4 1 2 4
1 2 4 1 2 4 2 4 8 2 4 8
, , ,
2 4 8 3 6 9 3 6 9 3 6 9
One can check that all these are zero. So rank of A, is less than 3.
4 8
Again since a 2 2 minor 6 9
0.
We find rank is 2, i.e., rank of A is 2.
Example 1.32: Find rank of the matrix,
0 i i
i 0 i
A=
i i 0
Solution:
0 i i
We have A i 0 i 0
i i 0
Self - Learning
24 Material
Thus Rank A 2. Matrix
0 i
Again as i 0 1 0
Rank A 2 and hence rank A = 2. NOTES
Notes:
1. It is easy to see that if the given matrix A is m n matrix then rank A
min (m, n)
2. If in A, every r r determinant is zero then rank is less than or equal to
r–1.
3. If a non-zero r r determinant then rank is greater than or equal to r.
4. Rank of null matrix is taken as zero.
5. If every r rowed minor is zero then every higher order minor would
automatically be zero.
One can prove that rank of a matrix remains unchanged by elementary
operations. In view of this result the process of finding rank can be simplified. We
first reduce the given matrix to triangular form by elementary row operations and
then find rank of the new matrix which is the rank of the original matrix. We illustrate
this through the following examples:
Example 1.33: Find rank of the matrix
1 3 2
3 9 6
A=
2 6 4
Solution: We have,
1 3 2 1 0 0
C2 C2 3C1
A= 3 9 6
~ 3 0 0
Using C C 2C
2 6 4 2 0 0 3 3 1
1 0 0
R2 R2 3R1
~ 0 0 0 Using
R3 R3 2 R1
0 0 0
So rank of A is 1.
Example 1.34: Find rank of the matrix
2 3 1 1
1 1 2 4
A=
6 1 3 2
6 3 0 7
Solution: We have
2 3 1 1 1 1 2 4 1 1 2 4
1 1 2 4 2 3 1 1 0 5 3 7
A~ 6 1 3 2 ~ 6 1 3 2 ~ 0 7 15 22
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Self - Learning
Material 25
Matrix R4 R4 – R3 – R2– R1 R1 R2 R2 R2 – 2R1 R3 R3 – 6R1
1 2 2 4 1 1 2 4
NOTES 0 35 21 49 0 35 21 49
~ 0 35 75 110 ~ 0 0 54 61
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2
Here 0 35 21 0
0 0 54
Hence rank of this matrix is 3.
Thus rank of A is 3.
Example 1.35: Find rank of the matrix,
5 3 14 4
0 1 2 1
A=
1 1 2 0
Solution: Apply R1 R3 , then
1 1 2 0 1 1 2 0
A~ 0 1 2 1
~ 0 1 2 1
By R3 R3 – 5R1
5 3 14 4 0 8 4 4
1 1 2 0
~ 0 1 2 1
Using R3 R3 – 8R2
0 0 12 4
Since this reduced matrix has non-zero 3-rowed minor
1 1 2
0 1 2
0 0 12
its rank is 3. Also there is no 4-rowed minor. Hence rank of given matrix is
also 3.
1.4 NORMAL AND ECHELON FORM OF A
MATRIX
Elementary Operations
Consider the matrices,
A=
FG 1 2 3
,
IJ B=
FG 4 5 6 IJ
H4 5 6 K H1 2 3 K
Matrix B is obtained from A by interchange of first and second row.
Consider C =
FG 2 1 3 IJ , D=
FG 6 3 9 IJ
Self - Learning H3 4 5K H3 4 5 K
26 Material
Matrix D is obtained from C by multiplying first row by 3. Matrix
Consider E =
FG 2 3 4 IJ
, F=
2 3 4
H1 3 2 K 7 12 14
Matrix F is obtained from E by multiplying first row of E by 3 and adding it to second NOTES
row.
Such operations on rows of a matrix as described above are called Elementary
row operations.
Similarly, we define Elementary column operations.
An elementary operation is either elementary row operation or elementary
column operation and is of the following three types:
Type I. The interchange of any two rows (or column).
Type II. The multiplication of any row (or column) by a non-zero number.
Type III. The addition of multiple of one row (or column) to another row (or
column).
We shall use the following notations for three types of Elementary operations.
The interchange of ith and jth rows (columns) will be denoted by Ri Rj
(Ci Cj).
The multiplication of ith row (column) by non-zero number k will be denoted
by Ri k Ri (Ci k Ci)
The addition of k times the jth row (column) to ith raw (column) will be
denoted by Ri Ri + kRj (Ci Ci + kCi).
Elementary Matrices
Matrix obtained from identity matrix by a single elementary operation is called
Elementary matrix.
F0 1 0 I F2 0 0 I
GG
For example, 1 0 0 JJ GG 0 1 0 JJ
H0 0 1K H 0 0 1 K
are elementary matrices, the first is obtained by R1 R2 and the second by
C1 2C1 on the identity matrix.
We state the following result without proof:
‘An elementary row operation on product of two matrices is equivalent to
elementary row operation on prefactor’.
It means that if we make elementary row operation in the product AB, then it
is equivalent to making same elementary row operation in A and then multiplying it
with B.
F1 IJ , F1 2 I
B = G1 JJ
2 3
Let, A=G
H2 3 4K GH 2 1
3 K
9 13
Then, AB =
13 19
Self - Learning
Material 27
Matrix Suppose we interchange first and second row of AB.
Then the matrix we get is,
13 19
C=
9 13
NOTES
Now interchange first and second row of A and get new matrix
D=
FG 2 3 4 IJ
H1 2 3 K
Multiply D with B to get DB,
Where,
F2
DB = G
3 4 IJ FG 11 I
2
JJ
1 =
13 19
H1 2 3 K GH 2 3K 9 13
Hence, DB = C
Reduction to Normal Form
Every non-zero matrix of rank r can be reduced to one of the forms
Ir 0 Ir
, I r : 0 , or I r by a finite numbers of elementary transformations,
0 0 0
where Ir denotes the identity matrix of order r which is called as normal or canonical
form of the given non-zero matrix.
Now it is obvious from the definition that rank of the normal form of a given
matrix A is the same as the rank of A.
1 2 1 2
1 3 2 2
Example 1.36: Find the rank of the matrix A .
2 4 3 4
3 7 4 6
1 2 1 2
1 3 2 2
Solution: Given A .
2 4 3 4
3 7 4 6
Reduce A to normal form.
1 2 1 0
0
C 4 C 4 2C1 ~ 1 3 2
2 4 3 0
3 7 4 0
R1 R2 R1 1 2 1 0
R3 R3 2 R1 ~ 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0
R4 R4 3R1 0 1 1 0
1 2 1 0
R4 R4 R2 0 1 0 0
~
R2 R2 R3 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Self - Learning
28 Material
1 0 0 0 I Matrix
0
C4 C 2 2C1 0 1 0 0 3
~
C3 C3 C1 0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Therefore ( A) 3. NOTES
2 2 4 6
3 3 7 10
Example 1.37: Find the rank of the matrix A 5 7 11 17 .
6 8 13 16
3 4 6 6
2 2 4 6
3 3 7 10
Solution: Given A 5 7 11 17
6 8 13 16
3 4 6 6
Reduce A to normal form.
1 1 2 3
3 3 7 10
1
R1 R1 ~ 5 7 11 17
2 6 8 13 16
3 4 6 6
R2 R2 3R1 1 1 2 3
R3 R3 5R1 0 1 1 1
~ 0 2 1 2
R4 R4 6R1 0 2 1 2
R5 R5 3R1 0 1 0 3
R1 R1 R2 1 0 1 2
1
R3 R3 2R2 0 1 1
~ 0 0 1 0
R4 R4 2 R2 0 0 1 4
R5 R5 R4 0 0 1 4
1 0 0 2
R1 R1 R3 0 1 0 1
R2 R2 R3 ~ 0 0 1 0
0 1 4
R5 R5 R4 0
0 0 0 0
R3 R3 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 I 4
R4 R4 R3 0
4 ~ 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0
R1 R1 2R4 0
R2 R2 R4 0 0 0
Therefore, ( A) 4.
Reduction to Echelon Form
F1 2 3 4 I
Consider A = G2 JJ
GH 3 1 3 2
1 2 4 K
Apply the following elementary row operations on A.
R2 R2 – 2R1, R3 R3 – 3R1
and obtain a new matrix.
Self - Learning
Material 29
Matrix F1 2 3 4 I
B = G0 3 3 6 JJ
GH 0 5 7 8 K
1
NOTES Apply R2 R2 on B to get
3
F1 2 3 4 I
C= 0 GG 1 1 2 JJ
H0 5 7 8 K
Apply R3 R3 + 5R2 on C to get
F1 2 3 4 I
GG
D= 0 1 1 2 JJ
H0 0 2 2 K
The matrix D is in Echelon form (i.e., elements below the diagonal are zero).
We thus find elementary row operations reduce Matrix A to Echelon form.
In fact, any matrix can be reduced to Echelon form by elementary row
operations. The procedure is as follows:
Step I: Reduce the element in (1, 1)th place to unity by some suitable
elementary row operation.
Step II: Reduce all the elements in 1st column below 1st row to zero with the
help of unity obtained in first step.
Step III: Reduce the element in (2, 2)th place to unity by suitable elementary
row operations.
Step IV: Reduce all the elements in 2nd column below 2nd row to zero with
the help of unity obtained in Step III.
Proceeding in this way, any matrix can be reduced to the Echelon form.
3 –10 5
Example 1.38: Reduce A = –1
12 –2 to Echelon form.
1 –5 2
Solution:
Step I: Apply R1 R3 to get
1 5 2
1 12 2
3 10 5
Step II: Apply R2 R2 + R1, R3 R3 – 3R1 to get
1 5 2
0 7 0
0 5 1
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30 Material
1 Matrix
Step III: Apply R2 R2 to get
7
1 5 2
0 1 0
0 5 1 NOTES
Step IV: Apply R3 R3 – 5R2 to get
1 5 2
0 1 0 which is a matrix in Echelon form.
0 0 1
2 2 4 4
2 3 4 5
Example 1.39: Reduce A = to Echelon form.
3 4 5 6
4 5 6 7
Solution:
1
Step I: Apply R1 R1 to get
2
1F 1 2 2 I
2GG 3 4 5 JJ
3 GG 4 5 6 JJ
4 H 5 6 7 K
Step II: Apply R2 R2 – 2R1, R3 R3 – 3R1, R4 R4 – 4R1 to get
1 1 2 2
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 2 1
Step III: (2, 2)th place is already unity.
Step IV: Apply R3 R3 – R2, R4 R4 – R2 to get
1 1 2 2
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 2 2
Step V: Apply R3 (– 1) R3 to get
1 1 2 2
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 2 2
Step VI: Apply R4 R4 + 2R3 to get
F1 1 2 2 I
GG 0 1 0 1 JJ
GG 0 0 1 1 JJ
H0 0 0 0 K
which is a matrix in Echelon form.
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Material 31
Matrix
0 1 2 3
0 2 6 4
Example 1.40: Reduce A = to Echelon form.
0 3 9 3
0 4 13 4
NOTES
Solution:
Step I: Since all the elements in 1st column are zero, Step I and Step II are not
needed.
1
Step III: Apply R2 R2 to get
2
0 1 2 3
0 1 3 2
0 3 9 3
0 4 13 4
Step IV: Apply R3 R2 – 3R2, R4 R4 – 4R2 to get
0 1 2 3
0 1 3 2
0 0 0 3
0 0 1 4
Step V: Apply R3 R4 to get
0 1 2 3
0 1 3 2
0 0 1 4
0 0 0 3
Step VI: Since elements below (3, 3)rd place are zero. Step VI is not needed.
Hence A is reduced to Echelon form.
Gauss Elimination Method
Suppose we have a system of equations in the matrix form AX = B, where
a1 b1 c1 x d1
A a2 b2 c2 X y B d2
a3 b3 c3 z d3
The matrix
a1 b1 c1 d1
C [ A / B] a2 b2 c2 d 2
a3 b3 c3 d3
is called the augmented matrix of the given system of equations. Instead of writing
the whole equation AX = B and making elementary row transformations to it, we
sometimes, work only on the augmented matrix and apply these operations on this
matrix to get the solution. We explain this method by considering the following
example.
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32 Material
Suppose we have the system of equations, Matrix
x y z =7
x 2 y 3z = 16
x 3 y 4 z = 22
NOTES
Which in the matrix form will be AX = B, where
1 1 1 x 7
A 1 2 3 , X y B 16
1 3 4 z 22
Augmented matrix of this system of equations is,
1 1 1 7
1 2 3 16
1 3 4 22
Which becomes,
1 1 1 7
0 1 2 9 [ R2 R2 R1 , R3 R3 R1 ]
1 2 3 15
1 1 1 7
0 1 2 9 [ R3 R3 2 R1 ]
or
0 0 1 3
Hence we get Z = 3, y + 2z = 9, x + y + z = 7
Giving us the solution x = 1, y = 3, z = 3
Thus we notice, it requires same operations as were used earlier. It is only a
different way of expressing the same thing.
This method is called the Gauss Elimination Method of solving equations.
Sometimes we proceed further and reduce the augmented matrix to
1 0 1 2
0 1 2 9 [ R1 R1 R2 ]
0 0 1 3
1 0 1 2
0 1 3 12 [ R2 R2 R3 ]
0 0 1 3
1 0 0 1
0 1 3 12
0 0 1 3
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 3
or
0 0 1 3
and the solution is x = 1, y = 3, z = 3 Self - Learning
Material 33
Matrix This method is called Gauss Jordan Reduction.
Notes: A matrix is said to be in row Echelon form if,
1. All rows in the matrix which consist of zeros are at the bottom of the matrix
(such rows may or may not be there).
NOTES
The first non-zero entry in each (non-zero) row is (called the leading entry).
2. If kth and (k + 1)th rows are two consecutive rows (having some non-zero
entry) then the leading entry of the (k + 1)th row is to the right of the
leading entry of the kth row.
Thus, the Gaussian elimination method requires the augmented matrix to be
put in the row echelon form.
3. If a column contains a leading entry of some row then all other entries in
that column are zero. Then we say that matrix is in reduced echelon form
and this method is called Gauss-Jordan reduction.
We thus realize that Gauss-Jordan reduction requires few extra steps than
the Gauss elimination method. But then in the former case the solution is obtained
without any back substitution.
Example 1.41: The equilibrium conditions for two substitute goods are given by
5P1 2 P2 = 15
P1 8P2 = 16
Find the equilibrium prices.
Solution: We write the given system of equations in the matrix form as
5 2 P1 15
1 8 P2
= 16
The augmented matrix is,
1 2/5
5 2 15 1 2/5 3 3
~ ~ 38
1 8 16 1 8 6 0 19
5
R1
R1 R2 R2 R1
5
Solution is then given by,
38 2
P2 = 19 and P1 P2 3
5 5
5
i.e., P1 = 4 and P2
2
Example 1.42: An automobile company uses three types of steel S1, S2, S3 for
producing three types of cars C1, C2, C3. Steel requirement (in tons) for each type
of car is given as,
C1 C2 C3
S1 2 3 4
S2 1 1 2
S3 3 2 1
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34 Material
Determine the number of cars of each type that can be produced using 29, 13 Matrix
and 16 tons of steel of three types, respectively.
Solution: Suppose x, y and z are the number of cars of each type that are produced.
Then,
2 x 3 y 4 z = 29
NOTES
x y 2 z = 13
3x 2 y z = 16
This system of equations can be put in the matrix form as,
2 3 4 x 29
1 1 2 y 13
3 2 1 z 16
Augmented matrix is,
2 3 4 29 1 1 2 13 1 1 2 13
1 1 2 13 ~ 2 3 4 29 ~ 0 1 0 3
3 2 1 16 3 2 1 16 0 1 5 23
R2 R1 R2 R2 2 R1
R3 R3 3R2
1 1 2 13
~ 0 1 0 3
0 0 5 20
R3 R3 R2
We thus have x y 2 z = 13
y =3
–5z = –20
Giving z = 4, y = 3 and x = 2
the required number of cars produced.
Example 1.43: A firm produces two products P1 and P2, passing through two
machines M1 and M2 before completion. M1 can produce either 10 units of P1 or 15
units of P2 per hour. M2 can produce 15 units of either product per hour. Find daily
production of P1 and P2 if the time available is 12 hours on M1 and 10 hours on M2
per day.
Solution: Suppose daily production of P1 is x units and of P2 it is y units. Then,
x y x y
= 12 10
10 15 15 15
i.e., 3x + 2y = 360
x + y = 150
3 2 x 360
Matrix representation is given by 1 1 y 150
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Material 35
Matrix Augmented matrix is,
3 2 360 1 1 150 1 1 150
~ ~
1 1 150 3 2 360 0 1 90
NOTES R1 R2 R2 3R1
i.e., x + y = 150
–y = –90 or that x = 60, y = 90 (daily production of P1 and P2)
Example 1.44: There are three types of foods, Food I, Food II and Food III. Food
I contains 1 unit each of three nutrients A, B, C. Food II contains 1 unit of nutrient
A, 2 units of nutrient B and 3 units of nutrient C. Food III contains 1, 3 and 4 units of
nutrients A, B, C. 7 units of A, 16 units of B and 22 units of nutrient C are required.
Find the amount of three foods that will provide these.
Solution: Suppose x, y, z are the amounts of three foods to be taken so as to get
required nutrients.
Then x y z =7
x 2 y 3z = 16
x 3 y 4 z = 22
In matrix form, we get
1 1 1 x 7
1 2 3 y 16
1 3 4 z 22
Augmented matrix is,
1 1 1 7 1 1 1 7 1 1 1 7
1 2 3 16 ~ 0 1 2 9 ~ 0 1 2 9
1 3 4 22 0 2 3 15 0 0 1 3
R2 R2 R1 R3 R3 2 R1
R3 R3 R1
Which gives z = 3, y + 2z = 9, x + y + z = 7
or that x = 1, y = 3, z = 3, is the required solution.
Check Your Progress
11. How is rank of a matrix determined?
12. How is elementary operation of a matrix determined?
13. What is an elementary matrix?
14. When a matrix is said to be in row Echelon form?
1.5 CHARACTERISTIC EQUATIONS OF A
MATRIX
If A is an n × n matrix, then the matrix A λI , for some scalar is called the
Self - Learning
characteristic matrix of A.
36 Material
a11 λ a12 a1n Matrix
a a22 λ a2 n
A λI 21
an1 an 2 ann λ NOTES
Characteristic Polynomial, Characteristic Equation and
Characteristic Roots
Let A be an n n matrix.
The determinant of the matrix A λI is a non-null polynomial of degree n in
and is called the characteristic polynomial or function of matrix A.
a11 λ a12 a1n
a21 a22 λ a2 n
A λI
an1 an 2 ann λ
The equation A λI 0 , for some scalar is called the characteristic
equation of matrix A and its roots, 1, 2, 3,…, n (say) are called the
characteristic roots or latent roots or eigenvalues or proper values of matrix A.
The set of characteristic roots of the equation A λI 0 , i.e., λ1 , λ 2 , λ 3 , , λ n
is called the spectrum of the matrix A.
Characteristic Vector
If is the characteristic root of an n n matrix A, then any solution of the equation
AX = X except X = 0 is called a characteristic vector or latent vector or eigen
vector of matrix A.
Theorem 1.1: The characteristic vector X of a matrix A corresponds to one and
only one characteristic root of A.
Proof: Assume that the characteristic vector X of matrix A corresponds to two
characteristic roots and. Then we have
AX = 1X …(6)
AX = 2X …(7)
From Equations (6) and (7), we get
1X = 2X (1 – 2) X = 0
1 – 2 = 0 1 = 2
Since both the characteristic roots are same, thus characteristic vector
X of a matrix A cannot corresponds to more than one characteristic root of A.
Example 1.45: Find the characteristic roots and spectrum of the matrix
2 2 1
A 1 3 1
1 2 2
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Material 37
Matrix Solution: The characteristic matrix of the given matrix A is
2 2 1 1 0 0 2 λ 2 1
A λI 1 3 1 λ 0 1 0 1 3 λ 1
NOTES 1 2 2 0 0 1 1 2 2 λ
2 λ 2 1
The characteristic equation of the matrix A is 1 3 λ 1 0
1 2 2 λ
λ 3 7λ 2 11λ 5 0
By putting 1 , we get
1 7 11 5 0 0 = 0
By inspection, one root is λ = 1.
Using synthetic division, we get
1 1 –7 11 –5
1 –6 5
1 –6 5 0
Now, we have depressed equation as λ 2 6 λ 5 0 , i.e,
λ 1 λ 5 0 λ =1,5
Thus, the characteristic roots of the matrix A are 1, 1, 5 and the spectrum of
the matrix is {1, 1, 5}.
Example 1.46: Determine the characteristic roots and the corresponding
8 6 2
characteristic vectors of the matrix A 6 7 4 .
2 4 3
Solution: The characteristic matrix of the given matrix A is
8 6 2 1 0 0 8 λ 6 2
A λI 6 7 4 λ 0 1 0 6 7 λ 4
2 4 3 0 0 1 2 4 3 λ
The characteristic equation of the matrix A is
8λ 6 2
A λI 0 6 7 λ 4 0
2 4 3 λ
λ 3 18λ 2 45λ 0
λ λ 2 18λ 45 0
λ λ 3 λ 15 0
λ 0,3,15
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38 Material
Thus, the characteristic roots of the matrix A are 0, 3, 15. Matrix
Characteristic vectors of A are non-zero solution of A I X O
8 6 2 x1 0
6 7 4 x 0 NOTES
2 …(8)
2 4 3 x3 0
Putting = 0 in Equation (8), we get the characteristic vector corresponding
to = 0.
8 6 2 x1 0
6 7 4 x 0
2
2 4 3 x3 0
Applying R 1 R 3 ,
2 4 3 x1 0
6 7 4 x 0
2
8 6 2 x3 0
Applying R 2 R 2 3R 1 , R 3 R 3 4R1 ,
2 4 3 x1 0
0 5 5 x 0
2
0 10 10 x3 0
1
Applying R 3 R 3 2R 2 , R 2 R 1 ,
5
2 4 3 x1 0
0 1 1 x 0
2
0 0 0 x3 0
1
2 x1 4 x2 3 x3 0 and x2 x3 0 x2 x3 , x1 x3
2
Let x3 2k . Then x1 k , x2 2k and x3 2k
x1 k 1
X x2 2k k 2
x3 2k 2
This is the characteristic vector corresponding to 0 for each k 0 .
Putting = 3 in Equation (8), we get the characteristic vector corresponding
to = 3.
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Material 39
Matrix
5 6 2 x1 0
6 4 4 x 0
2
2 4 0 x3 0
NOTES
1 2 2 x1 0
Applying R 1 R 1 R 2 , 6 4 4 x2 0
2 4 0 x3 0
1 2 2 x1 0
Applying R 2 R 2 6R 1 , R 3 R 3 2R 1 , 0 16 8 x2 0
0 8 4 x3 0
1 2 2 x1 0
1 0 16 8 x 0
Applying R 3 R 3 R 2 , 2
2 0 0 0 x3 0
x1 2 x2 2 x3 0 and 16 x2 8 x3 0
1
x1 2 x2 2 x3 and x2 x3
2
Let x2 k . Then x3 2k and x1 2k
x1 2k 2
X x2 k k 1
x3 2k 2
This is the characteristic vector corresponding to 3 for each k 0 .
Putting = 15 in Equation (8), we get the characteristic vector
corresponding to = 15.
7 6 2 x1 0
6 8 4 x 0
2
2 4 12 x3 0
1 2 6 x1 0
Applying R 1 R 1 R 2 , 6 8 4 x2 0
2 4 12 x3 0
Applying R 2 R 2 6R 1 ,R 3 R 3 2R1 ,
1 2 6 x1 0
0 20 40 x 0
2
0 0 0 x3 0
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40 Material
Matrix
x1 2 x2 6 x3 0 and 20 x2 40 x3 0
x1 2 x2 6 x3 and x2 2 x3
Let x3 k . Then x2 2k and x1 4k 6k 2k NOTES
x1 2k 2
X x2 2k k 2
x3 k 1
This is the characteristic vector corresponding to 15 for each k 0 .
Example 1.47: Prove that 0 is a latent root of a matrix A if and only if A is singular.
Solution: Necessary Condition: Let 0 be an eigen value of the matrix A.
λ 0 is a root of A λI 0 or A 0
A is singular matrix.
Sufficient Condition: If A is singular matrix, then A 0
A 0 0 A 0I 0
λ 0 satisfies the equation A λI 0
λ 0 is a latent root of A.
1.6 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order n. If there exists a non-zero (non-null)
column vector X and a scalar l such that,
AX = X
Then is called an eigenvalue of the matrix A and X is called eigenvectors
corresponding to the eigenvalue .
The problem of finding the values of the parameter , for which the
homogeneous system,
AX = X ...(9)
possesses non-trivial solution is known as characteristic value problem or
eigenvalue problem.
Thus, system of Equation (9) possesses non-trivial solution if and only if,
[A – I] =0 ...(10)
This Equation is known as the characteristic equation of the matrix A.
The roots of this Equation (10) are called latent roots or characterstics values
or eigenvalues of the matrix A. The corresponding non-trivial solutions are called
eigenvectors or characteristic vectors of A.
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Material 41
Matrix If A is an n × n matrix, then its characteristic equation is an nth degree
polynomial equations in . Therefore, an n × n matrix has n eigenvalues (real or
complex).
NOTES Suppose i (i = 1, 2, 3, . . . ., n) be the eigenvalues of A, then for each i, there
exists a non-null vector Xi such that
AX1 = i Xi (i = 1, 2, 3, ........, n)
Multiplying both sides by a non-zero scalar k, we get
A(kXi) = i (kXi)
This implies that an eigenvector is determined upto a multiplicative scalar. In
other words, the eigenvector is not unique. But corresponding to an eigenvector of
the matrix A, there can be one and only one eigenvalue of the matrix A.
It can be shown that for a matrix A of order n, the characteristic Equation
(10) can be written as,
n – 1n–1 + 2 n–2 +......+ (–1)n n = 0
Where r is the sum of all the determinants formed from square matrices of
order r whose principal diagonals lie along the principal diagonal of A.
Notes:
1. An eigenvector of a matrix cannot correspond to two different eigenvalues.
2. An eigenvalue of a matrix can, and will correspond to different eigenvectors.
3 4
Example 1.48: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A =
4 3
3 4
Solution: The characteristic equation is 0
4 3
2 – 25 = 0 = 5
The eigenvectors are given by AX = X
i.e., (A – I)X = 0
3 4 x1
4
3 x2 = 0
(3 – )x1 + 4x2 = 0
4x1 – (3 +)x2 = 0
If, = 5,
We get, – 2x1 + 4x2 = 0
4x1 – 8x2 = 0
x1 x
or, = 2
2 1
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42 Material
Matrix
2
The eigenvector is
1
If = –5, we get: 8x1 + 4x2 = 0
NOTES
4x1 + 2x2 = 0
2x1 = –x2
x1 x2
=
1 2
1
The eigenvector is
2
2
The eigenvalues are 5 and –5 with the corresponding eigenvectors are and
1
1
2 respectively..
3 4 4
Example 1.49: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix 1 2 4
1 1 3
3 4 4
Solution: Let A = 1 2 4
1 1 3
The characteristic equation is |A – I| = 0
3 4 4
1 2 4 = 0
i.e.,
1 1 3
(3 – )[(–2 –)(3 – ) + 4] + 4(3 – – 4) + 4(–1 + 2 +) = 0
3 –42++ 6 = 0
The eigenvalues are the roots of this equation and they are –1, 2, 3.
The eigenvectors are given by the solution of:
(A – I)X = 0
3 4 4 x1
i.e., 1 2 4 x2 = 0
1 1 3 x3
(3 – )x1 – 4x2 + 4x3 = 0
x1 – (2 +)x2 + 4x3 = 0
x1 – x2 + (3 – )x3 = 0 Self - Learning
Material 43
Matrix Case 1: = –1 gives:
4x1 – 4x2 + 4x3 = 0, x1 – x2 + 4x3 = 0, x1 – x2 + 4x3 = 0
Solving the first and second equations by the method of cross multiplication we get:
NOTES x1 x x
2 3
12 12 0
12 1
12
The eigenvector is X1 = or 1
0 0
Case 2: = 2 gives:
x1 – 4x2 + 4x3 = 0, x1 – 4x2 + 4x3 = 0, x1 – x2 + x3 = 0
0
Solving the first and third equations we get the eigenvector X2 = 1
1
Case 3: = 3 gives:
– 4x2 + 4x3 = 0, x1 – 5x2 + 4x3 = 0, x1 – x2 = 0
1
Solving any two of these equations we get the eigenvector X3 = 1
1
Note: For a square matrix A = (ai j) of order 3, the characteristic equation |A – I| =
0, takes the form:
3 – 12 + 2 – 3 = 0
Where, 1 = a11 + a22 + a33 = Sum of the leading diagonal elements of A
a11 a12 a22 a23 a11 a13
2 =
a21 a22 a32 a33 a31 a33
= Sum of the minors of the leading diagonal elements of A
= | A | = Determinant of the matrix A
In the Example 1.49
1 = 3 – 2 + 3 = 4
2 4 3 4 3 4
2 = = 1, 3 = –6
1 3 1 3 1 2
The characteristic equation is 3 – 42 + + 6 = 0
Note: If is an eigenvalue of matrix A of order 3, then the components of the
eigenvector of matrix A corresponding of are proportional to the cofactors of the
elements of any row of |A – I| provided that not all of them vanish.
This method is used for the computation of the eigenvectors in the following examples.
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44 Material
Matrix
2 2 0
Example 1.50: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix 2 1 1 .
7 2 3
NOTES
Solution: The characteristic equation is,
3 – 12 + 2 – 3 = 0,
Where, 1= 1 + 2 – 3 = 0, 2 = – 5 – 6 – 2 = – 13, 3= – 12
The characteristic equation is,
3 – 13 + 12 = 0
( – 1)( + 4)( – 3) = 0
The eigenvalues are 1, –4, 3, when
1 2 0
= 1, A – I = 2 0 1
7 2 4
Components of the eigenvectors are proportional to the cofactors of the elements of
the first row, namely –2, 1, 4.
2
The eigenvector is 1
4
1 2 0
When = 3, A – I = 2 2 1
7 2 6
The cofactors of the elements of the first row are 10, 5, –10, which are proportional
to 2, 1, –2 respectively.
2
The eigenvector is 1
2
6 2 0
When = –4, A – I = 2 5 1
7 2 1
The cofactors of the elements of the first row are 3, –9, 39, which are proportional
to 1, –3, 13 respectively.
1
The eigenvector is 3
13
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Material 45
Matrix
1 6 1
Example 1.51: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A = 1 2 0
0 0 3
NOTES
Solution: The characteristic equation is 3 – 12 + 2 – 3 = 0
Where, 1 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
2 0 1 1 1 6
2 =
0 3 0 3 1 2
= 6+3+2–6=5
3 = |A| = 1(6) – 6(3) + 1(10) = –12
The characteristic equation is 3 –62 + 5 + 12 = 0
The roots of this equation –1, 3, 4 are the eigenvalues of A, when
2 6 1
= –1, A – I = 1 3 0
0 0 4
The cofactors of the elements of the first row give the eigenvector as,
12 3
X1 = 4 or 1
0 0
2 6 1
When = 3, A – I = 1 1 0
0 0 0
Since, the cofactors of the elements of the 1st and 2nd rows vanish completely, we
consider the cofactors of the elements of the 3rd row to get the eigenvector as,
1
X2 = 1
4
3 6 1
When = 4, A – I = 1 2 0
0 0 1
Considering the cofactors of the elements of the 1st row we get the eigenvector as,
2
X3 = 1
0
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46 Material
Properties of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Matrix
1. If all the eigenvalues of a matrix are distinct, then the corresponding eigenvectors
are linearly independent.
2. If two or more eigenvalues of a matrix are equal then the corresponding NOTES
eigenvectors may be linearly independent or linearly dependent.
3. The eigenvalues of a matrix and its transpose are the same. The characteristic
equation of A and AT (the transpose of A) are,
|A – I| = 0 ...(11)
and |AT – I| = 0 ...(12)
LHS of Equation (12) is the determinant obtained by interchanging rows into columns
of |A – I|. Since, the value of a determinant is unaltered by the interchanging of
rows and columns, Equations (11) and (12) are identical. Therefore, the eigenvalues
of a matrix and its transpose are the same.
4. The sum of the eigenvalues of a matrix A, is equal to the sum of the diagonal
elements of A. The sum of the diagonal elements is called the Trace of the
matrix A. The characteristic Equation of A is,
n – 1n–1 + 2n–2 – .... + (–1)nn = 0 ...(13)
Where, 1 = sum of the diagonal elements of A. ...(14)
Let, 1, 2,....., n be the roots of Equation (13)
1
Then, 1 + 2 + .... + n = 1 ...(15)
1
From Equations (14) and (15) we find that the sum of the eigenvalues is equal to the
sum of the diagonal elements.
5. The product of the eigenvalues of a matrix A is |A|.
The characteristic Equation of A is,
n – 1n–1 + 2n–2 – .... + (–1)nn = 0 ...(16)
Where, n = Determinant of A.
If, 1, 2,....n be the roots of Equation (16) then
n
1, 2,...n = (–1)n(–1)n 1 = n ...(17)
From Equations (16) and (17) we find that the product of the eigenvalues is
equal to the value of the determinant of A.
6. The eigenvalues of a triangular matrix are the diagonal elements of it.
Notes:
1. The sum of the eigenvalues of a matrix A, is equal to the sum of the
diagonal elements of A, which is called the Trace of the matrix A.
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Material 47
Matrix 2. If one of the eigenvalues is zero, then the matrix is singular and conversely,
when the matrix is singular then at least one of the eigenvalues ought to
be zero.
3. The eigenvalues of a diagonal matrix are the diagonal elements of it.
NOTES
7. If i for(i = 1,2,3,...,n) are the eigenvalues of A, then:
(i) ki for (i = 1,2,3,....,n) are the eigenvalues of the matrix kA, k being a non-
zero scalar.
1
(ii) , (i = 1,2,3,....,n) are the eigenvalues of the inverse matrix A–1, provided
i
i 0
(i) Let Xi (i = 1,2,3,....,n) be the eigenvectors of the matrix A corresponding to
the eigenvalues of i(i = 1,2,3,....,n). Then,
AXi = iXi (i = 1,2,3,....,n) ...(18)
Multiplying by k, (a non-zero scalar):
kAXi = kiXi
This implies that ki for (i = 1,2,3,....,n) are the eigenvalues of kA.
(ii) Premultiply Equation (18) by A–1
A–1AXi = A–1iXi
IXi = iA–1Xi or A–1Xi = i –1Xi
This implies that i–1, for (i = 1,2,3,...,n) are the eigenvalues of A–1
In general, if i(i = 1,2,3,...,n) are the eigenvalues of A, then
im(i = 1,2,3,...,n), where m is an integer, are the eigenvalues of Am.
Note: A and Am ( m being an integer) have the same eigenvectors even though the
eigenvalues are different.
3 0 0
Example 1.52: Find the sum of the squares of the eigenvalues of 8 4 0 .
6 2 5
Solution: The eigenvalues are 3, 4 and 5. Hence, the sum of the squares of eigenvalues
=50.
6 2 2
Example 1.53: Two eigenvalues of matrix 2 3 1 are 2 and 8. Find the
2 1 3
third eigenvalue.
Solution: Sum of the eigenvalues = Sum of the diagonal elements = 6 + 3 + 3 = 12.
Since the sum of the 2 given eigenvalues is 10 (2+8), the third eigenvalues is
12 – 10 = 2.
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48 Material
Matrix
8 6 2
Example 1.54: If 3 and 15 are the two eigenvalues of 6 7 4 , find the
2 4 3
value of the determinant. NOTES
Solution: Let, 1, 2, 3 be the eigenvalues.
Then, 1 + 2 + 3 = 8 + 7 + 3; 3 + 15 + 3 = 18 3 = 0
The value of the determinant = Product of the eigenvalues = 0
Values of the determinant is zero.
Example 1.55: If one of the eigenvalues of a matrix is zero, then what is the type
of matrix?
Solution: The matrix is singular.
0 1 1
Example 1.56: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of 1 0 1 .
1 1 0
Solution: The characteristic equation is 3 – 3 – 2 = 0. Solving this equation we
get the eigenvalues as –1, –1 and 2.
1 1 x1
The eigenvalues are given by 1 1 x2 = 0
1 1 x3
– x1 + x2 + x3 = 0, x1 – x2 + x3 = 0, x1 + x2 – x3 = 0
Case 1:= 2 gives:
– 2x1 + x2 + x3 = 0, x1 – 2x2 + x3 = 0, x1 + x2 – 2x3 = 0
1
Solving any two of these equations we get eigenvector X1 = 1
1
Case 2:= –1 gives:
x1 + x2 + x3 = 0, x1 + x2 + x3 = 0, x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
Solving any two of these equations we get x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0 and the vector x2
becomes a null vector which cannot be an eigenvector. This is because of the fact
that all the three equations are one and the same. The rank of coefficient matrix is
1. Therefore, the system will have (n – r) = (3 – 1) = 2 linearly independent solutions.
This indicates that, corresponding to = –1, there will be two linearly independent
eigenvectors.
To get the solutions, we assign arbitrary values to two of the three variables as shown
below. Considering the equation x1 + x2 + x3 = 0 and assigning x3 = 0, x2 = 1, we get
x1 = –1.
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Material 49
Matrix
1
The eigenvector is X2 = 1
0
NOTES
Similarly, assigning the value x1 = 0, x2 = 1 we get x3 = –1, so that the eigenvector is,
0
X3 = 1
1
1 2
Example 1.57: Show that the eigenvalues of A = are –1, 3 and verify that
2 1
the eigenvalues are 1 and 9 for A2.
Solution: The characteristic equation is 2 – 2 – 3 = 0. The eigenvalues are –1, 3
and the corresponding eigenvectors are 1 and 1 . By property, the eigenvectors
1 1
of A2 are 1, 9 and the corresponding eigenvectors are (–1, 1)T, (1, 1)T
5 4
Verification: A2 = 2
has the characteristic equation, – 10 + 9 = 0.
4 5
1
This equation gives the eigenvalues 1, 9 and eigenvectors and .
1
1 1
Inner Product
Inner product or scalar product of two vectors X and Y, denoted by < X, Y> is
defined as the scalar X TY
n
i.e., X , X X T Y xi yi
i 1
Inner product X, Xis known as the square of the length of the vector X and it is
denoted as |X|2, where |X| is read as norm X. If |X| = 1 then X is called a unit vector.
If the inner product between two vectors vanishes, then we say that the two vectors
are orthogonal to each other.
Example 1.58: Show that X = (1, –1, 2)T and Y = (3, –1, –2)T are orthogonal.
3
T
Solution: < X, Y > = X Y = (1, –1, 2) 1 = 3 + 1 = 4 = 0.
2
Hence, X and Y are orthogonal.
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50 Material
Eigenvalues of Real Symmetric Matrix Matrix
Let be an eigenvalue and X be the corresponding eigenvectors of the real symmetric
matrix A. Then,
AX = X NOTES
Multiplying by X ' on both sides,
X ' AX X ' X ...(19)
Taking complex conjugate on both sides,
X ' AX X ' X
X ' AX X ' X
Since A is real, A = A
X ' AX X ' X
Taking transpose on both sides,
X ' AX ' X ' X '
X ' A ' X X ' X X ' X
Since A is symmetric A= A
X ' AX X ' X ...(20)
From Equations (19) and (20) we get
X ' X X ' X
( ) X ' X 0
Since X ' X is non-zero, . Therefore is real.
Theorem 1.2: If X1 and X2 are two eigenvectors corresponding to two different
eigenvalues 1 and 2 of a real symmetric matrix A, then X1 and X2 are
orthogonal.
Proof: Since X1 and X2 are the eigenvectors of matrix A corresponding to the
eigenvalues 1and 2, we have,
AX1 = 1X1 ...(21)
AX2 = 2X2 ...(22)
Premultiplying Equation (21) by X2 we get,
X2 AX1 = X21X1
Taking transpose on both sides we get,
(X2 AX1)=(X21X1)
X1 A X2 = X1 1X2
X1 AX2 = 1X1 X2 where A = A, since A is symmetric.
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Material 51
Matrix X1 2X2 = 1X1 X2 [Using Equation (22)]
(2 – 1)X1 X2 = 0
Since, (2 1), X1 X2 = 0
NOTES i.e., X1 and X2 are orthogonal.
10 2 5
Example 1.59: Find the eigenvalues of the matrix 2 2 3 and verify that
5 3 5
the eigenvectors are mutually orthogonal.
10 2 5
Solution: Let A = 2 2 3
5 3 5
1 = 17; 2 = 42; 3 = 0
The characteristic equation is,
3 – 172 + 42 = 0
2 – 17 + 42 = 0
– 3) ( – 14 =0
The eigenvalues are 0, 3 and 14. To find the eigenvectors we consider,
10 – –2 –5 x1
–2 2 3 x2 = 0
–5 3 5 – x3
10 – x1 – 2 x2 – 5x3 = 0
–2x1 + (2 – )x2 + 3x3 = 0
–5x1 + 3x2 + (5 – )x3 = 0
Case 1: = 0 gives:
10x1 – 2x2 – 5x3 = 0, –2x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 0
1
Solving we get eigenvector X1 = –5
4
Case 2: = 3 gives:
7x1 – 2x2 – 5x3 = 0, –2x1 –x2 + 3x3 = 0
1
Solving we get eigenvector X2 = 1
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52 Material
Case 3: = 14 gives: Matrix
–4x1 – 2x2 – 5x3 = 0, –2x1 + 12x2 + 3x3 = 0
–3
NOTES
Solving we get eigenvector X3 = 1
2
1 1 –3
The eigenvectors are –5 , 1 , 1
4 1 2
X1 X2 = 0, X2 X3 = 0 and X3 X1 = 0
Hence, the three eigenvectors are mutually orthogonal.
Note: It may be seen that any matrix, whose elements are polynomials can be
expressed as a polynomial whose coefficients are matrices and vice versa. The
following two examples illustrate this concept.
Example 1.60: Express the following matrices as polynomials with matrix
coefficients.
1 2 2 – 3 3 3 2 5 1
2 2 3 – 3
(i) , (ii) 3 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 43
1 3 –2 3 1 0 3 2 1
2 2 3 – 3
Solution: (i)
1 3 –2
0 1 2 0 1 0 0 3
= 3
2
0 0 0 –1 3 0 1 0
= A3 + B2 + C + D, where A,B and C are matrices.
1 2 2 – 3 3 3 2 5 1
3
(ii) 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 4 3
1
3
0 3 2 1
= A3 + B2 + C + D
Where,
0 1 1 1 1 –3
A = 1 0 4 B = –3 1 –3
1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 5 1 0 1
C = 0 1 0 D = –1 0 1
1 0 1 –1 0 1
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Material 53
Matrix
Check Your Progress
15. Give the characteristic equation of a matrix.
NOTES 16. What is a characteristic vector or latent vector or eigenvector of matrix A?
17. What are the eigenvalues and eigenvectors? Give example.
18. Give the characteristics of eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
1.7 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE OF ROW AND
COLUMN MATRIX
A vector of order n is any quantity having n components. (a1, a2, a3, …, an) is an
n-vector.
1 n row matrix and n 1 column matrix are n-dimensional vectors which
can be written as
a1
a
2
X = [a1, a2, a3, …, an] and X = , respectively..
an
As the vectors are considered as either row matrix or column matrix, hence,
the operation of addition of vectors will have the same properties as the addition
of matrices.
Linear Dependence
A set of n-vectors x1, x2, …, xn is said to be linearly dependent if there exists n
numbers c1, c2, …, cn not all zero such that c1x1 + c2x2 + c3x3 + … + cnxn = 0.
Linear Independence
A set of n-vectors x1, x2, …, xn is said to be linearly independent if there exists
n numbers c1, c2, …, cn such that the relation c1x1 + c2x2 + c3x3 + … + cnxn = 0
gives c1 = c2 = … = cn = 0.
Example 1.61: Prove that the set of vectors (0, 2, – 4), (1, –2, –1), and
(1, – 4, 3) is linearly dependent.
Solution: Let three scalars be c1, c2 and c3. Consider the relation
c1(0, 2, – 4) + c2(1, –2, –1) + c3(1, – 4, 3) = (0, 0, 0)
(0, 2c1, – 4c1) + (c2, –2c2, – c2) + (c3, – 4c3, 3c3) = (0, 0, 0)
(c2 + c3, 2c1 – 2c2 – 4c3, – 4c1 – c2 + 3c3) = (0, 0, 0)
c2 + c3 = 0 … (23)
2c1 – 2c2 – 4c3 = 0 … (24)
–4c1 – c2 + 3c3 = 0 … (25)
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54 Material
From, Equation (23) we have c2 = –c3 Matrix
So, Equation (24) becomes 2c1 + 2c3 – 4c3 = 0
c1 = c3
By putting the value of c1 and c2 in the Equation (25), we get NOTES
–4c3 + c3 + 3c3 = 0, which is true.
So, by giving different real values to c3, we get infinite non-zero real values
of c1 and c2.
So, c1, c2 and c3 are not all zero. Hence, the set of vectors (0, 2, – 4), (1, –
2, –1), and (1, – 4, 3) is linearly dependent.
Example 1.62: Prove that the set of vectors (1, 2, 0), (0, 3, 1) and (–1, 0, 1) is
linearly independent.
Solution: Let three scalars be c1, c2 and c3. Consider the relation
c1(1, 2, 0) + c2(0, 3, 1) + c3(–1, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0)
(c1, 2c1, 0) + (0, 3c2, c2) + (–c3, 0, c3) = (0, 0, 0)
(c1 – c3, 2c1 + 3c2, c2 + c3) = (0, 0, 0)
which gives c1 – c3 = 0 …(26)
2c1 + 3c2 = 0 …(27)
c2 + c3 = 0 …(28)
From Equation (26), we have c1 = c3
From Equation (28), we have c2 = –c3
By putting the value of c1 and c2 in the Equation (27), we get
c3 = 0
c1 = c2 = c3 = 0
Hence, the set of vectors (1, 2, 0), (0, 3, 1) and (–1, 0, 1) is linearly
independent.
Theorem 1.3: If two vectors are linearly dependent, then one of them is the
scalar multiple of the other.
Proof: Let the two linearly dependent set of vectors be u, v. Then there exists two
scalars c1 and c2 (not both zero) such that,
c1.u + c2.v = 0 … (29)
Case I: When c1 0
c2
From Equation (29) we have, c1u = –c2v u = – c v
1
Hence, u is a scalar multiple of v.
Case II: When c2 0
c1
From Equation (29) we have, c2v = –c1u v = – c u
2
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Material 55
Matrix Hence, v is a scalar multiple of u. Thus, in both the cases at least one of the
vectors u and v is a scalar multiple of the other.
Theorem 1.4: Every super set of a linearly dependent set is linearly dependent.
NOTES Proof: Let Ap = {X1, X2, … , Xp} be the set of p vectors which is linearly dependent
and
Ar = {X1, X2, … , Xp, Xp+1,…Xr} be any superset of Ap where r > p.
As the set {X1, X2, … , Xp} is a linearly dependent, thus there exists scalars
a1, a2, …, ap not all zero such that
a1X1 + a2X2 + … + apXp + 0.Xp+1 + … + 0.Xr = 0
As a1, a2, …, ap are not all zero, thus the set{X1, X2, X3, … , Xp, Xp+1,…,
Xr} is a linearly dependent set.
Hence, every superset of a linearly dependent set is linearly dependent.
Theorem 1.5: Every sub-set of a linearly independent set of vectors is linearly
independent.
Proof: Let A = {X1, X2,… , Xs} be the set of linearly independent vectors.
Let B = {X1, X2, … , Xr} be any sub-set of A where r < s
As the set {X1, X2, … , Xs} is a linearly independent set, thus the relation
a1X1 + a2X2 + … + arXr +…. + asXs = 0 gives
a1 = a2 = …= ar = … = as = 0
a1X1 + a2X2 + …+ arXr = 0
where a1 = a2 = … = ar = 0
Thus the set {X1, X2, … , Xr} is a linearly independent set and hence, every
non-empty sub-set of a linearly independent set is linearly independent.
Theorem 1.6: If the vectors X1, X2, X3, …, Xs are linearly dependent, then at
least one of them can be written as a linear combination of the others.
Proof: As the vectors X1, X2, …, Xs are linearly dependent, thus there
exists scalars a1, a2, …, as not all zero, such that a1X1 + a2X2 + … + asXs = 0
a1X1 + a2X2 + … + ai–1Xi–1 + aiXi + ai+1Xi+1 + … + asXs = 0
Let ai 0.
– aiXi = a1X1 + a2X2 + … + ai–1Xi–1 + ai+1Xi+1 + … +asXs
a1 a2 ai 1 ai 1 as
Xi = a X1 + a X2 + … + a Xi–1 + a Xi+1 + … + a Xs
i i i i i
Thus, the vector Xi is a linear combination of the other vectors.
Theorem 1.7: If one of the vectors X1, X2, …, Xp can be expressed as a linear
combination of the other vectors, then the p vectors are linearly dependent.
Proof: Let the vector Xi is a linear combination of the vectors X1, X2, … ,
Xi – 1, Xi, …, Xp.
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56 Material
Suppose there exists the scalars a1, a2, …, ai – 1, ai + 1, …, ap such that Matrix
Xi = a1X1 + a2X2 + … + ai–1Xi–1 + ai+1Xi+1 + … +apXp
a1X1 + a2X2 + … + ai–1Xi–1 + (–1)Xi + ai+1Xi+1 + … +apXp- = 0
Since the coefficient of Xi 0, thus, the vectors X1,X2, …, Xp are linearly NOTES
dependent.
Theorem 1.8: If the set {X1, X2, …, Xp} is linearly independent and the set
{ X1,X2, …, Xp,Y} is linearly dependent, then Y is a linear combination of the
vectors X1,X2, …, Xp.
Proof: Consider a1X1 + a2X2 + … +apXp + aY = 0 …(30)
As {X1, X2, …, Xp,Y } is linearly dependent, thus a1, a2, …, ap, a are not
all zeros.
Assuming a = 0, then Equation (30) can be written as
a1X1 + a2X2 + … +apXp = O
As{X1, X2, …, Xp} is linearly independent, thus a1= a2 =…= ap = 0.
Now, from Equation (30) {X1, X2, …, Xp, Y} is linearly independent which
is a contradiction to the given condition. Thus, a 0.
Rewriting Equation (30), – aY = a1X1 + a2X2 + … +apXp
a1 a ap
Y= X1 + 2 X2 + … + X Hence the result.
a a a p.
Theorem 1.9: The kn-vectors A1, A2, …, A-k are linearly dependent if and only
if the rank of the matrix A = {A1, A2, …, A-k} with the given vectors as columns is
less than k.
Proof: Let x1A1 + x2A2 +… + xkAk = O, … (31)
where x1, x2,…, xk are scalars.
a11 a12 a1k
a a a
21 22 2k
+ x2 +… + xk = O
x1
an1 an 2 ank
a11x1 + a12x2 + … + a1kxk = 0
a21x1 + a22x2 + … + a2kxk = 0
………………………………..
an1x1 + an2x2 + ……. + ankxk = 0
which can be written in the matrix form as
a11 a12 a1k x1 0
a a22 a2 k x 0
21 2
=
an1 an 2 ank xk 0
AX = O … (32) Self - Learning
Material 57
Matrix Let the vectors A1, A2, …, Ak be linearly dependent.
So, from the relation (31), scalars x1, x2, …, xk are not all zero and thus the
homogeneous system of equations given by (32) has non-trivial solution.
NOTES Hence, (A) < k
Converse of this theorem is also true.
Theorem 1.10: A square matrix A is singular if and only if its columns (rows) are
linearly dependent.
Proof: Let n be the order of the square matrix A and A1, A2, …, An be its
columns.
A = [A1 A2 … An]
Proceed in same way as in Theorem 1.4 to prove ρ(A) < n
Since ρ(A) < n, thus A = 0 and hence A is a singular matrix.
Conversely, the column vectors of A are linearly dependent.
Theorem 1.11: The kn-vectors A1, A2, …, Ak are linearly independent if the rank
of the matrix A = [A1, A2, …, Ak] is equal to k.
Proceed in same way as in Theorem 1.4 to obtain AX = O. Now suppose
(A) = k. Then A 0 and homogeneous system of Equations given by (32) has
trivial solution only.
x1 = x2 =… = xk = 0
Thus, the vectors A1, A2, …, Ak are linearly independent.
Theorem 1.12: The number of linearly independent solutions of the equation AX
= O is (n – r) where r is the rank of the matrix A.
Proof: Given that the rank of A is r which means A has r linearly independent
columns. Let first r columns are linearly independent.
Now, A = C1 C 2 Cr C n ,
where C1, C2, …, Cn are column vectors of A.
x1
x
2
[C1 C2 … Cn] = 0 C1x1 + C2 x2 +…+ Cn xn = 0 …(33)
xn
As the set [C1 C2 … Cr] is linearly independent, thus each vector Cr + 1,
Cr + 2, …, Cn can be written as a linear combination of C1, C2, …, Cr.
Now, Cr + 1 = a11C1+ a12C2 +…+ a1rCr
Cr + 2 = a21C1+ a22C2 +…+ a2rCr
………………………………………………………….
Cn = ak1C1+ ak2C2 +…+ akrCr, where k = n – r …(34)
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58 Material
From Equations (33) and (34), we get Matrix
a11 a21 ak 1
a a a
12 22 k2
NOTES
a1r a2 r akr
X1 1 , X 2 0 ,..., X n r 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
Thus, AX = O has (n – r) solutions.
Check Your Progress
1 1 a
2
19. Find a if the vectors 1 , and 0 are linearly dependent.
3 3 1
20. Determine the characteristic roots and spectrum of the matrix
6 2 2 2 3 11
(i) A 2 3 1 (ii) A 0 3 17
2 1 3 0 0 2
21. Determine the characteristic roots and the corresponding characteristic
vectors of the matrix
1 2 2 1 0 2
(i) A 0 2 1 (ii) A 0 2 1
1 2 2 2 0 1
1.8 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’
1. A matrix is simply an arrangement of elements and has no numerical value.
2. A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns is
called a square matrix.
1 2
For example, 3 4 is a 2 × 2 square matrix.
3. A square matrix whose every element other than diagonal elements is zero, is
called a diagonal matrix.
1 0 0
0 2 0
For example, is a diagonal matrix.
0 0 3
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Material 59
Matrix 4. A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are all equal to 1 (unity) is called
identity matrix or (unit matrix).
1 0
NOTES For example, 0 1 is an identity matrix.
5. Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if,
(i) A and B are of same order.
(ii) Corresponding elements in A and B are same. For example, the following
two matrices are equal.
3 4 9 3 4 9
=
16 25 64 16 25 64
6. Matrix addition is commutative.
i.e., A + B = B + A
For, (i, j)th element of A + B is (aij + bij) and of B + A is (bij + aij), and they
are same as aij and bij are real numbers.
7. A square matrix A = [aij] is called a symmetric matrix if aij = aji for all i and
j.
8. A square matrix A = [aij]nn is said to be Hermitian if aij a ji and is said to
be skew-Hermitian if aij a ji , i.e., Hermitian if A*= A, and skew-Hermitian
if A* = –A or A = –A*.
9. A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AA = I.
10. The adjoint matrix of A is obtained by replacing the elements of A by their
respective cofactors and then transposing.
11. Let A be an m n matrix. We say rank of A is r if (i) At least one minor of
order r is non zero and (ii) Every minor of order (r + 1) is zero.
12. An elementary operation is either elementary row operation or elementary
column operation and is of the following three types:
Type I. The interchange of any two rows (or column).
Type II. The multiplication of any row (or column) by a non-zero number.
Type III. The addition of multiple of one row (or column) to another row
(or column).
13. Matrix obtained from identity matrix by a single elementary operation is
called Elementary matrix.
14. A matrix is said to be in row Echelon form if,
All rows in the matrix which consist of zeros are at the bottom of the
matrix (such rows may or may not be there).
The first non-zero entry in each (non-zero) row is (called the leading
entry).
If kth and (k + 1)th rows are two consecutive rows (having some non-
zero entry) then the leading entry of the (k + 1)th row is to the right of the
leading entry of the kth row.
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60 Material
Thus, the Gaussian elimination method requires the augmented matrix to Matrix
be put in the row echelon form.
If a column contains a leading entry of some row then all other entries in
that column are zero. Then we say that matrix is in reduced echelon form
and this method is called Gauss-Jordan reduction. NOTES
15. If A is an n × n matrix, then the matrix A λI , for some scalar is called the
characteristic matrix of A.
a11 λ a12 a1n
a a22 λ a2 n
A λI 21
an1 an 2 ann λ
16. If is the characteristic root of an n n matrix A, then any solution of the
equation AX = X except X = 0 is called a characteristic vector or latent
vector or eigen vector of matrix A.
17. Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order n. If there exists a non-zero (non-
null) column vector X and a scalar l such that,
AX = X
Then is called an eigenvalue of the matrix A and X is called eigenvectors
corresponding to the eigenvalue .
The problem of finding the values of the parameter , for which the
homogeneous system, AX = X
possesses non-trivial solution is known as characteristic value problem or
eigenvalue problem.
Thus, system of Equationpossesses non-trivial solution if and only if,
[A – I] = 0
This Equation is known as the characteristic equation of the matrix A.
The roots of this Equation are called latent roots or characterstics values or
eigenvalues of the matrix A. The corresponding non-trivial solutions are called
eigenvectors or characteristic vectors of A.
If A is an n × n matrix, then its characteristic equation is an nth degree
polynomial equations in . Therefore, an n × n matrix has n eigenvalues (real
or complex).
18. Following are the characteristics of eigenvalues and eigenvectors:
An eigenvector of a matrix cannot correspond to two different
eigenvalues.
An eigenvalue of a matrix can, and will correspond to different
eigenvectors.
If all the eigenvalues of a matrix are distinct, then the corresponding
eigenvectors are linearly independent.
If two or more eigenvalues of a matrix are equal then the corresponding
eigenvectors may be linearly independent or linearly dependent.
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Material 61
Matrix 19. 1
20. (i) 2, 2, 8; {2, 2, 8}
(ii) 2, 3, –2; {2, 3, – 2}
NOTES 21. (i) 1, (1, 1, –1); 2, (2, 1, 0)
(ii) –1, (–3, –1, 3); 2, (0, 1, 0); 3, (1, 1, 1)
1.9 SUMMARY
A matrix which has exactly one row is called a row matrix.
A matrix which has exactly one column is called a column matrix.
A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns is
called a square matrix.
A matrix each of whose elements is zero is called a null matrix or zero
matrix.
A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are equal, is called a scalar
matrix.
If A and B are two matrices of the same order then addition of A and B is
defined to be the matrix obtained by adding the corresponding elements of
A and B.
The product AB of two matrices A and B is defined only when the number
of columns of A is same as the number of rows in B and by definition the
product AB is a matrix G of order m × p if A and B were of order m × n
and n × p, respectively.
If k is any complex number and A, a given matrix, then kA is the matrix
obtained from A by multiplying each element of A by k. The number k is
called scalar.
Let A be a matrix. The matrix obtained from A by interchange of its rows
and columns, is called the transpose of A.
A square matrix A = [aij] is called a symmetric matrix if aij = aji for all i
and j. If A denotes the transpose of a square matrix A, then A is symmetric
when A = A and A is skew symmetric when A = –A.
A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AA = I.
A square matrix A is said to be unitary if A * A = I.
The adjoint matrix of A is obtained by replacing the elements of A by their
respective cofactors and then transposing.
If A is a square matrix of order n, then a square matrix B of the same order
n is said to be inverse of A if AB = BA = I (unit matrix).
Let A be an m n matrix. We say rank of A is r if (i) at least one minor of
order r is non zero and (ii) every minor of order (r + 1) is zero.
Matrix obtained from identity matrix by a single elementary operation is
Self - Learning
called an elementary matrix.
62 Material
Any matrix can be reduced to Echelon form by elementary row operations. Matrix
Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order n. If there exists a non-zero (non-
null) column vector X and a scalar l such that, AX = X. Then is called an
eigenvalue of the matrix A and X is called eigenvectors corresponding to the
NOTES
eigenvalue .
If all the eigenvalues of a matrix are distinct, then the corresponding
eigenvectors are linearly independent.
If two or more eigenvalues of a matrix are equal then the corresponding
eigenvectors may be linearly independent or linearly dependent.
A square matrix A with distinct characteristic values can be diagonalized by
a similarity transformation.
The system of linear equations AX = B is consistent if the coefficient matrix
A and the augmented matrix [A : B] have the same rank, i.e., [A] = [A :
B].
If A is a non-singular square matrix of order n and X, B are matrices of
order (n 1), then the system AX = B possesses a unique solution.
1.10 KEY TERMS
Row matrix: A matrix which has exactly one row is called a row matrix.
Column matrix: A matrix which has exactly one column is called a column
matrix.
Square matrix: In this matrix, the number of rows is equal to the number
of columns.
Equivalent matrices: Two matrices A and B of the same order are said to
be equivalent if one of them can be obtained from the other by performing
a sequence of elementary transformations. Equivalent matrices have the
same order or rank.
Rank of a matrix: It is the largest of the orders of all the non-vanishing
minors of that matrix. Rank of a matrix is denoted as R(A) or P (A). If A is
an m × n matrix then R(A) or P(A) minimum of (m, n).
Symmetric matrix: A matrix is said to be symmetric if the transpose of the
matrix is equal to the matrix itself.
Skew-Symmetric matrix: A matrix is said to be Skew-Symmetric if the
transpose of the matrix is equal to the negative of the matrix itself.
Hermitian matrix: A matrix is said to be Hermitian matrix if the transposed
conjugate of the matrix is equal to the matrix itself.
Skew-Hermitian matrix: A matrix is said to be Skew-Hermitian matrix if
the transposed conjugate of the matrix is equal to the negative of the matrix
itself.
Rank of a matrix: A non-zero matrix has rank r if every minor of order r
+1 vanishes and it has at least one non-zero minor of order r.
Self - Learning
Material 63
Matrix Row rank and column rank: When a matrix is in the row echelon form,
the number of non-zero rows is the row rank and when a matrix is in the
column echelon form, then the number of non-zero columns is the column
rank of the matrix.
NOTES
1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. What is a matrix? What are its types?
2. Find matrices A and B such that A and B are both non-zero matrices but the
product AB is a zero matrix.
3. Is it necessary that if two matrices A and B are such that AB and BA are
both defined and AB = 0, then BA must also be a zero matrix?
4. Define orthogonal and unitary matrices.
5. How will you determine the rank of a matrix?
6. What is meant by elementary transformation?
7. How will you determine that the given square matrix is of order one, order
two or order three?
8. Differentiate between consistent and inconsistent equations.
9. Define any three properties of eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
Long-Answer Questions
2 1 0
1. If A = 0 1 3 find a11, a12, a13, a21, a22, a23, a31, a32, a33.
4 2 1
2. Which of the following matrices are scalar matrices?
2 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 5 1
(i) (ii) (iii) 0 2 0 (iv) 0 0 0
0 1 0 5
0 0 2 0 0 0
3. Which of the following matrices are triangular matrices?
1 0 0 1 2 3 0 1 2
0 0
(i) 5 1 0 (ii) 0 0 4 (iii) 0 0 1 (iv) 0 0
6 2 0 0 0 5 1 2 0
4. Compute A + B for the following matrices:
1 0 0 2 1 3
(i) A= , B=
2 3 4 1 3 2
1 4 7 1 4 7
(ii) A = , B = 2 5 8
2 5 8
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64 Material
Matrix
1 2 3 0 0 0
(iii) A = , B=
4 5 6 0 0 0
1 4 1 4
(iv) A = , B= NOTES
5 6 5 6
(v) A = (1), B = (– 1)
5. Compute kA, if
1 3 5
(i) A= , k=i
7 5 3
i 1 i
(ii) A= ,k=–1
1 i 0 i
1 3 4
6. If A = , find a matrix B such that A + B is a zero matrix.
1 2 3
0 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 4
7. If A = , B= , C=
2 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 6
Compute the following:
(i) (A + B) + C (ii) (A – B) + C (iii) A – B – C
(iv) 2A + 3B (v) A + 2B + 3C
1 2 4 5
8. If A = , B= , find a matrix C such that (i) (A + B) + C =
3 4 6 7
0
(ii) A + B = 2C.
9. Suppose that Brown, Jones and Smith go to the grocery store and purchase
the following items:
Brown: Two apples, a six lemons and five mangoes.
Jones: two dozen eggs, two lemons and two dozen oranges,
Smith: Ten apples, one dozen eggs, two dozen oranges and a half dozen
mangoes.
Construct the 3 × 5 matrix whose rows give the various purchases of Brown,
Jones and Smith.
10. Suppose that matrices A and B represent the number of items of different
kind produced by two manufacturing units in one day.
4 3
A= 5 , B= 4 , Compute 2A + 3B,
6 5
What does the matrix 2A + 3B represent?
Self - Learning
Material 65
Matrix
A1 A2 A3
2 3 4 3 5 7
I 1 2 3
11. A = II 4 5 6
, B= 5 6 7 , C= 9 11 13
8 9 10 15 17 19
NOTES III 7 8 9
Matrix A shows the stock of 3 types items I, II, III in three shops A1 A2 A3.
Matrix B shows the number of items delivered to three shops at the beginning
of a week. Matrix C shows the number of items sold during that week.
Using matrix algebra, find
(i) The number of items immediately after the delivery.
(ii) The number of items at the end of the week.
12. Find the product AB when:
1 0 0 1 1 2
(i) A= 0 1 0 , B= 0 2 3
0 0 1 4 5 6
2 0 0 0 1 2
(ii) A= 0 3 0 , B= 1 0 2
0 0 4 2 3 0
0 0 0
1 2 3
(iii) A = , B= 0 0 0
4 5 6
0 0 0
1 i 1 i
(iv) A = i 1
, B= i 1
1 0 0
13. If A = 0 1 0 , show that AA = A.
0 0 1
2 3 1 1 3 1
14. If A = 1 2 1 , B= 2 2 1 , show that AB = BA.
6 9 4 3 0 1
15. Consider the matrices:
0 1 0 0 0 1
A= 0 0 1 , B= 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
(i) Show that A2 = B and A3 = I.
(ii) Show that B2 = I and B2 = A.
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66 Material
(iii) Find, what is A4? Matrix
(iv) Show that A3 = BA = AB = B3 = I, hence A and B commute.
16. Show that the product of the matrices,
NOTES
0 2 3 16 12 8
3 0 4 and 12 9 6 is the zero matrix.
3 4 0 8 6 4
17. Consider the matrix as,
1 0 3 0
A= , B= 0 2
0 4
(i) Show that A and B commute.
(ii) Show that any pair of diagonal matrices of the same order commute
when multiplied together.
18. For the matrix,
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
A= 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
What is the smallest positive integer k such that Ak = I?
19. Verify the associative law A(BC) = (AB)C for the following matrices:
1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
2 2 2
A= , B= 0 1 1 , C= 2 2 .
3 3 3
1 1 0 1 1
0 0 0
20. Commute the transpose of the following matrices:
1 0 0 1
(i) 0 1 0 (ii) (1) (iii) 2 (iv) 1 2 3
0 0 1 3
21. For each of the following matrix, show that A + A = 0
0 1 4 0 6 4 0 1 2
(i) 1 0 7 (ii) 6 0 8 (iii) 1 0 5 .
4 7 0 4 8 0 2 5 0
cos sin 1 0
22. If A = , show that AA = AA = 0 1 .
sin cos
4
23. If A = (1 2 3), B = 5 . Verify (AB) = BA.
6
Self - Learning
Material 67
Matrix
1 1 2 1 3 4
24. If A = 2 1 3 , B = 5 6 7 , verify (A + B) = A + B.
cos sin
25. If A = , verify (AB) = A.
NOTES sin cos
26. The following matrix gives the vitamin content of food items, in conveniently
chosen units:
Vitamins: A B C D
Food I 0.5 0.5 0 0
Food II 0.3 0 0.2 0.1
Food III 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5
If we eat 5 units of food I, 10 units of food II, and 8 units of food III, how
much of each type of vitamin we have consumed? If we pay only for the
vitamin content of each food, paying 10 paise, 20 paise, 25 paise, 50 paise
respectively for units of the four vitamins, how much does a unit of each type
of food costs? Compute the total cost of the food eaten.
27. A company is considering which of three methods of production it should
use in producing three goods A, B and C. The amount of each good produced
by each method is shown in the matrix,
A B C
2 3 1 Method I
R=
1 2 3 Method II
2 4 1 Method III
Let p be a 3 × 1 matrix whose components represent the profit per unit for
each of the goods. What does the matrix Rp represent? Find two different
matrices p under which method 2 and method 3 are most profitable.
28. Reduce each of the matrices given below to the Echelon form,
2 0 1 1 1 1
(i) 5 1 0 (ii) 4 1 0
0 1 3 8 1 1
1 3 3 1 1 0 2 2
1 1 1 0 2 1 0 1
(iii) 2 5 2 3
(iv)
1 0 2 1
1 1 0 1 4 1 3 1
1 2 3
1 1 3 6
2 3 4
(v) 3 4 5
(vi) 1 3 3 4
5 3 3 11
4 5 6
2 3 1 1
3 2 1 5
1 1 2 4
(vii) 3 1 3 2
(viii) 5 1 4 2
1 4 11 19
6 3 0 7
Self - Learning
68 Material
Matrix
1 2 1 1 3 3
(ix) 1 0 2 (x) 1 4 3 .
2 1 3 1 3 4
29. Solve the following equations: NOTES
(i) x + 2y + 3z = 14
3x + y + 2z = 11
2x + 3y + z = 11
(ii) 5x + 3y + 7z = 4
3x + 26y + 2z = 9
7x + 2y + 10z = 5
(iii) x – y + 2z = 4
3x + y + 4z = 6
x+y+z=1
(iv) x + y + z = 3
3x – 5y + 2z = 8
5x – 3y + 4z = 14
(v) 3x + 4y – 5z + 7t = 0
2x + 3y + 3z – 2t = 0
4x + 11y – 13z + 16t = 0
7x – 2y + z + 3t = 0
30. Compute the inverse of each of the following matrices:
2 6 4 8 4 2
(i) 1 3 2 (ii) 2 8 4
1 5 2 1 2 8
31. Find rank of the following matrices:
1 1 1 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 3 2 1
(i) 2 3 4 (ii) (iii) 2 3 5
2 0 3 2
4 5 6 8 13 21
3 3 0 3
1 1 1 1
1 4 3 2
1 3 2 1
(iv) 1 2 3 4 (v)
2 0 3 2
2 6 7 5
3 3 0 3
xa b c
32. Prove that a x b c = x2(x + a + b + c)
a b xc
Self - Learning
Material 69
Matrix 33. Solve by using matrix:
(i) 4x + 2y = 2 3x + 5y = 21
(ii) 5x + 3y = 1 2x – 3y = – 8
NOTES 34. Show that every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of
Hermitian and a skew-Hermitian matrix.
35. If A is a Hermitian (skew-Hermitian) matrix then prove that iA is skew-
Hermitian matrix.
6 2 2
36. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A = 2 3 1 .
2 1 3
37. If X1 and X2 are eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues of 1
and 2 of A, then show that X1 and X2 are linearly independent.
38. Find the eigenvalues of the following matrices:
5 2
(i)
2 3
1 1 i
(ii)
1 i 2
2 2 1
(iii) 1 3 1
1 2 2
3 10 5
(iv) 2 3 4
3 5 7
1 i j
39. Let k1, k2, k3 > 0 and A = [ai j] where ai j = ki i j
(i, j = 1, 2, 3)
k
j
Write the matrix A and find its eigenvalues.
40. Write 3 matrices whose characteristics equation is – .
41. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of 3 × 3 null matrix.
2 1 1 0
1 3 4 2
42. Find the sum and product of the eigenvalues of .
1 4 1 2
0 2 2 1
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70 Material
43. Eigenvalues of a matrix are 1, –1 and 2. Find the value of Trace (A) and Matrix
determinant A.
7 4 4
44. A = 4 8 1 . If one the eigenvalues of A is –9, find the other two NOTES
4 1 8
eigenvalues.
45. Solve the following equations with the help of matrices:
3x + 4y – z – 6w = 0
2x + 3y + 2z – 3w = 0
2x + y – 14z – 9w = 0
x + 3y + 13z + 3w = 0
1.12 FURTHER READING
Loney, S. L. 1983. Plane Trigonometry (Analytical Trigonometry), Part II.
New Delhi: S. Chand And Company Limited.
Datta, K. B. 2004. Matrix and Linear Algebra. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd.
Prasad, Chandrika. 2017. Text Book on Algebra and Theory of Equations,
11th Edition. Allahabad: Pothishala Private Ltd.
Liu, C. L. 1986. Elements of Discrete Mathematics, 2nd Edition. Noida (UP):
McGraw-Hill Education (International Edition, Computer Science Series).
Khanna, V. K. and S. K. Bhambri. 2008. A Course in Abstract Algebra, 3rd
Edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Grewal, B. S. 1998. Higher Engineering Mathematics, 34th Edition. New Delhi:
Khanna Publishers.
Narayan, Shanti. 1996. Differential Calculus, 14th Edition. New Delhi: S. Chand
And Company Limited.
Kreyszig, Erwin. 2006. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 7th Edition.
Mumbai: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Bali, N. P. 2007. A Textbook of Engineering Mathematics. New Delhi: Laxmi
Publications (P) Ltd.
Self - Learning
Material 71
Solving Matrix Equations
UNIT 2 SOLVING MATRIX EQUATIONS
Structure NOTES
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Cayley – Hamilton Theorem
2.2.1 Cayley – Hamilton Theorem and Its Use in Finding Inverse of a Matrix
2.3 Application of Matrix to Solve a System of Linear (Homogeneous and
Non-Homogeneous) Equations
2.4 Theorems on Consistency and Inconsistency of a System of Linear
Equations
2.4.1 Solving Linear Equations up to Three Unknowns
2.5 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Terms
2.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.9 Further Reading
2.0 INTRODUCTION
In linear algebra, the Cayley–Hamilton theorem is named after the mathematicians
Arthur Cayley and William Rowan Hamilton. It states that every square matrix
over a commutative ring, such as the real or complex field, satisfies its own
characteristic equation. The Cayley–Hamilton theorem is used to express the
equations in matrix form and to verify or identify the nature of characteristic roots
of a diagonal.
In general, the equation AX = B representing a system of equations is termed
as homogeneous equation if B is the n 1 (column) vector of zeroes, otherwise,
the equation is termed as nonhomogeneous equation. The n n nonhomogeneous
system of linear equations has a unique non-trivial solution if and only if its
determinant is non-zero. If this determinant is zero, then the system has either no
nontrivial solutions or an infinite number of solutions.
A consistent system of equations has at least one solution, and an inconsistent
system has no solution. In mathematics and particularly in algebra, a linear or
nonlinear system of equations is called consistent if there is at least one set of
values for the unknowns that satisfies each equation in the system, i.e., that when
substituted into each of the equations makes each equation hold true as an identity.
In this unit, you will study about the Cayley–Hamilton theorem and its use in
finding inverse of a matrix, application of matrix to solve a system of linear
(homogeneous and non-homogeneous) equations, theorems on consistency and
inconsistency of a system of linear equations, and solving linear equations up to
three unknowns.
Self - Learning
Material 73
Solving Matrix Equations
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
NOTES Explain Cayley-Hamilton theorem
Find the inverse of a matrix using Cayley–Hamilton theorem
Define homogeneous and non-homogeneous system of linear equations
Solve a system of linear homogeneous and non-homogeneous equations
using matrix
Understand the theorems on consistency and inconsistency of a system of
linear equations
Solve the linear equations up to three unknowns
2.2 CAYLEY – HAMILTON THEOREM
In linear algebra, the Cayley–Hamilton theorem is named after the mathematicians
Arthur Cayley and William Rowan Hamilton. It states that every square matrix
over a commutative ring, such as the real or complex field, satisfies its own
characteristic equation. The Cayley–Hamilton theorem is used to express the
equations in matrix form and to verify or identify the nature of characteristic roots
of a diagonal.
Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
The characteristic equation of a square matrix A is |A – I| = 0. This can be written
as,
p0n + p1n–1 + p2n–2+...+ pn= 0 ...(1)
We have to prove that,
p0An + p1An–1 + p2An–2+...+ pn I= 0 ...(2)
Consider the matrix B = Adj(A – I). The elements of B are polynomials in of
degree (n – 1) or less. Therefore, B can be written in the form,
B = B0n–1 + B1n–2 +...+ Bn–2 + Bn–1 ...(3)
Where, B0, B1, Bn–2,...., Bn–1 are matrices of order n and whose elements are
polynomials of the elements of A. It is known that for any matrix A.
A Adj A = |A|I
Using this property for the matrix (A – I), we get,
(A – I) Adj (A – I) = |A – I|I
(A – I) B = |A – I|I
Using Equations (2) and (3) we get,
(A – I) (B0n–1 + B1n–2 +....+ Bn–2 + Bn–1) = (p0n + p1n–1+...+ pn)I
Self - Learning
74 Material
On equating the coefficients of n, n–1 we get, Solving Matrix Equations
– B0 = p0I
AB0 – B1 = p1I
NOTES
AB1 – B2 = p2I
:
:
ABn–1 = pnI
Premultiplying these equations by An, An–1......, A, I we get,
–AnB0 = p0An
AnB0 – An–1 B1 = p1An–1
An–1B1 – An–2 B2 = p2An–2
:
:
A2Bn–2 – ABn–1 = pn–1I
ABn–1 = pnI
Adding these equations we get,
0 = p0An + p1An–1+...+pnI, which proves the theorem.
2 0 –1
Example 2.1: Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix 0 2 0 and
1 0 2
hence find A–1 and A4.
2 0 –1
Solution: Let, A = 0 2 0
1 0 2
1 = 6, 2= 11, 3 = |A|= 6
Characteristic equation is 3 – 62 + 11 – 6 = 0
We have to prove that A3 – 6A2 + 11A – 6I = 0 ....(4)
2 0 –1 2 0 –1 5 0 –4
A = 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 4 0 and
2
1 0 2 1 0 2 4 0 5
14 0 –13
3
A = 0 8 0
–13 0 14
Self - Learning
Material 75
Solving Matrix Equations Using them in Equation (4), we find that the equation is satisfied.
A3 – 6A2 + 11A – 6I = 0
Premultiplying each term by A–1, we get A2 – 6A + 11I – 6A–1 = 0
NOTES 4 0 2
1 2 1
A [ A – 6 A 11I ] 0 3 0
–1
6 6
2 0 4
Premultiplying each term of Equation (4) by A, we get,
41 0 –40
A 6 A – 11A 6 A 0 16 0
4 3 2
–40 0 41
2.2.1 Cayley – Hamilton Theorem and Its Use in
Finding Inverse of a Matrix
Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that every square matrix satisfies its characteristic
equation.
Proof: Let A be an n n matrix with characteristic equation
A λI a0 λ n a1λ n 1 a2 λ n 2 an 1 λ an 0 …(5)
Here, we have to prove that A satisfies Equation (5), which means
a0 A n a1A n 1 a2 A n 2 an 1A an I O …(6)
As the element of A λI are atmost of the first degree in , thus the
elements of adj. A λI are atmost of degree (n – 1) in and hence adj. A λI
can be written as a matric polynomial of degree (n – 1) in , i.e.,
adj. A λI B0 λ n 1 B1λ n 2 B2 λ n 3 Bn 2 λ Bn 1 …(7)
where B0 , B1 , B2 , B3 , , Bn 2 , Bn 1 are n n matrices.
We know that
A λI adj. A λI A λI I …(8)
Substituting the values from Equations (5) and (7) in Equation (8), we get
A λI B0 λ n 1
B1λ n 2
B2 λ n 3
Bn 2 λ Bn 1
a0 λ n a1λ n 1
a2 λ n 2
an 1 λ an I ...(9)
Comparing the coefficients of like powers of on both the sides of Equation
(9), we get:
B0 a0 I; AB0 B1 a1I; AB1 B2 a2 I;
......................... .........................
ABn 2 Bn 1 an 1I; ABn 1 an I
Self - Learning
76 Material
Solving Matrix Equations
Pre-multiplying the above equations by A n , A n 1 , A n 2 , , A 2 , A , I
respectively and adding we get:
a0 A n a1A n 1 a2 A n 2 an 1A an I O
NOTES
This equation is same as Equation (6) and hence establishes the theorem.
Inverse of a Matrix using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
According to Cayley-Hamilton Theorem, the square matrix A satisfies its
characteristic equation
a0 A n a1A n 1 a2 A n 2 an 1A an I O
Pre-multiplying both sides by A– 1, we get
a0 A n 1 a1A n 2 a2 A n 3 an 1I an A 1 O
1
n 0
A 1 a A n 1 a1A n 2 a2 A n 3 an 1I
a
1 0 2
Example 2.2: Prove that A 0 2 1 satisfies its characteristic equation. Also
2 0 3
find its inverse.
Solution: The characteristic equation of given matrix A is
1 λ 0 2
A λI 0 2λ 1 =0
2 0 3 λ
λ3 6λ2 7λ 2 0
3 6 2 7 2 0
By Cayley-Hamilton theorem,
A 3 6A 2 7A 2I 0
1 0 2 1 0 2 5 0 8
Now, A A.A 0 2 1 0 2 1 2 4 5
2
2 0 3 2 0 3 8 0 13
5 0 8 1 0 2 21 0 34
and A A .A 2 4 5 0 2 1 12 8 23
3 2
8 0 13 2 0 3 34 0 55
21 0 34 5 0 8 1 0 2 1 0 0
A 6A 7A 2I 12 8 23 6 2 4 5 7 0 2 1 2 0 1 0 .
3 2
34 0 55 8 0 13 2 0 3 0 0 1
Self - Learning
Material 77
Solving Matrix Equations
21 0 34 30 0 48 7 0 14 2 0 0
12 8 23 12 24 30 0 14 7 0 2 0
34 0 55 48 0 78 14 0 21 0 0 2
NOTES
21 30 7 2 0 34 48 14 0
12 12 0 0 8 24 14 2 23 30 7 0
34 48 14 0 0 55 78 21 2
0 0 0
0 0 0 O
0 0 0
Thus, A 3 6A 2 7A 2I O …(10)
and hence, A satisfies its characteristic equation.
To find the inverse, multiplying Equation (10) by A 1 , we get
A 2 6A 7I 2A 1 O
1
A 1 A 2 6A 7I
2
5 0 8 1 0 2 1 0 0
1
1
A 2 4 5 6 0 2 1 7 0 1 0
2
8 0 13 2 0 3 0 0 1
5 6 7 0 8 12 0
1
2 0 0 4 12 7 5 6 0
2
8 12 0 0 13 18 7
6 0 4
1
2 1 1
2
4 0 2
Check Your Progress
1. Write the characterisitc equation of a square matrix A for |A – I| = 0
denoting polynomials.
3 1
2. If A , use Cayley-Hamilton theorem to express
–1 2
2A 5 – 3A 4 + A 2 – 4I .
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78 Material
Solving Matrix Equations
2.3 APPLICATION OF MATRIX TO SOLVE A
SYSTEM OF LINEAR (HOMOGENEOUS
AND NON-HOMOGENEOUS) EQUATIONS NOTES
In general, the equation AX = B representing a system of equations is termed as
homogeneous equation if B is the n 1 (column) vector of zeroes, otherwise, the
equation is termed as nonhomogeneous equation. The n n nonhomogeneous
system of linear equations has a unique non-trivial solution if and only if its
determinant is non-zero. If this determinant is zero, then the system has either no
nontrivial solutions or an infinite number of solutions.
System of Non-Homogeneous Linear Equations
Consider m linear equations with n unknowns
a11 x1 a12 x2 a1n xn b1
a21 x1 a22 x2 a2 n xn b2
............................................
............................................
am1 x1 am 2 x2 amn xn bm
The above system of equations can be written in matrix notation as AX = B
or
a11 a12 a1n b1
a x1
21 a22 a2 n b2
x
2
xn
am1 am 2 amn bm
where A is called the coefficient matrix whose elements are coefficients of unknowns
x1, x2, … , xn. If the matrix B is not a zero matrix, i.e., b1, b2, …., bm are not all
zeros, we say that the system AX = B, and therefore the given system is a system
of linear non-homogeneous equations. Here, the matrix A and B together form a
matrix [A : B] termed as Augmented Matrix which is denoted as
a11 a12 a1n : b1
a a22 a2 n : b2
21
A:B :
:
am1 am 2 amn : bm
Theorem 2.1: The system of linear equations AX = B is consistent if the coefficient
matrix A and the augmented matrix [A : B] have the same rank, i.e.,
A) = [A : B].
Self - Learning
Material 79
Solving Matrix Equations Proof: Let the rank of matrix A be r, i.e., (A) = r. Then, A will contain a r–
rowed sub-matrix S whose determinant is non-zero. S will also be a sub-matrix
of [A : B].
NOTES Let x1 , x2 , x3 , , xn be the solution of the system of equations. Then,
a11 x1 a12 x2 a1n xn b1
a21 x1 a22 x2 a2 n xn b2
...............................................
...............................................
am1 x1 am 2 x2 amn xn bm
a
11
a12 a1n : a x a x a x a x
11 1 12 2 13 3 1n n
a21
a22 a2 n : a x
21 1 a x a x
22 2
23 3 a x
2n n
:
[A : B] = :
am1 am 2 amn :
am1 x1 am 2 x2 am3 x3 amn xn
Consider a square sub-matrix of [A : B] of order (r + 1). Then there are only two
possibilities:
Case I: It is a sub-matrix of A. Here, the determinant becomes zero as (A) = r.
Case II: Its determinant can be written as the sum of determinant with two identical
columns and a determinant of sub-matrix of A.
Here, the determinant is zero as two columns are same.
Thus, no sub-matrix of order (r + 1) whose determinant is not zero exists.
Hence [A : B] = r.
Theorem 2.2: If A is a non-singular square matrix of order n and X, B are matrices
of order (n 1) then the system AX = B possesses a unique solution.
Proof: Consider a non-singular matrix A of order n and the system of equations
as AX = B.
(A) = [A : B]
AX = B is consistent.
Now, AX = B
Pre-multiplying both sides by A– 1, we get
A– 1AX = A– 1B (A– 1A) X = A– 1B
IX = A– 1B A -1A = I
X = A – 1B
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80 Material
Suppose the two solutions of AX = B are X1 and X2. Solving Matrix Equations
AX1 = B …(11)
And AX2 = B …(12)
From Equations (11) and (12), AX1 = AX2 NOTES
Pre-multiplying both sides by A– 1, we get
A– 1 AX1 = A– 1 AX2
(A– 1A) X1 = (A– 1A) X2 IX1 = IX2 A -1A = I
X1 = X2
Thus, AX = B possesses a unique solution.
Working Rule for Determining Solutions of ‘m’ Non-Homogeneous
Equations in ‘n’ Variables
If AX = B is the matrix form of the system of m non-homogeneous equations in n
variables, then firstly, we find the ranks of the coefficient matrix A and the augmented
matrix [A : B]. Now,
1. The equations are inconsistent, i.e., there is no solution if (A)
[A : B].
2. The equations are consistent and there is a unique solution if (A) = [A :
B] = n.
3. The equations are consistent and there are infinite number of solutions if
(A) = [A : B] < n.
In case, A) = r. Then by giving arbitrary values to n – r of the unknowns,
we can obtain values of the r unknowns.
Example 2.3: For what value of does the system of equations
x 2 y z 1
3x y 2 z 1
y z 1
has (a) No solution (b) Unique solution.
Solution: The above system of equations can be written in matrix notation as
AX = B, where
1 2 1 x 1
A 3 1 2 , X y , B 1
0 1 z 1
1 2 1 : 1
Here, we have A:B 3 1 2 : 1
0 1 : 1
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Material 81
Solving Matrix Equations
1 2 1 : 1
Applying R1 (–1)R1, A:B 3 1 2 : 1
0 1 : 1
NOTES
1 2 1 : 1
Applying R2 R2 + (–3)R1, A:B 0 5 5 : 4
0 1 : 1
1 2 1 : 1
1 4
Applying R2 R2, A:B 0 1 1 :
5 5
0 1 : 1
1 2 1 : 1
4
Applying R3 R3 – R2, A:B 0 1
1 : … (13)
5
0 0 1 : 1
5
(a) Case I: Let = 1, then Equation (13) becomes
1 2 1 : 1
4
A:B 0 1 1 : 5
0 0 0 : 1
5
In this case [A] = 2 and [A : B] = 3
[A] [A : B]
Hence, for = 1, the system of equations is inconsistent and has no solution.
(b) Case II: When 1
Then, (A) = [A : B] = 3 = Number of Unknowns.
Hence, the system of equations is consistent and has a unique solution.
1 1
By Equation (13), we have ( – 1)z = z = 5( 1)
5
4 4 4 5
y+z= y= – z = 5( 1)
5 5
3 4
and x – 2y – z = –1 x = –1 + 2y + z = 5( 1)
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82 Material
Solving Matrix Equations
3 4 4 5 1
Hence, x = 5( 1) , y = 5( 1) and z = 5( 1) is the unique solution
for the given system of equations.
Example 2.4: Solve the following system of equations: NOTES
2x – y + 3z = 3
x + 2y – z – 5w = 4
x + 3y – 2z – 7w = 5.
Solution: The above system of equations can be written in the matrix form as
AX =B
x
2 1 3 0 y 3
4
where, A = 1
2 1 5 , X = and B =
z
1 3 2 7 5
w
2 1 3 0 : 3
2 1 5 4
Here, we have [A : B] = 1 :
1 3 2 7 : 5
1 2 1 5 : 4
Applying R2 R1, [A : B] 2 1 3 0 : 3
1 3 2 7 : 5
Applying R2 R2 – 2R1; R3 R3 – R1,
1 2 1 5 : 4
[A : B] 0 5 5 10 : 5
0 1 1 2 : 1
1 2 1 5 : 4
1
Applying R2 R2, [A : B] 0
1 1 2 : 1
5
0 1 1 2 : 1
Applying R3 R3 – R2,
1 2 1 5 : 4
[A : B] 0 1 1 2 : 1 … (14)
0 0 0 0 : 0
The above matrix is in echelon form. As the number of non-zero rows in
[A : B] is 2.
[A : B] = 2 and (A) = 2
(A) = [A : B] = 2
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Material 83
Solving Matrix Equations Hence the given system of equations is consistent. As, (A) = 2 < 4
(number of unknowns), the solution will have 4 – 2 = 2 arbitrary constants.
By Equation (14), we have x + 2y – z – 5w = 4 and y – z – 2w = 1
NOTES By putting z = k1 and w = k2 we get
y = 1 + z + 2w = 1 + k1 + 2k2
and x = 4 – 2y + z + 5w = 4 – 2 (1 + k1 + 2k2) + k1 + 5k2
= 2 – k1 + k2
Hence, x = 2 – k1 + k2, y = 1 + k1 + 2k2, z = k1, w = k2, where k1 and
k2 are arbitrary constants.
System of Homogeneous Linear Equations
Consider m homogeneous linear equations with n unknowns
a11 x1 a12 x2 a1n xn 0
a21 x1 a22 x2 a2 n xn 0
............................................
............................................
am1 x1 am 2 x2 amn xn 0
The above system of equations can be written in matrix notation as AX = 0
a11 a12 a1n 0
a x1
21 a22 a2 n 0
x
2
or,
xn
am1 am 2 amn 0
Here A is called the coefficient matrix and [A : B] is called the augmented
matrix.
If the matrix B is a zero matrix, the system of equations AX = B and therefore
the given system is a system of linear homogeneous equations.
Working Rule for Determining Solutions of ‘m’ Homogeneous Equations
in ‘n’ Variables.
Firstly, we find the rank of the coefficient matrix A. Then,
1. There is only a trivial solution which is x1 0, x2 0, , xn 0 if A) = n.
2. A can be reduced to a matrix which has (n – r) zero rows and r non-zero
rows and if (A) < n so the system is consistent and has infinite number of
solutions.
3. There is a non-trivial solution (A) = [A : B]) < n, the equations are
consistent if m = n.
Thus, the given system of equations has non- trivial solution iff A 0 .
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84 Material
Example 2.5: Find the value of k such that the system of equations: Solving Matrix Equations
x ky 3 z 0
4 x 3 y kz 0
2x y 2z 0 NOTES
has a non-trivial solution.
Solution: The above system of equations can be written in matrix notation as AX
= O, where
1 k 3 x 0
A 4 3 k , X y ,O 0
2 1 2 z 0
The system of equations have trivial solution only if A] = n = 3
1 k 3
Let us find the rank of matrix A. Then A 4 3 k
2 1 2
2 1 2
Applying, R3 R1, A 4 3 k
1 k 3
2 1 2
1
Applying R2 R2 + (–2)R1, R3 R3 + R1, A 0 1 k 4
2
1
0 k 2
2
2 1 2
1
Applying R3 R3 – k R2, A 0 1 k 4
2
9k
0 0 k2
2
9k
For non-trivial solution, A) < 3, which is possible, only if k2 0
2
9
2k 2 9k 0 k 2k 9 0 k 0,
2
9
Thus, for k 0, the system of equations have non-trivial solution.
2
Example 2.6: Solve the system of equations:
x + y – 3z + 2w = 0
2x – y + 2z – 3w = 0
3x – 2y + z – 4w = 0
–4x + y – 3z + w = 0
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Material 85
Solving Matrix Equations Solution: The above system of equations can be written in matrix form as
AX = O
1 1 3 2 x 0
2 1 2 3 0
NOTES i.e., y =
3 2 1 4 z 0
4 1 3 1 w 0
Applying R2 R2 – 2R1; R3 R3 – 3R1; R4 R4 + 4R1,
1 1 3 2 x 0
0 3 8 7 y 0
=
0 5 10 10 z 0
0 5 15 9 w 0
1 1 3 2 x 0
0
0 5 10 10 y
Applying R2 R3, 0 3 8 7 z
= 0
0 5 15 9 w 0
1 1 3 2 x 0
0 1 2 2 y 0
1
Applying R2 R2, 0 3 8 7 z = 0
5
0 5 15 9 w 0
Applying R3 R3 + 3R2, R4 R4 – 5R2,
1 1 3 2 x 0
0 1
2 2 y 0
=
0 0 2 1 z 0
0 0 5 1 w 0
1 1 3 2
x 0
0 1 2 2 y 0
5 =
Applying R4 R4 + R3, 0 0 2 1
2 z 0
7
0 0 0 w 0
2
x + y – 3z + 2w = 0
y – 2z + 2w = 0,
2z – w = 0,
7
and w= 0
2
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 and w = 0 is the only solution of the given system.
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Solving Matrix Equations
Check Your Progress
3. Discuss the consistency of the given equations and if consistent find the
solution set. NOTES
x + 2y + 3z + 4t = 0
2x + 3y + 4z – 1 = 0
3x + 4y + t = 2
4x + z + 2t = 3
4. Find the value of so that the given system of equations fail to have a
unique solution.
3x – y + z = 1
2x + y + z = 2
x + 2y – z = –1
5. For what value of does the given system of equations have a solution
and solve them completely.
x+y+z=1
x + 2y + 4z =
x + 4y + 10z = 2
6. For what values of a and b the system of equations:
x + y + 5z = 0
x + 2y + 3az = b
x + 3y + az = 1 have
(i) No Solution (ii) Unique Solution (iii) Infinitely Many Solutions.
7. Solve the given system of equations:
x – 2y + z – w = 0
x + y – 2z + 3w = 0
4x + y – 5z + 8w = 0
5x – 7y + 2z – w = 0
8. Solve the following system of equations completely:
x–y+z=0
x + 2y – z = 0
2x + y + 3z = 0
Self - Learning
Material 87
Solving Matrix Equations
2.4 THEOREMS ON CONSISTENCY AND
INCONSISTENCY OF A SYSTEM OF
NOTES
LINEAR EQUATIONS
In this section we discuss a method to solve a system of linear equations with the
help of elementary operations.
Consider the equations:
a11x + a12y + a13z = b11
a21x + a22y + a23z = b12
a31x + a32y + a33z = b13
These equations can be also expressed as,
Fa a12 a13 I F xI F b I
GG a 11
21 a22 a23 JJ GG yJJ = GG b11
12
JJ , i.e., AX = B
Ha 31 a32 a33 K H zK Hb 13 K
where A is the matrix obtained by writing the coefficients of x, y, z in three rows
respectively, and B is the column matrix consisting of constants in RHS of given
equations.
We reduce the matrix A to Echelon form and write the equations in the form
stated earlier, and then solve. This will be made clear in the following examples. A
system of equations is called consistent if and only if there exists a common solution
to all of them, otherwise it is called inconsistent.
2.4.1 Solving Linear Equations up to Three Unknowns
Example 2.7: Solve the system of equations,
x – 3y + z = – 1
2x + y – 4z = – 1
6x – 7y + 8z = 7
1 3 1 1
Solution: Let A = 2 1 4 B= 1
6 7 8 7
and assume that there exists a matrix,
F xI
X = G yJ
GH z JK
such that given system of equations becomes,
AX = B
1 3 1 x 1
Then 2 1 4 y = 1
6 7 8 z 7
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88 Material
Applying R2 R2 – 2R1, R3 R3 – 6R1 Solving Matrix Equations
1 3 1 x 1
0 7 6 y = 1
0 11 2 z 13
NOTES
1
Applying R2 R2
7
1 3 1 1
x
6 1
0 1 y =
7 7
z
0 11 2 13
Applying R3 R3 – 11R2
1 3 1 1
x
6 1
0 1 y =
7 7
z
80 80
0 0
7 7
Thus we have reduced coefficient matrix A to Echelon form. Note that each
elementary row operation that we applied on A, was also applied on B simultaneously.
From, the last matrix equation we have,
x – 3y + z = – 1
6 1
y z =
7 7
80 80
z =
7 7
So, z = 1, y = 1, x = 1
Hence, the given system of equations has a solution, x = 1, y = 1, z = 1.
Example 2.8: Solve the system of equations,
2x – 5y + 7z = 6
x – 3y + 4z = 3
3x – 8y + 11z = 11, if consistent.
2 5 7 6
Solution: Let A = 1 3 4 ,B= 3
3 8 11 11
So, given system of equations can be written as
2 5 7 x 6
1 3 4 y = 3
3 8 11 z 11
Applying R1 R2
1 3 4 x 3
(Interchanging row 1
2 5 7 y = 6
3 8 11 z 11
with row 2)
Self - Learning
Material 89
Solving Matrix Equations Applying R2 R2 – 2R1, R3 – 3R1
F1 3 4 I F x I F 3I
GG 0 1 1J G y J = G 0J
J G J GH 2JK
NOTES
H0 1 1K H z K
Applying R3 R3 – R2
1 3 4 x F 3I
0 1 1 y = G 0J
0 0 0 z
GH 2JK
x – 3y + 4z = 3
y – z =0
0=2
Since 0 = 2 is false, the given system of equations has no solution. So the given
system of equations is inconsistent.
Example 2.9: Solve the system of equations,
x +y + z=7
x + 2y + 3z = 16
x + 3y + 4z = 22
Solution: Given system of equations in matrix form,
F1 1 1 I F xI 7
GG 1 2 3J G y J =
JG J 16
H1 3 4K H z K 22
Applying R2 R2 – R1, R3 R3 – R1
F1 1 1 I F xI 7
GG 0 1 2 JJ GG yJJ = 9
H0 2 3 K H zK 15
Applying R3 R3 – 2R1
1 1 1 x 7
0 1 2 y = 9
0 0 1 z 3
x + y + z =7
y + 2z = 9
z =3
So, z = 3, y = 3, x = 1
The given system of equations has a solution, 1, 3, 3
Example 2.10: Solve the system of equations,
x + y + z =2
x + 2y + 3z = 5
x + 3y + 6z = 11
x + 4y + 10z = 21
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90 Material
Solution: We have, Solving Matrix Equations
1 1 1 2
x
1 2 3 5
y =
1 3 6 11 NOTES
z
1 4 10 21
Applying R2 R2 – R1, R3 R3 – R1, R4 R4 – R1
F1 1 1 I F xI F 2 I
GG 0 1 2 JJ G J GG 3 JJ
Then, y =
GG 0 2 5J G J G 9 J
H0 3 9K
J z K GH 19JK
H
Applying R3 R3 – 2R2, R4 R4 – 3R2
F1 1 1 I F xI 2
GG 0 1 2 JJ G J 3
GG 0 0 1 JJ GH yzJK = 3
H0 0 3 K 10
Applying R4 R4 – 3R3
F1 1 1 I F x I F 2I
GG 0 1 2 JJ G J GG 3JJ
GG 0 0 1 JJ GH yzJK = GG 3JJ
H0 0 0 K H 1K
x + y + z = 2, y + 2z = 3, z = 3, 0 = 1
This is absurd. So the given system is inconsistent.
Example 2.11: Solve the system of equations,
x – 3y – 8z = – 10
3x + y – 4z = 0
2x + 5y + 6z = 13
Solution: We have,
1 3 8 x 10
3 1 4 y = 0
2 5 6 z 13
Applying R2 R2 – 3R1, R3 R3 – 2R1
1 3 8 x 10
0 10 20 y = 30
0 11 22 z 33
1
Applying R2 R2
10
1 3 8 x 10
0 1 2 y = 3
0 11 22 z 33
Self - Learning
Material 91
Solving Matrix Equations Applying R3 R3 – 11R2
1 3 8 x 10
0 1 2 y = 3
0 0 0 z 0
NOTES
x – 3y – 8z = – 10
y + 2z = 3
Let z = k y = 3 – 2k
and x = 9 – 6k + 8k – 10 = 2k – 1
So, the given system has infinite number of solutions of the form x = 2k – 1,
y = 3 – 2k, z = k where k is any number.
Example 2.12: Solve the system of equations,
x + 2y + 3z + 4w = 0
8x + 5y + z + 4w = 0
5x + 6y + 8z + w = 0
8x + 3y + 7z + 2w = 0
Solution: We have
F1 2 3 4 I F x I F 0I
GG 8 5 1 4 JJ GG y JJ GG 0JJ
GG 5 6 8 1 JJ GG z JJ = GG 0JJ
H8 3 7 2 K H wK H 0K
Applying R2 R2 – 8R1, R3 R3 – 5R1, R4 R4 – 8R1
1 2 3 4 x F 0I
0 11 23 28 y G 0J
=G J
0 4 7 19 z GG 0JJ
0 13 17 30 w H 0K
1
Applying R2 – R2
11
1 2 3 4
x F 0I
23 28 G 0J
=G J
0 1 y
11 11
0 4 7 19
z GG 0JJ
0 13 17 30
w H 0K
Applying R3 R3 + 4R2, R4 R4 + 13R2
1 2 3 4
0 1
23 28 x F 0I
11 11 G 0J
=G J
y
15 97
0 0
11 11
z GG 0JJ
112 34
w H 0K
0 0
11 11
11
Applying R3 R3
15
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92 Material
1 2 3 4 Solving Matrix Equations
0 1
23 28 x F 0I
11 11 y G 0J
97 =G J
0 0 1
15
z GG 0JJ NOTES
112 34
w H 0K
0 0
11 11
112
Applying R4 = R3
11
1 2 3 4
0 1
23 28 x F 0I
11 11 G 0J
=G J
y
97
0 0 1 z GG 0JJ
112
15
10864
w H 0K
0 0
11 65
x + 2y + 3z + 4w = 0
23 28
y z w =0
11 11
97
z w =0
15
w =0
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, w = 0
Thus system has only one solution, namely x = y = z = w = 0
Check Your Progress
9. What does consistency and inconsistency of a system of linear equation
mean?
2.5 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’
1. The characteristic equation of a square matrix A is |A – I| = 0. This can be
written as,
p0n + p1n–1 + p2n–2+...+ pn= 0
2. 138A – 403I
9 1 1 1
3. The given system of equations is consistent and , , , is the
11 11 11 11
solution set.
7
4. = .
2
5. = 1; x = 1 + 2k, y = –3k, z = k, k is an arbitrary constant.
= 2; x = 2k1, y = 1 – 3k1, z = k1, k1 is an arbitrary constant.
Self - Learning
Material 93
Solving Matrix Equations
1
6. (i) a = 1, b
2
(ii) a 1, b R
NOTES 1
(iii) a = 1, b =
2
5 4
7. x = k1 – k2, y = k1 – k2, z = k1 and w = k2 where k1 and k2 are
3 3
arbitrary constants.
8. x = y = z = 0.
9. A system of equations is called consistent if and only if there exists a common
solution to all of them, otherwise it is called inconsistent.
2.6 SUMMARY
In linear algebra, the Cayley–Hamilton theorem is named after the
mathematicians Arthur Cayley and William Rowan Hamilton.
It states that every square matrix over a commutative ring, such as the real
or complex field, satisfies its own characteristic equation.
The Cayley–Hamilton theorem is used to express the equations in matrix
form and to verify or identify the nature of characteristic roots of a diagonal.
Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
The characteristic equation of a square matrix A is |A – I| = 0. This can be
written as,
p0n + p1n–1 + p2n–2+...+ pn= 0
Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that every square matrix satisfies its
characteristic equation.
In general, the equation AX = B representing a system of equations is termed
as homogeneous equation if B is the n 1 (column) vector of zeroes,
otherwise, the equation is termed as nonhomogeneous equation.
The n n nonhomogeneous system of linear equations has a unique non-
trivial solution if and only if its determinant is non-zero. If this determinant is
zero, then the system has either no nontrivial solutions or an infinite number
of solutions.
The system of linear equations AX = B is consistent if the coefficient matrix
A and the augmented matrix [A : B] have the same rank, i.e.,
A) = [A : B].
If A is a non-singular square matrix of order n and X, B are matrices of
order (n 1) then the system AX = B possesses a unique solution.
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94 Material
The equations are inconsistent, i.e., there is no solution if (A) Solving Matrix Equations
[A : B].
The equations are consistent and there is a unique solution if (A) = [A :
B] = n.
NOTES
The equations are consistent and there are infinite number of solutions if
(A) = [A : B] < n.
A system of equations is called consistent if and only if there exists a common
solution to all of them, otherwise it is called inconsistent.
2.7 KEY TERMS
Cayley–Hamilton theorem: In linear algebra, the Cayley–Hamilton
theorem is named after the mathematicians Arthur Cayley and William Rowan
Hamilton, it states that every square matrix over a commutative ring, such
as the real or complex field, satisfies its own characteristic equation, and is
used to express the equations in matrix form and to verify or identify the
nature of characteristic roots of a diagonal.
Homogeneous equation: The equation AX = B representing a system of
equations is termed as homogeneous equation if B is the n 1 (column)
vector of zeroes, otherwise, the equation is termed as nonhomogeneous
equation.
Consistent equation: A system of equations is called consistent if and
only if there exists a common solution to all of them, otherwise it is called
inconsistent.
System of homogeneous and non-homogeneous linear equations: The
system of linear equations AX = B is said to be homogeneous linear equations
if B is a zero matrix and if B is not a zero matrix then the system is said to be
a non-homogeneous linear equations.
2.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Shsort-Answer Questions
1. Why is Cayley-Hamilton theorem used?
2. Prove that every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
3. What is the characteristic nature of roots of diagonal?
4. Define the system of non-homogeneous linear equations giving examples.
5. When the equations are inconsistent?
6. Differentiate between consistent and inconsistent equations.
Self - Learning
Material 95
Solving Matrix Equations Long-Answer Questions
1. Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem, find the inverse of the matrix
2 1 1
NOTES 1 2 1
.
1 1 2
3 2 1
2. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix 1 0 1 .
4 1 2
8 12 5
3. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix A = 15 25 11 and
24 42 19
find A–1.
4. Check whether the following system of equations is consistent or not. Solve
if it is consistent:
(i) x + y + z = 6 (ii) x + 2y – z = 6 (iii) x – y + 2z = 4
x + 2y + 3z = 14 3x – y – 2z = 3 3x + y + 4z = 6
x + 4y + 7z = 30 4x + 3y + z = 9 x+y+z=1
5. Solve the following system of equations:
x + y + 2z + w = 5
2x + 3y – z – 2w = 2
4x + 5y + 3z = 7
6. Show that the following equations are consistent and solve them:
x 2 y 5z 9
3x y 2 z 5
2 x 3 y z 3.
4x 5 y z 3
7. For what values of does the system of equations:
x y 4z 6
x 2 y 2z 6
x y z 6
have (i) unique solution (ii) infinite number of solutions.
8. Solve the given system of equations considering specially the case when
x 2 y 2 z 1
4 x 2 y z 2
6x 6 y z 3
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96 Material
9. For what value of a and b does the system of equations: Solving Matrix Equations
x 2 y 3 z 1
x y z 4
2 x 2 y az b NOTES
have (i) no solution (ii) unique solution (iii) an infinite number of solutions.
10. Find the value of k such that the following system of equations has a non-
trivial solution:
3k 8 x 3 y 3z 0
3x 3k 8 y 3z 0
3x 3 y 3k 8 z 0
11. Show that the only real value of for which the equations
x + 2y + 3z = x
3x + y + 2z = y
2x + 3y + z = z have a non-zero solution is 6.
2.9 FURTHER READING
Loney, S. L. 1983. Plane Trigonometry (Analytical Trigonometry), Part II.
New Delhi: S. Chand And Company Limited.
Datta, K. B. 2004. Matrix and Linear Algebra. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd.
Prasad, Chandrika. 2017. Text Book on Algebra and Theory of Equations,
11th Edition. Allahabad: Pothishala Private Ltd.
Liu, C. L. 1986. Elements of Discrete Mathematics, 2nd Edition. Noida (UP):
McGraw-Hill Education (International Edition, Computer Science Series).
Khanna, V. K. and S. K. Bhambri. 2008. A Course in Abstract Algebra, 3rd
Edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Grewal, B. S. 1998. Higher Engineering Mathematics, 34th Edition. New Delhi:
Khanna Publishers.
Narayan, Shanti. 1996. Differential Calculus, 14th Edition. New Delhi: S. Chand
And Company Limited.
Kreyszig, Erwin. 2006. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 7th Edition.
Mumbai: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Bali, N. P. 2007. A Textbook of Engineering Mathematics. New Delhi: Laxmi
Publications (P) Ltd.
Self - Learning
Material 97
Equations and Polynomial
UNIT 3 EQUATIONS AND POLYNOMIAL
Structure NOTES
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Equation and Polynomial - Basics
3.3 Relation Between the Roots and Coefficients of a General Polynomial
Equation in One Variable
3.4 Transformation of Equations and Reciprocal Equations
3.5 Descartes’ Rule of Signs
3.6 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
3.7 Summary
3.8 Key Terms
3.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.10 Further Reading
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Polynomials in one variable are algebraic expressions that consist of terms in the
form a × n where n is a non-negative, i.e., positive or zero integer and a is a real
number termed as the coefficient of the term. The degree of a polynomial in one
variable is the largest exponent in the polynomial. Transformation of an equation
into another is a very useful method as we can connect the roots of the new
equation with that of the given equation or convert the co-efficient of the new
equation in particular forms. Also the transformed equation may be easier to solve
and having solved the transformed equation we can find out the roots of the given
equation with the help of the relation between the roots of the given equation and
the transformed equation, such as finding the solution of cubic and biquadratic
equations.
Descartes’ rule of signs was first described by Rene Descartes. It is a method
for determining the number of positive or negative real roots of a polynomial. This
rule gives us an upper bound number of positive or negative roots of a polynomial.
It is not a deterministic rule, i.e., it does not tell the exact number of positive or
negative roots. Basically, the Descartes’ rule of sign is used to determine the number
of real zeroes of a polynomial function. It tells us that the number of positive real
zeroes in a polynomial function f(x) is the same or less than by an even numbers as
the number of changes in the sign of the coefficients.
In this unit, you will study about the relation between the roots and coefficients
of a general polynomial equation in one variable, transformation of equations,
reciprocal equations, and the Descartes’ rule of signs.
3.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Explain about the roots and coefficients of a general polynomial equation in
one variable
Self - Learning
Material 99
Equations and Polynomial Find the relation between the roots and coefficients of a general polynomial
equation in one variable
Define about the transformation of equations
Transform an equation into another having roots with sign changed, roots
NOTES
multiplied by a number, roots as the reciprocal of the roots of the given
equation
Understand what reciprocal equations are
Discuss the Descartes’ rule of signs
Solve biquadratic equations by Descartes’ method
3.2 EQUATION AND POLYNOMIAL - BASICS
A polynomial in x is an expression of the type a0xn + a1xn–1 + … + an where a0,
a1, … , an are constants known as the co-efficients and x is a variable. The single
monomials a0xn, a1xn–1, … , an are known as the terms of the polynomial. The
polynomial is of degree n and a0xn is the leading term when a0 0.
Thus, we denote a polynomial of degree n in x by f(x) a0xn + a1xn–1 + …
+ an
If we substitute a number a for x in a polynomial f(x) the result is a number
called the value of the polynomial for x = a and it is denoted by f(a).
Note: (i) A real polynomial is a polynomial in which all the co-efficients of
f(x) are real.
(ii) A zero polynomial is a polynomial in which all the co-efficients of f(x)
are zero.
Division Algorithm
If f(x) and g(x) are two non-zero polynomials, then there exists unique polynomials
q(x) and r(x) such that f(x) = g(x).q(x) + r(x) where r(x) is either a zero polynomial
or degree of r(x) < degree of g(x). q(x) is called the quotient polynomial and r(x)
is the remainder when f(x) is divided by g(x).
Note: (i) Degree of q(x) = degree of f(x) – degree of g(x).
(ii) When the dividing polynomial, i.e., g(x) is of first degree then the
remainder polynomial, i.e., r(x) is either zero or a constant polynomial.
Remainder Theorem
Theorem 3.1: If f(x) is a polynomial, then f(h) is the remainder when f(x) is
divided by x – h.
Proof: Let q(x) be the quotient and R be the remainder. When we divide
f(x) by x – h,
f(x) = (x – h) q(x) + R
By putting x = h, we get
Self - Learning f(h) = (h – h) q(h) + R R = f(h) = Remainder
100 Material
Factor Theorem Equations and Polynomial
Theorem 3.2: If α is a root of the equation f(x) = 0, then the polynomial f(x) is
exactly divisible by (x– α ).
Proof: As α is a root of the equation f(x) = 0 f( α ) = 0 … (1) NOTES
Let q(x) be the quotient and R be the remainder when f(x) is divided by
(x – α ).
Then, f(x) = (x– α ) q(x) + R
By putting x = α , we get,
f( α ) = 0. q( α ) + R R = 0 [using Equation (1)]
As we are getting remainder = 0, hence (x – α ) divides f(x) exactly..
Converse of this theorem is also true.
General Equation
The relation f(x) = 0, i.e., any polynomial when equated to zero gives an equation
known as the general equation.
Degree of an Equation
When an equation is clear from the fractions or fractional indices then the highest
power of the variable x occurring in the equation is known as the degree of the
given equation. Linear, quadratic, cubic and biquadratic equations are of 1st degree,
2nd degree, 3rd degree and 4th degree, respectively.
Complete and Incomplete Equations
If an nth degree equation contains all the powers of the variable from 0 to n, then
it is said to be complete. For example, a0x3 + a1x2 – a2x + a3 = 0 is a complete
equation of 3rd degree.
If one or more than one powers of the variable are missing from an nth
degree equation, then it is said to be incomplete. For example,
a0x4 + a2x2 – a4 = 0 is an incomplete equation.
[ The terms a1x3, a3x are missing].
Roots of an Equation
The value of x which vanishes the f(x) is known as the root of the equation. For
example, if f( α ) = 0, then α is said to be a root of the equation f(x) = 0.
Check Your Progress
1. Define the term co-efficient.
2. What do you mean by value of the polynomial?
3. What is the degree of an equation?
4. What are the complete and incomplete equations
Self - Learning
Material 101
Equations and Polynomial
3.3 RELATION BETWEEN THE ROOTS AND
COEFFICIENTS OF A GENERAL
NOTES
POLYNOMIAL EQUATION IN ONE
VARIABLE
Let us consider an equation f(x) a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + … + an–1x + an = 0
and suppose α1 , α 2 , α3 ,… , α n are the n roots of this equation.
So, we have,
a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + … + an–1x + an a0 (x – α1 ) (x – α 2 ) (x – α3 ) …
(x – α n )
a0 [xn – α1 x n 1 + α1α 2 x n 2 – α1α 2 α 3 x n 3 + … + (–1)n
α1 α 2 α3 … α n ] … (2)
Where α1 denotes the sum of all the roots.
α1α 2 denotes the sum of the products of the roots taken two at a time.
α1α 2 α3 denotes the sum of the products of the roots taken three at a time.
Comparing the coefficients of the like powers of x on both the sides of
Equation (2), we get
a1 a1
–a0 α = a1 α1 = – a = (–1) a ;
1 0 0
a2 a2
a0 α α = a2 α1α 2 = a = (–1) a0 ;
2
1 2 0
a3 a3
–a0 α α α = a3 α1α 2 α3 = – a = (–1)3 a0 ;
1 2 3 0
……………………………………
an an
a0(–1)n α1 α 2 α3 … α n = an α1 α 2 α3 … α n = 1n a = (–1)n a0
o
which is the required relation between the roots and the co-efficients.
Sum of the products of the roots taken r at a time,
1
r
coeff.of Tr +1
i.e., α1 α 2 ... α r =
coeff.of T1
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102 Material
Particular Cases: Equations and Polynomial
(i) For the cubic equation a0x3 + a1x2 + a2x + a3 = 0
a1
α1 = α1 α 2 α 3 = – a NOTES
0
a2
α1α 2 = α1α 2 α 2 α 3 α 3α1 = a
0
a3
α1α 2 α 3 = – a
0
(ii) For the biquadratic equation a0x4 + a1x3 + a2x2 + a3x + a4 = 0
a1
α1 = α1 α 2 α 3 + α 4 = – a
0
a2
α1α 2 = 1 2 1 3 1 4 2 3 2 4 3 4 = a
0
a3
α1α 2 α 3 α1α 2 α 3 α1α 2 α 4 α1α3 α 4 α 2 α 3α 4 = – a
0
a4
α1α 2 α3α 4 = a
0
Solution of Polynomial Equations having Condition on the Roots
A given polynomial equation can be solved with the help of the relations α1 ,
α1α 2 , α1α 2 α 3 ,… where α i ’s represents the roots of the given equation.
For the cubic equation:
(i) If the three roots are given in A.P., then they can be taken as α β ,
and α β .
α
(ii) If the three roots are given in G.P., then they can be taken as β , α and
αβ .
For the biquadratic equation:
(i) If four roots are given in A.P., then they can be taken as α 3β ,
α β , α β and α 3β .
α α
(ii) If four roots are given in G.P., then they can be taken as β3 , β , αβ and
αβ 3 .
Self - Learning
Material 103
Equations and Polynomial Example 3.1: Solve the equation 4x4 + 8x3 + 13x2 + 2x + 3 = 0, given that the
sum of two of its roots is zero.
Solution: Let α,β,γ and δ be the roots of the given equation, such that α β = 0.
NOTES … (3)
a 8
Now, α = Sum of all the four roots = α β γ δ = a 4 2
1
γ δ = – 2 [using Equation (3)]
Let, αβ k and γδ k
The equation with roots α,β is x2 – ( α β ) x + αβ = 0 x 2 k 0
and the equation with the roots γ,δ is x 2 – ( γ δ ) x + γδ = 0
x2 2 x k 0
We have, 4x4 + 8x3 + 13x2 + 2x + 3 = 4 x 2 k x 2 2 x k
= 4x4 + 8x3 + 4 (k + k ) x2 + 8kx + 4k k
By comparing the coefficients of like powers of x, we get
4(k + k ) = 13 … (4)
1
8k = 2 k … (5)
4
3
and 4k k = 3 k 3 [Using Equation (5)]
4k
Thus the two quadratics of given equation are:
x2 + k = 0 x2 + 2x + k = 0
1
x2 + = 0 x2 2x 3 0
4
1 2 4 12
x2 x
4 2
1 2 2 2 i
x i x = –1 i 2
2 2
1
Hence, the roots of the given equation are i, 1 2 i .
2
Example 3.2: Solve the equation x4 + 2x3 – 21x2 – 22x + 40 = 0 given that its
roots are in A.P.
Solution: Since, the roots are in A.P.
Sum of one pair, i.e., first and fourth roots = Sum of second pair i.e.,
second and third roots
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104 Material
As, sum of all the roots = – 2 Sum of each pair of roots = – 1 Equations and Polynomial
Let p and q be the product of first pair of roots and second pair of roots,
respectively.
Then, the equation of the first pair of roots is x2 + x + p = 0 NOTES
The equation of the second pair of roots is x + x + q = 0
2
x4 + 2x3 – 21x2 – 22x + 40 = (x2 + x + p) (x2 + x + q)
= x4 + 2x3 + (p + q + 1) x2 + (p + q) x + pq … (6)
By comparing the coefficients of x and the constant term on both the sides
of Equation (6), we get
p + q = –22
and pq = 40
p and q are the roots of t2 – (p + q) t + pq = 0 t2 + 22t + 40 = 0
(t + 2) (t + 20) = 0 t = –2, –20
Let us take p = –2 and q = –20
The roots of the given equation are the roots of
x2 + x – 2 = 0 x 2 x 20 0
(x – 1) (x + 2) = 0 ( x 4)( x 5) 0
x = 1, –2 x = 4, –5
Required roots are –5, –2, 1 and 4.
Example 3.3: Solve the equation 3x4 – 40x3 + 130x2 – 120x + 27 = 0 whose
roots are in G.P.
Solution: Since, the roots are in G.P.
Product of two roots, i.e., first and fourth = Product of the other two
roots, i.e., second and third
Let α , β , γ and δ be the roots of the given equation such that αδ = βγ = k
(say)
Let α + δ = – p and β + γ = – q
Let the equations corresponding to two pairs of roots be
x2 + px + k = 0 and x2 + qx + k = 0
3x4 – 40x3 + 130x2 – 120x + 27 3 (x2 + px + k) (x2 + qx + k)
3x4 + 3 (p + q) x3 + 3 (pq + 2k) x2 + 3k (p + q) x + 3k2 … (7)
By equating the co-efficients in Equation (7), we get
40
3 (p + q) = –40 p + q = – … (8)
3
130
3 (pq + 2k) = 130 pq = – 2k … (9)
3
Self - Learning
Material 105
Equations and Polynomial
40
3k (p + q) = –120 3k = –120 k = 3 [using Equation (8)]
3
… (10)
NOTES
3k = 27
2
k =9 k=3
2
130 112
Putting k = 3 in Equation (9), pq = –6=
3 3
40 112
p and q are the roots of the equation t2 + t+ =0
3 3
3t2 + 40t + 112 = 0
40 1600 1344 40 16 28
t= = = –4,
6 6 3
28
Let us take p = –4 and q =
3
The roots of the given equation are the roots of
x2 – 4x + 3 = 0 (x – 1) (x – 3) = 0
x = 1, 3
28
And x2 x + 3 = 0 3x2 – 28x + 9 = 0
3
28 784 108 28 26
x= =
6 6
1
x = 9,
3
1
Required roots are , 1, 3 and 9.
3
To Find the Condition that the Roots of Given Equation Satisfy a
Given Relation
Here, we understand the concept of finding the condition that the roots of given
equation satisfy a given relation with the help of some examples.
Example 3.4: Find the condition that sum of the two roots of the equation
x4 – px3 + qx2 – rx + s = 0 is equal to the sum of the other two roots.
Solution: Let α,β, γ and δ be the roots of the given equation such that α β =
γ δ
a1
Now, in the given equation sum of the roots, i.e., α β + γ δ = – a = p
0
Self - Learning
106 Material
Equations and Polynomial
p
α β= γ δ=
2
Let αβ = k and γδ = k
NOTES
The equation having roots α,β and γ,δ are
p p
x2 – x + k = 0 and x2 – x + k = 0
2 2
2 p 2 p
x4 – px3 + qx2 – rx + s x 2 x k x 2 x k … (11)
By comparing the coefficients of like powers of x on both the sides of
Equation (11), we get
p2 p2
k k = q k k = q – … (12)
4 4
p 2r
k k = – r k k = p … (13)
2
and k k = s
From Equation (12) and (13), we get
p2 2r
q– = p 4pq – p3 = 8r
4
p3 – 4pq + 8r = 0 is the required condition.
Example 3.5: If the product of the two roots of the equation x4 + px3 + qx2 + rx
+ s = 0, is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the product of the other two,
then show that p2s + r2 = 4qs.
Solution: Let α,β, γ and δ be the roots of the given equation.
Then, αβγδ = s … (14)
Given, αβ = – γδ
From Equation (14), we get αβ = – s
2
Let αβ = – γδ = s
Let α β = – l and γ δ = – m
2
x4 + px3 + qx2 + rx + s x lx s x 2
mx
s … (15)
By comparing the coefficients of like powers of x on both the sides of
Equation (15), we get,
l + m = p, lm = q and s m l = r
Self - Learning
Material 107
Equations and Polynomial As, (l + m)2 = (m – l)2 + 4lm
r2
p2 = + 4q
s
NOTES p2s + r2 = 4qs is the required condition.
Common Roots of Two Equations
Let fn(x) = 0 and fm(x) = 0 be the two equations of degree n and m, respectively.
Let the common roots of these equations be α1 ,α 2 , ,α r (r < n, r < m).
Then both of these equations are divisible by (x) = (x – α1 ) (x – α 2 ) …
(x – α r ) which is the H.C.F of fn(x) and fm(x). Hence, the common roots of the
two equations are given by (x) = 0 where (x) is the H.C.F. of two equations.
Equal or Multiple Roots of an Equation
Consider an equation f(x) = 0 having α as a root repeated r times, then α will be
a root of f x 0 repeated (r – 1) times, where f x is the differential
coefficient of f(x) with respect to x.
We have (x – α )r is a factor of f(x).
[ is a root of f(x) repeated r times].
Let f(x) = (x – α )r (x) … (16)
Where ( α ) 0, i.e., (x – α ) is not a factor of (x)
Differentiating Equation (16) with respect to x, we get
f x = (x – α )r x + x r (x – α )r – 1
= (x – α )r – 1 [(x – α ) x + r x ]
(x – α )r – 1 is a factor of f x α is a root of f x 0 repeated
r – 1 times.
Rules to find the Multiple Roots of an Equation
Consider an equation f(x) = 0.
(i) Find f x .
(ii) Find the H.C.F. of f(x) and f x and assume it (x).
(iii) Solve (x) by putting (x) = 0.
(iv) If a root α of the equation (x) = 0 is repeated r times, then this root will
be repeated r + 1 times in f(x) = 0.
Corollary:
1. If α is a root of the equation f(x) = 0 repeated two times, then we have
f( α ) = 0 and f α = 0. The required condition can be obtained by
Self - Learning eliminating α from the two equations.
108 Material
2. If α is a root of the equation f(x) = 0 repeated three times, then we have Equations and Polynomial
f( α ) = 0, f α = 0 and f α = 0. The required condition can be obtained
by eliminating α from these three equations.
Example 3.6: Solve the equation x4 – 9x2 + 4x + 12 = 0 given that it has a NOTES
multiple root.
Solution: Let f x x4 – 9x2 + 4x + 12 f x = 4x3 – 18x + 4 = 2
(2x3 – 9x + 2)
Now the H.C.F. of f x and f x :
2x3 – 9x + 2 x4 – 9x2 + 4x + 12
3 2
2x4 – 18x2 + 8x + 24 x
2x4 – 9x2 + 2x
– + –
2x 6x3 – 27x + 6 – 9x2 + 6x + 24
6x3 – 4x2 – 16x – 3 (3x2 – 2x – 8)
– + +
4x2 – 11x + 6
3
4 12x2 – 33x + 18
12x2 – 8x –32
– + +
– 25x + 50
– 25 (x – 2) 3x2 – 2x – 8
3x2 – 6x
– +
4x – 8 3x + 4
4x – 8
– +
H.C.F. of f x and f x is x – 2.
Now, x – 2 = 0 x = 2
As the root 2 occurs once in f x = 0, therefore root 2 will occur twice in
f x = 0.
Two roots of f x = 0 are 2, 2
The two factors of f x are (x – 2) and (x – 2)
Now, dividing f x by (x– 2) (x– 2), by applying synthetic division
repeatedly, we get
we get
2 1 0 –9 4 12
… 2 4 –10 –12
2 1 2 –5 –6 0
… 2 8 6
1 4 3 0
Self - Learning
Material 109
Equations and Polynomial The depressed equation is x2 + 4x + 3 = 0
(x + 1) (x + 3) = 0 x = –1, –3
The roots of the given equation are 2, 2, –1 and –3
NOTES
Check Your Progress
5. Solve the equation 32x3 – 48x2 + 22x – 3 = 0, the roots are given to
be in A.P.
6. Solve the equation x4 – 8x3 + 23x2 – 28x + 12 = 0 given that the
difference of two of the roots is equal to the difference of the other
two.
7. Solve the equation x4 – 5x3 + 10x2 – 10x + 4 = 0 given that the
product of the two roots is equal to the product of other two.
8. Solve the equation 3x3 – 19x2 + 33x – 9 = 0 which has repeated
roots.
9. Solve the equation x5 – 15x3 + 10x2 + 60x – 72 = 0 by testing for
equal roots.
3.4 TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS AND
RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS
We will transform an equation into another equation whose roots will be equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign to those of the given equation.
Consider an equation f(x) a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + … + an–1x + an = 0
… (17)
Let 1 , 2 ,..., n be the roots of this equation, We will find out an equation
whose roots are 1 , 2 ,..., n .
Let the new equation formed is in y. Then y = – x or x = – y is the functional
relation between the roots of the two equations. By putting this value in Equation
(17), we get
f (– y) a0 (–y)n + a1 (–y)n–1 + a2 (–y)n–2 + … + an–1 (–y) + an = 0
a0 (–1)n yn + a1 (–1)n–1 yn–1 + a2 (–1)n–2 yn–2 + … + an–1 (–1)1 y + an = 0
… (18)
As n can be even or odd, therefore we cannot conclude about the signs of
(–1)n, (–1)n–1, etc.
Multiplying Equation (18) by (–1)n, we get
a0 (–1)2n yn + a1 (–1)2n–1 yn–1 + a2 (–1)2n–2 yn–2 + … + an–1 (–1)n+1 y + an
(–1) = 0
n
… (19)
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110 Material
We have (–1)2n = 1 Equations and Polynomial
(–1)2n –1 = (–1)2n (–1)–1 = –1
……………………………
(–1)n+1 = (–1)n–1 (–1)2 = (–1)n–1.1 = (–1)n–1 NOTES
So Equation (19) becomes
a0 yn – a1 yn–1 + a2 yn–2 – … + an–1 (–1)n–1 y + an (–1)n = 0
Expressing it in terms of variable x, we get
a0 xn – a1 xn–1 + a2 xn–2 – … + an–1 (–1)n–1 x + an (–1)n = 0
which is the required transformed equation.
Note: For the above transformation we conclude that change signs of
co-efficients of the terms with odd powers of x in the given equation.
Roots Multiplied by a Given Number
We will transform an equation into another equation whose roots will be m times
the roots of the given equation.
Consider an equation f(x) a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + ... + an–1x + an = 0.
… (20)
Let 1 , 2 ,..., n be the roots of this equation. We will find out an equation
whose roots are m1 , m 2 ,..., m n .
Let us suppose that the new equation formed will be in y. Then y = mx or
y
x= is the functional relation between the roots of the two equations. By putting
m
this value of x in Equation (20), we get
n n 1 n2
y y y y y
f a + a + a2 + … + an–1 + an = 0
m
0
m 1
m m m
… (21)
Multiplying both the sides of Equation (21) by mn, we get
a0yn + ma1yn–1 + m2a2yn–2 + … + mn–1an–1y + mnan = 0
Expressing it in terms of variable x
a0xn + ma1xn–1 + m2a2xn–2 + … + mn–1an–1x + mnan = 0
which is the required transformed equation.
Note: (i) An equation whose roots are m times the roots of the given equation
can be formed by multiplying the successive co-efficients beginning with the co-
efficients of xn–1 by m, m2, ….. , mn, respectively.
(ii) If the value of m is –1, then the roots of the transformed equation will be
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the roots of the given equation.
(iii) An equation which does not have any power of x is treated as supplied
with zero co-efficient.
Self - Learning
Material 111
Equations and Polynomial Reciprocal Roots
We will transform an equation into another equation whose roots will be reciprocals
of the roots of the given equation.
NOTES Consider an equation f(x) a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + ... + an–1x + an = 0
… (22)
Let 1 , 2 ,..., n be the roots of this equation. We will find out an equation
1 1 1
whose roots are , ,..., .
1 2 n
Let us suppose that the new equation formed will be in y.
1 1
Then y = or x = y is the functional relation between the roots of the two
x
equations.
By putting value of x in Equation (21), we get
1 a a a
f 0n n11 n 1 an = 0 … (23)
y y y y
Multiplying both the sides of Equation (23) by yn, we get
a0 + a1y + a2y2 + … + an–1yn–1 + anyn = 0
anyn + an–1yn–1 + … + a2y2 + a1y + a0 = 0
Expressing it in terms of variable x, we get
anxn + an–1xn–1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0 = 0
which is the required transformed equation.
1
Note: For the above transformation in the given equation, change x into
x
1
and simplify. An equation which does not changes when we replace x by is
x
called reciprocal equation.
Example 3.7: Form an equation whose roots are the roots of the equation
2x5 – 7x4 + 8x3 + 1 = 0 with their sign changed.
Solution: When we change x to –x, the signs of the co-efficients of terms with
odd powers of x changes. Thus, the required equation is
– 2x5 – 7x4 – 8x3 + 1 = 0 2x5 + 7x4 + 8x3 – 1 = 0
Example 3.8: Find an equation whose roots are twice the roots of the equation
3x4 – 2x2 + 5 = 0.
Solution: The given equation is 3x4 – 2x2 + 5 = 0 3x4 + 0x3 – 2x2 + 0x
+5=0
Multiplying each root by 2, the transformed equation is
20.3x4 + 21.0x3 – 22.2x2 + 23.0x + 24.5 = 0 3x4 – 8x2 + 80 = 0
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Example 3.9: Remove the fractional coefficients from the equation Equations and Polynomial
3 2 13 77
x4 x x 0.
10 25 1000
Solution: In the given equation the denominators are not prime to one another. NOTES
Splitting the denominators into prime factors and multiplying the roots by m, we
3 2 13 77
get x m . x m3 . 0 2 x m 4 . 3 3 0 The exponents of 2 in order are
4 2
1 1
2 .5 2 .5 2 .5
(1,0,3). Dividing these by the corresponding powers of m, i.e., by (2, 3, 4)
1 3
respectively, we get ,0, . The least integer, not less than any of these
2 4
1
quotients is 1. Thus, 2 is a factor of the multiplier m. … (24)
Again, the exponents of 5 in order are (1,2,3). Dividing these by the corresponding
1 2 3
powers of m, i.e., by (2,3,4) respectively, we get , , . The least integer, not
2 3 4
less than any of these quotients is 1. Hence 51 is also a factor of the multiplier m
… (25)
From Equations (24) and (25), m 2 5 10 . Therefore multiplying the roots
1 1
of the given equation by 10, the required equation is
3 2 13 77
x 4 102. x 103. x 104. 0 x 4 30 x 2 520 x 770 0
10 15 1000
Example 3.10: Solve the equation 15x4 – 8x3 – 14x2 + 8x – 1 = 0, given that the
roots are in H.P.
Solution: Given, 15x4 – 8x3 – 14x2 + 8x – 1 = 0 … (26)
1
By changing x to y and simplifying, we get,
y4 – 8y3 + 14y2 + 8y – 15 = 0 … (27)
Since the roots of Equation (26) are in H.P., so the roots of Equation (27)
are in A.P.
Let the roots in A.P. be , , and such that
We have, 8 [using Equation (27)]
= 4
Now, 4 4
Let k Let k
Equation with roots , is Equation with roots , is
y2 – 4y + k = 0 y2 – 4y + k = 0
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Material 113
Equations and Polynomial
y4 – 8y3 + 14y2 + 8y – 15 = (y2 – 4y + k) (y2 – 4y + k )
= y4 – 8y3 + (k + k + 16) y2 – 4 (k + k ) y + k k
Comparing the co-efficients of like powers of y, we get
NOTES
k + k + 16 =14 k + k = – 2
– 4 (k + k ) = 8 k + k = – 2
k k = – 15
The equation with the roots k, k is t2 + 2t – 15 = 0
(t + 5) (t – 3) = 0 t = – 5, 3
Let k = – 5 and k = 3.
Hence the two quadratics of Equation (27) are
y2 – 4y – 5 = 0 y2 – 4y + 3 = 0
(y – 5) (y + 1) = 0 (y – 3) (y – 1) = 0
y = 5, – 1 y = 3, 1
1 1
x = , –1 x = ,1
5 3
1 1
Thus, the roots of the given equation are 1, – 1, and .
3 5
3 3
Example 3.11: Transform the equation 5x3 x x + 1 = 0 into another so
2
2 4
that the leading co-efficient is unity and the remaining co-efficients are integers.
3 3 3 2 3
Solution: The given equation is 5x3 x x + 1 = 0 x3 x x
2
2 4 10 20
1
+ =0 … (28)
5
3 2 3 1
x3 1 1
x 2 1x + 0 1 =0 … (29)
2 .5 2 .5 2 .5
Let m be the multiplier m = 2r.5s
The powers of 2 in order are 1, 2, 0
1 2 0
Dividing them by 1, 2, 3, respectively, we get the quotients , , i.e., 1,
1 2 3
1, 0
Since r is the least positive integer not less than any of these quotients,
hence r = 1.
The powers of 5 in order are 1, 1, 1.
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Equations and Polynomial
1 2 3
Dividing them by 1, 2, 3 respectively, we get the quotients , , i.e., 1,
1 2 3
1, 1
Since s is the least positive integer not less than any of these quotients, NOTES
hence s = 1
m 21.51 2 5 10
Multiplying the roots of Equation (28) by 10, we get,
3 2 2 3 3 1
100 .x – 101 . 10 x 10 20 x 10 5 0
3
x3 3 x 2 15 x 200 0 is the required equation.
Roots Diminished by a Given Number
We will transform an equation into another equation whose roots will be the roots
of the given equation diminished by h.
Consider an equation f(x) a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + … + an–1x + an = 0
… (30)
Let α1 ,α 2 ,...,α n be the roots of this equation. We will find out an equation
whose roots are α1 h, α 2 h,, α n h .
Let the new equation formed will be in y. Then y = x – h or x = y + h is the
functional relation between the roots of the two equations.
By putting the value of x in Equation (30), we get
f y h a0 (y + h)n + a1 (y + h)n–1 + a2 (y + h)n–2 + … + an–1
(y + h) + an = 0 ...(31)
Simplifying and arranging in descending powers of y, we get
A0yn + A1yn–1 + A2yn–2 + … + An–1y + An = 0 ...(32)
where A0 ,A1, … , An are constants to be determined. Putting y = x – h in
Equation (31),
f(x) = A0 (x – h)n + A1 (x – h)n–1 + A2 (x – h)n–2 + … + An–1 (x – h) + An
=0
L.H.S. of this equation is identical with the L.H.S. of Equation (30).
This shows that if f(x) is divided by (x – h), then the remainder is An and the
quotient is
A0 (x – h)n–1 + A1 (x – h)n–2 + A2 (x – h)n–3 + … + An–1
If we divide this quotient by (x – h), then we get An–1 as the remainder and
the second quotient is
A0 (x – h)n–2 + A1 (x – h)n–3 + A2 (x – h)n–4 + … + An–2
Repeating this process n times, the nth remainder will be A1 and the nth
quotient will be A0.
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Material 115
Equations and Polynomial By equating the co-efficients of xn in Equations (30) and (32), we get A0=a0.
Thus, the division of f(x) successively by (x – h) we get An, An–1, An–2, …,
A2, A1 as the successive remainders and A0 ( = a0) as the last quotient. Then the
transformed equation in x is A0xn + A1xn–1 + A2xn–2 + … + An–1x + An = 0.
NOTES
Removal of Terms in General
We will remove a particular term from the transformed equation by decreasing the
roots of the given equation by a suitable number.
Consider an equation f(x) a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + … + an–1x + an = 0.
…(33)
Suppose the roots of the Equation (33) are diminished by h.
Let the new equation formed will be in y. Then y = x – h or x = y + h is the
functional relation between the roots of the two equations.
By putting the value of x in Equation (33), we get
f(y + h) a0 (y + h) n + a1 (y + h)n–1 + a2 (y + h)n–2 + … + an–1 (y + h) + an = 0
By applying binomial theorem and arranging the terms in the descending powers
of y, we get
n n 1
a0yn + (na0h + a1) yn–1 + a0 h 2 n 1 a1h a2 yn–2 + … +
2!
(a0hn + a1hn–1 + … + an–1h + an) = 0
Now to remove any particular term we equate the co-efficient of that term
to zero and the values of h thus obtained will be the required numbers by which
the roots are to be diminished to get the required transformed equation.
a
Note: (i) To remove the second term: na0h + a1 = 0 or h = na
1
n n 1
(ii) To remove the third term: a0h2 + (n – 1) a1h + a2 = 0
2!
(iii) To remove the fourth term, solve a cubic in h. To remove the last term,
solve the equation f(h) = 0
Transformation of the Cubic
We will reduce the cubic a0x3 + 3a1x2 + 3a2x + a3 = 0 to the form in which
second term is missing and the co-efficient of the leading term is unity, all other co-
efficients being integers. And we will find the relation between the roots of the
transformed equation and the given equation.
Consider an equation f(x) = a0x3 + 3a1x2 + 3a2x + a3 = 0. … (34)
Suppose the transformed equation is in y. Then y = x – h or x = y + h
Let us diminish the roots of Equation (34) by h by putting x = y + h
f(y + h) = a0 (y + h)3 + 3a1 (y + h)2 + 3a2 (y + h) + a3 = 0
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Now, arranging the terms in the descending powers of y, we get Equations and Polynomial
a0y3 + 3 (a0h + a1) y2 + 3 (a0h2 + 2a1h + a2) y + (a0h3 + 3a1h2 + 3a2h + a3) = 0
Let us write this equation as,
A0y3 + 3A1y2 + 3A2y + A3 = 0 … (35) NOTES
[ A0 = a0]
a
For removing the second term, take a0h + a1 = 0 or h = a
1
a12 a
We have A2 = a0h2 + 2a1h + a2 = a0 a 2 + 2a1 1 + a2
0 a 0
a1
[ h = a ]
0
a0 a2 a12 H
= a0
= a where H = a0a2 – a12
0
Also, A3 = a0h3 + 3a1h2 + 3a2h + a3
a13 2
= a0 3 + 3a1 a1 2 + 3a2 a1 + a3
a
0 a0 a0
a0 2 a3 3a0 a1a2 2a13 G
= a0 2 = a0 2 where G = a0 a3 – 3a0a1a2 + 2 a1
2 3
Now, putting these values in Equation (35), we get
3H G
a0y3 + a y + a 2 = 0
0 0
To make the co-efficient of the leading term as unity, we divide this equation
by a0
3H G
y3 + a 2 y + a 3 = 0
0 0
Multiplying roots by a0, we get Z3 + 3HZ + G = 0 where Z = a0y
This is the required transformed equation. If , and be the roots of this
transformed equation. Then, Z = a0y = a0 (x – h)
[ Z = a0y and y = x – h]
a1 a1
= a0 x = a0x + a1 [ h = a ]
a0 0
= a0 + a1; a0 a1 ; a0 a1 , where , and are the
roots of Equation (34).
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Material 117
Equations and Polynomial
3a
From Equation (35), we have sum of the roots = = a
1
a1
NOTES = a0 2 ,
a0 a = a0
0 3 3
0 a
2 and 0 2
3 3
Transformation of the Biquadratic
We will reduce the biquadratic a0x4 + 4a1x3 + 6a2x2 + 4a-3x + a4 = 0 to the form
in which the second term is missing and the co-efficient of the leading term is unity,
all other co-efficients being integers.
And we will find the relation between the roots of the transformed equation
and the given equation.
Consider an equation f(x) = a0x4 + 4a1x3 + 6a2x2 + 4a3x + a4 = 0 … (35)
Suppose the transformed equation is in y. Then y = x – h or x = y + h
Let us diminish the roots of Equation (35) by h by putting x = y + h
f(y + h) = a0 (y + h)4 + 4a1 (y + h)2 + 4a3 (y + h) + a4 = 0
Now, arranging the terms in the descending powers of y, we get
a0y4 + 4 (a0h + a1) y3 + 6 (a0h2 + 2a1h + a2) y2 + 4 (a0h3 + 3a1h2 + 3a2h
+ a3) y + (a0h4 + 4a1h3 + 6a2h2 + 4a3h + a4) = 0
a0y4 + 4A1y3 + 6A2y2 + 4A3y + A4 = 0 … (36)
[ A0 = a0]
a
For removing the second term, take a0h + a1 = 0 or h = a
1
We have, A2 = a0h2 + 2a1h + a2
a12 a a
[ h = a ]
1
= a0 a 2 + 2a1 1 + a2
0 a0 0
a0 a2 a12 H
= a0
= a0 where H = a0a2 – a1
2
Also, A3 = a0h3 + 3a1h2 + 3a2h + a3
a13 2
= a0 3 + 3a1 a1 2 + 3a2 a1 + a3
a
0 a0 a0
a0 2 a3 3a0 a1a2 2a13 G
= a0 2 = a0 2 where G = a0 a3 – 3a0a1a2 + 2 a1
2 3
And A4 = a0h4 + 4a1h3 + 6a2h2 + 4a3h + a4
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Equations and Polynomial
a1
4
a
3
a 2
a
= a0 4
+ 4a1 + 6a2 1 2 + 4a3 1 + a4
1
3
a0 a
0 a0 a0
a03 a4 4a0 2 a1a3 6a0 a12 a2 3a14 NOTES
= a03
2
a0 2 a0 a4 4a1a3 3a2 2 3 a0 a2 a12 a0 2 I 3H 2
= = a03
a03
where I = a0 a4 4a1a3 3a2 2
By putting the values of A2, A3 and A4 in Equation (36), we get,
H 2 G a0 2 I 3H 2
a0y + 6 a
4 y y
+4a2 + =0
0 0 a03
H 2 G a0 2 I 3H 2
y y
y +6a2 +4a3 +
4
=0
0 0 a0 4
Multiplying the roots by a0, we get Z4 + 6HZ2 + 4GZ + ( a0 2 I – 3H2) = 0
where Z = a0y
This is the required transformed equation. Let , , and be the roots of
this equation. Then, Z = a0y = a0 (x – h) [ Z = a0y and y = x – h]
a1 a
1
= a0 x = a0x + a1 [ h = a0 ]
a0
= a0 + a1, a0 a1 , a0 a1 and a0 a1 where
, , and are the roots of Equation (35).
4a
From Equation (35), we have, sum of the roots = = a
1
a1
= a0 3 ,
a0 a = a0 4
0 4
0 a
3 , 0 3 and
4 4
a0
3
4
Removal of Second and Third Term
Consider an equation f(x) = a0x3 + 3a1x2 + 3a2x + a3 = 0. … (37)
Suppose the transformed equation is in y. Then y = x – h or x = y + h.
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Material 119
Equations and Polynomial Let us diminish the roots of Equation (37) by h by putting x = y + h
f(y + h) = a0 (y + h)3 + 3a1 (y + h)2 + 3a2 (y + h) + a3 = 0
Now, arranging the terms in the descending powers of y, we get
NOTES a0y3 + 3 (a0h + a1) y2 + 3 (a0h2 + 2a1h + a2) y + (a0h3 + 3a1h2 + 3a2h + a3) = 0
The second and third terms will be removed simultaneously if
a1
a0h + a1 = 0 h = – a
0
and a0h2 + 2a1h + a2 = 0 … (38)
Putting the value of h in Equation (38), we get
a1
2
a1 a12 2a12
a0 + 2a1 + a2 = 0 a a2 = 0
a a a0
0 0 0
a0a2 – a12 = 0 H = 0 is the required condition.
Example 3.12: Transform the equation x4 + 4x3 – 19x2 – 46x + 120 = 0 into
another equation whose roots are increased by one than the roots of this equation
and hence find the roots of this equation.
Solution: We have to increase each root of the given equation by one and let the
new equation be in y. Thus, we have y = x + 1. So here we have to successively
divide the given equation by x + 1, i.e., by the multiplier – 1.
–1 1 4 –19 –46 120
… –1 –3 22 24
1 3 –22 –24 144
… –1 –2 24
1 2 –24 0
… –1 –1
1 1 –25
… –1
1 0
1
Transformed equation is y4 – 25y2 + 144 = 0
(y2 – 9) (y2 – 16) = 0 y2 = 9, 16 y = 3, –3, 4, –4
As x = y – 1, thus x = 2, –4, 3, –5 are the required roots.
Example 3.13: The difference between two roots of the equation
2 x3 x 2 7 x 6 0 is 3.
Solve it by diminishing the roots by 3.
Solution: Let , 3, be the roots of the given equation
f x 2 x3 x 2 7 x 6 0 ...(39)
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Diminishing the roots of the given equation by 3, we have (by successive Equations and Polynomial
application of synthetic division),
3 2 1 –7 –6
… 6 21 42 NOTES
2 7 14 36
… 6 39
2 13 53
… 6
2 19
…
2
Thus, the transformed equation is y 2 y 3 19 y 2 53 y 36 0
...(40)
The roots of this equation are 3, , 3. Thus is a common root of
Equations (39) and (40)
2 3 2 7 6 0 ...(41)
and 2 3 19 2 53 36 0 ...(42)
Let us find H.C.F. of Equations (41) and (42).
Thus, we have H.C.F = + 1 and common root is 1
1
From Equation (39), sum of roots =
2
1
3
2
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Material 121
Equations and Polynomial
7 7 3
2 2
2 2 2
3
Hence the roots of Equation (39) are , 3, , i.e., – 1, 2, .
NOTES 2
Transformation in General
Consider an equation f(x) = 0 … (43)
and let 1 , 2 , , n be its roots.
We will find out an equation whose roots are 1 , 2 , 3 ,, n
where x is an algebraic function of x. Let us suppose that the new equation
formed will be in y. Then the functional relation between the roots of the two
equations is
y = x … (44)
Now, we eliminate x from Equations (43) and (44) and get an equation
F(y) = 0
which is the required transformed equation.
Example 3.14: Form an equation whose roots are cubes of the roots of
x3 px 2 qx r 0. Hence obtain the value of 3 3
, where , , are the
roots of the given equation.
Solution: Let , , be the roots of the equation x3 px 2 qx r 0
... (45)
We have to find an equation whose roots are 3 , 3 , 3 . Let the new equation
be in y. Then the relation between x and y will be y x3 … (46)
Eliminating x between Equations (45) and (46), we get y px 2 qx r 0
y r px qx
2
… (47)
By cubing, we get
px 2 qx y r p x q x 3 pqx px qx
3
y r
3 3 3 6 3 3 3 2
y 3ry 3r y r p y q y 3 pqy y r
3 2 2 3 3 2 3
p 3 y 2 q 3 y 3 pqy 2 3 pqry
y p 3 pq 3r y q 3 pqr 3r y r 0
3 3 2 3 2 3
… (48)
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Equations and Polynomial
which is the required equation. If 3 , 3 , 3 are the roots of Equation (48), then
Sum of products of roots taken two at a time 33 q3 3 pqr 3r 2 .
Example 3.15: If , and are the roots of the cubic equation x3 + ax2 + bx NOTES
+ c = 0, find the equation whose roots are , and .
Solution: The given equation is x3 + ax2 + bx + c = 0 and its roots are , and .
Sum of the roots = = –a … (49)
Now, = = [By Equation (49)]
a
Let the new equation be in y.
x
y = – ay – xy = x
a x
– ay = xy + x x (y + 1) = – ay
ay
x = y 1 Now, putting this value of x in the given equation, we
a3 y 3 a2 y2 ay
get a b c 0
y 1 y 1 y 1
3 2
– a3y3 + a3y2 (y + 1) – aby (y + 1)2 + c (y + 1)3 = 0
– a3y3 + a3y2 (y + 1) – aby (y2 + 2y + 1) + c (y3 + 3y2 + 3y + 1) = 0
– a3y3 + a3y-3 + a3y2 – aby3 – 2aby2 – aby + cy3 + 3cy2 + 3cy + c = 0
(c – ab) y3 + (3c + a3 – 2ab) y2 + (3c – ab) y + c = 0
which is the required equation.
Example 3.16: Form the equation whose roots shall be the squares of the roots
of the equation x3 3x 2 6 x 1 0 .
Solution: The given equation is x3 3x 2 6 x 1 0 …(50)
Let the new equation be in y. Then y = x2 …(51)
From Equations (50) and (51), xy + 3y + 6x + 1 = 0
(y + 6)x = – (3y + 1)
By squaring both sides, we get
(y + 6)2x2 = (3y + 1)2 (y2 + 12y + 36)y = 9y2 + 6y + 1
[Using Equation (52)]
y3 + 3y2 + 30y – 1 = 0, which is the required equation.
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Material 123
Equations and Polynomial Equation of Squared Differences of a Cubic
Equation whose Roots are the Squares of the Differences of the Roots of
the Equation x3 + qx + r = 0
NOTES Consider the cubic equation x3 + qx + r = 0 ... (53)
Let , , be its roots.
We have = 0
= q and = –r
We have to find an equation whose roots are 2 , 2 , 2
Let the new equation be in y. Then y = 2 2 4
= 2 – 4
4r
= (0 – )2 + [ 0; r ]
4r
y = x2 + [ is a root of Equation (53)]
x
x3 – xy + 4r = 0 … (54)
Subtracting Equations (54) from (53), we get
3r
x (q + y) – 3r = 0 x = q y … (55)
Putting this value of x in Equation (53), we get
3
3r 3r
+ q +r=0
q y q y
27r3 + 3qr (q + y)2 + r (q + y)3 = 0
(y + q)3 + 3q (y + q )2 + 27r2 = 0
y3 + 6qy2 + 9q2y + (4q3 + 27r2) = 0,
which is the required equation.
Equation whose Roots are Squares of the Differences of the Roots of the
Cubic a0x3 + 3a1x2 + 3a2x + a3 = 0
Consider the cubic equation a0 x 3 + 3a1 x 2 + 3 a2x + a3 = 0 … (56)
and let x1, x2 and x3 be the roots of this equation.
We have to find an equation whose roots are (x1 – x2)2, (x2 – x3)2,
(x3 – x1)2
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Equations and Polynomial
By putting y = a0x + a1, H = a0a2 – a12 and G = a0 2 a3 3a0 a1a2 2a13
Equation (56) reduces to
y3 + 3Hy + G = 0 … (57)
Let the roots of Equation (57) be , , . NOTES
a0 x1 a1 ; a0 x2 a1 ; a0 x3 a1
a0 x1 x2
a0 x2 x3
a0 x3 x1
Let the new equation be in Z. Then Z = 2 = 2 4
4
=
2
4G
= 2 + γ [By Equation (57), 0 and G ]
4G 4G
= + γ = y2 + y [ is a root of Equation (57)]
2
y3 – Zy + 4G = 0 … (58)
Subtracting Equation (58) from Equation (57), we get
3G
(3H + Z)y – 3G = 0 y =
3H Z
Putting this value of y in Equation (57),
3
3G 3G
3H G=0
3H Z 3H Z
(3H + Z)3 + 9H (3H + Z)2 + 27G2 = 0
Z3 + 18HZ2 + 81H2Z + 27 (G2 + 4H3) = 0 … (59)
The roots of this equation are 2 , 2 , 2
i.e., a0 2 (x1 – x2)2, a0 2 (x2 – x3)2, a0 2 (x3 – x1)2
1 1
If the new equation is in t, then t = (x1 – x2)2 = a 2 a02(x1 – x2 )2 = a 2 Z
0 0
Z = a0 2 t
By putting this value of Z in Equation (59), we get
a0 6t 3 18a0 4 Ht 2 81a0 2 H 2t 27 G 2 4H 3 = 0
which is the required equation.
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Material 125
Equations and Polynomial Example 3.17: Find the equation of squared differences of the cubic
x3 + 6x2 + 7x + 2 = 0.
Solution: The given equation is x3 + 6x2 + 7x + 2 = 0.
NOTES Let its roots be , , . To remove the second term, diminish the roots by
6
h 2 .
3 1
–2 1 6 7 2
… –2 –8 2
1 4 –1 4
… –2 –4
1 2 –5
… –2
1 0
…
1
Transformed equation is y3 – 5y + 4 = 0 …(60)
where y = x – h y = x + 2
Let , , be the roots of Equation (60).
Then 0 and 4 …(61)
Also, 2, 2, 2
, , .
Let us form an equation whose roots are 2 , 2 , 2 .
Suppose z 2 2 2 4
4
4 [Using Equation (61)]
2
16 16
z y y y3 – yz + 16 = 0
2
2
Subtracting Equation (61) from Equation (60), we get (z – 5)y – 12 = 0
12
y
z 5
3
12 12
Putting this value of y in Equation (60), we get 5 40
z 5 z 5
z3 – 30z2 + 225z – 68 = 0, which is the required equation.
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Equations and Polynomial
Check Your Progress
1 5
10. Remove the fractional co-efficients from the equation x4 + x3 – x2
2 3 NOTES
2
+ x –1 = 0
3
11. Solve the equation 40x4 – 22x3 – 21x2 + 2x + 1 = 0 if the roots are
given to be in H.P.
12. The difference of the two roots of the equation x3 – 13x2 + 15x + 189
= 0 is 2. Solve it by increasing the roots by 2.
13. Transform the equation x4 + 8x3 + x – 5 = 0 into the equation in which
the second term is wanting.
14. Remove the third term from the equation 2x3 – 15x2 + 24x – 7 = 0.
15. Find the equation of the squared differences of the roots of the cubic
x3 + 3x2 – 3x + 1 = 0.
3.5 DESCARTES’ RULE OF SIGNS
Here we will discuss the definition of some concepts related to Descarte’s rule of
signs.
Continuation or Permanence of Signs
A continuation or permanence of signs is said to occur in a polynomial f(x), whose
terms are arranged in descending powers of x, if the two successive terms have
the same sign.
For example, in x 7 x 6 7 x5 9 x 4 7 x3 4 x 2 11x 10 , there are three
continuation of signs occurring at –7x5, – 9x4, – 7x3.
Variation or Change of Signs
A variation or change of signs is said to occur in a polynomial f(x), whose terms
are arranged in descending powers of x, if the two successive terms have different
signs.
For example: In x 6 7 x 5 11x 4 5 x 3 6 x 2 19 x 11 , there are four changes
or variations of signs occurring at 7 x 5 ,11x 4 , 5x 3 and 11.
1.
Complete Equation
An equation in which none of its coefficient is zero is known as a complete
equation.
In a complete equation:
(i) The degree of the equation is equal to the sum of the number of continuations
and variations of signs.
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Material 127
Equations and Polynomial (ii) A continuation of sign becomes a variation of sign, if x is changed into – x
and vice-versa.
Ambiguity of Sign
NOTES When any term of a polynomial f(x) has the double sign ± or , the ambiguity of
sign is said to occur.
Rule 1: The number of changes of signs of the coefficients in f(x) always exceed
the number of positive roots in any polynomial equation f(x) = 0 with real coefficients.
Rule 2: The number of changes of signs of the coefficients in f(–x) always exceed
the number of negative roots in any polynomial equation f(x) = 0 with real
coefficients.
Proof: Let the signs of terms in a polynomial f(x) be
+ + – – – + – + –
There are five changes of signs in the given polynomial. On multiplying the
given polynomial by a binomial x – h (h > 0) in which the signs are + –, we get
+ + – – – + – + –
+ –
+ + – – – + – + –
– – + + + – + – +
+ ± – + – + – +
… (62)
We have three ambiguous signs in the resulting polynomial which replace
each continuation of sign in the original polynomial.
Now, consider the most unfavourable case in which continuation replaces
each ambiguity.
If we take the upper signs of Equation (62), we get
+ + – – – + – + – +
It can be seen that the resulting series of signs is same as the original with an
additional change of sign at the end.
Now, if we take the lower signs of Equation (62), we get
+ – – + + + – + – +
Thus, we can see that in both cases there are six changes of signs which is
at least one more than the number of changes of signs in the original polynomial.
Hence on multiplying a polynomial by a factor of the form x – h (h > 0), at
least one additional change of signs will always introduced.
Now, let an nth degree equation f(x) = 0 has p positive roots (p < n) say,
h1 , h2 , , hp and remaining roots are negative, zero or imaginary..
Then, f x x h1 x h2 x hp x , where x is of (n – p)th
degree.
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Equations and Polynomial
The expression x may or may not have any change of sign, but when it
is multiplied by x h1 , x h2 , , x hp then at least p new changes of signs
introduce in the product so that f(x) will have at least p changes of signs.
NOTES
Hence, the number of changes of signs in f(x) always exceed the number of
positive roots of f(x) = 0.
Again the number of negative roots of f(x) = 0 are the positive roots of
f(– x) = 0 and therefore the number of changes of signs in f(– x) always exceed
the number of negative roots of f(x) = 0.
Note: If a polynomial has all real roots, then this rule allows one to find the exact number of
positive roots. Since it is easy to determine the multiplicity of zero as a root, this allows the
determination of the number of negative roots as well. Thus the sign of all roots can be
determined in this case.
Check Your Progress
16. Find the least possible number of imaginary roots of the equation
x9 x5 x 4 x 2 1 0 .
17. Show that the equation x2n – 1= 0 has only two real roots.
18. Find the least possible number of imaginary roots of the equation
2 x 7 3x 4 3 x k = 0 for all values of k (constant).
3.6 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’
1. A polynomial in x is an expression of the type a0xn + a1xn–1 + … + an
where a0, a1, … , an are constants known as the co-efficients and x is a
variable.
2. We denote a polynomial of degree n in x by f(x) a0xn + a1xn–1 + … + an
If we substitute a number a for x in a polynomial f(x) the result is a number
called the value of the polynomial for x = a and it is denoted by f(a).
3. When an equation is clear from the fractions or fractional indices then the
highest power of the variable x occurring in the equation is known as the
degree of the given equation.
4. If an nth degree equation contains all the powers of the variable from 0 to n,
then it is said to be complete.
If one or more than one powers of the variable are missing from an nth
degree equation, then it is said to be incomplete.
1 1 3
5. , and
4 2 4
6. 1, 2, 2 and 3
7. 1, 2, 1 i
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Equations and Polynomial
1
8. 3, 3 and
3
9. 2, 2, 2, –3 and –3
NOTES 10. x4 + 3x3 – 60x2 + 144x – 1296 = 0
1 1 1
11. , , 1,
5 2 4
12. –3, 7, 9
13. x4 – 24x2 + 65x – 55 = 0
14. 2x3 – 9x2 + 4 = 0; 2x3 + 9x2 – 23 = 0
15. z3 – 36z2 + 324z + 108 = 0
16. 6
17. Let f(x) = x2n – 1 f(– x) = x2n – 1
Now, the number of variations of signs in f(x) and f(– x) are one and one
respectively.
Thus, the equation f(x) = 0 has at most two real roots.
As f(x) = 0 is satisfied by x = 1.
Hence the equation has exactly two real roots.
18. 4
3.7 SUMMARY
If f(x) and g(x) are two non-zero polynomials, then there exists unique
polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that f(x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x) where either
r(x) is a zero polynomial or degree of r(x) < degree of g(x).
Let f(x) be a polynomial then f(h) is the remainder when f(x) is divided by
(x – h).
If α is a root of the equation f(x) = 0 then the polynomial f(x) is exactly
divisible by (x – α ).
Every polynomial equation f(x) = 0 which has degree n 1 has at least one
root real or imaginary.
Every equation of nth degree has exactly n roots and not more than n
roots.
To transform an equation into another whose roots will be equal in magnitude
but opposite in sign, change signs of co-efficients of the terms with odd
powers of x in the given equation.
To transform an equation into another equation whose roots will be m times
the roots of the given equation, multiply the successive co-efficients beginning
with the co-efficients of xn–1 by m, m2, … , mn respectively.
The equation whose roots will be obtained by diminishing the roots of the
equation f(x) a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + … + an–1x + an = 0 by h is A0xn +
A1xn–1 + A2xn–2 + … + An–1x + An = 0 where A0 = a0 and A1, A2, …, An
are constants.
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The transformed equation when the second term is missing, the co-efficient Equations and Polynomial
of the leading term is unity and all other co-efficients being integers.
The condition for the removal of second and third terms from an equation
f(x) = a0x3 + 3a1x2 + 3a2x + a3 = 0 is a0a2 – a12 = 0. NOTES
The equation whose roots are the squares of the differences of the roots of
the equation x3 + qx + r = 0 is y3 + 6qy2 + 9q2y + (4q3 + 27r2) = 0
The number of changes of signs of the coefficients in f(x) always exceed the
number of positive roots in any polynomial equation f(x) = 0 with real
coefficients.
The number of changes of signs of the coefficients in f(–x) always exceed
the number of negative roots in any polynomial equation
f(x) = 0 with real coefficients.
3.8 KEY TERMS
Real polynomial: A polynomial whose all the co-efficients are real numbers.
Zero polynomial: A polynomial whose all the co-efficients are zero.
Complete and Incomplete equation: An equation of nth degree is said
to be complete if it contains all the powers of the variable from 0 to n and if
some of the powers of the variable are missing then it is said to be incomplete
equation.
Root of an equation: Any value of x which makes f(x) vanish is called a
root of the equation.
Reciprocal equation: If an equation does not change by replacing x by
1
, then it is known as a reciprocal equation.
x
Descarte’s rule of signs: It is a method for determining the number of
positive or negative roots of a polynomial. This rule gives us an upper bound
number of positive or negative roots of a polynomial.
Complete equation: An equation in which none of its coefficient is zero is
known as a complete equation.
3.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. What is a real polynomial?
2. What is meant by division algorithm?
3. How will you determine the roots of an equation?
4. Give the solution of polynomial equations having conditions on the roots.
5. What are the equal and multiple roots of an equation?
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Material 131
Equations and Polynomial 6. Give the rules to find the multiple roots of an equation.
7. Define the term reciprocal equation.
8. What are the equations of squared differences of a cubic?
NOTES 9. Define continuation or permanence of signs.
10. Give the rules to determine the ambiguity of signs.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Find the quotient and the remainder when
(i) x4 + x3 – x2 + 1 is divided by 3x + 2
(ii) 2x4 – 5x2 + 11x – 7 is divided by 2x – 3
2. Given that –6 is a root of the equation x3 + 2x2 – 17x + 42 = 0, solve it.
3. Form an equation of the lowest degree with the real and rational coefficients,
one of its roots being 2 3 i.
4. Solve the equation 4x3 – 4x2 – 15x + 18 = 0, two of its roots being equal.
5. Solve the equation x4 – 10x3 + 35x2 – 50x + 24 = 0 whose roots are in
A.P.
6. Solve the equation 3x3 – 26x2 + 52x – 24 = 0 whose roots are in G.P.
7. Two roots of the equation x4 + 6x3 – 16x2 + 24x – 80 = 0 are purely
imaginary. Find them.
8. Solve the equation x4 + x3 – 16x2 – 4x + 48 = 0, given that the product of
two of the roots is 6.
9. Find the condition that the roots of the equation x3 + 3px2 + 3qx +
r = 0 are in (i) A.P. (ii) G.P.
10. Find the condition that the roots of the equation ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 (a
0) may be in A.P..
11. Find the condition that the sum of the two roots of f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx +
d = 0 is also a root of f(x) = 0. Verify the same condition for 8x3 – 8x2 + 1
= 0.
12. Find the common roots of the equation x4 + 5x3 – 22x2 – 50x + 132 = 0
and x4 + x3 – 20x2 + 16x + 24 = 0 and hence solve them completely.
13. Without solving the equation x3 – x2 – 2x + 2 = 0, prove that it has no
multiple root.
14. Find the condition that the equation x3 + px + q = 0 and x3 + rx + s = 0
shall have a common root.
15. Show that the equation xn + nxn – 1 + n (n – 1) xn – 2 + … + n = 0 cannot
have equal roots.
16. Solve the equation x4 – 7x3 + 18x2 – 20x + 8 = 0, which has multiple roots.
17. Form an equation whose roots are the roots of the equation x4 – 3x2 + 7x
– 1 = 0 with their sign changed.
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18. Find an equation whose roots are four times the roots of the equation x3 + Equations and Polynomial
2x2 + 3x – 5 = 0.
19. Remove the fractional co-efficients from the equation such that the co-
efficients of the leading terms remain unity:
NOTES
3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) x3 – x – x+ = 0 (ii) x4 – x3 + x2 – x + =0
2 16 32 2 9 8 12
20. Transform the following equation into that whose roots are the reciprocals
of the roots of the equation x5 – 4x3 + 6x2 – 3x + 2 = 0.
21. Solve the following equations given that the roots are in H.P.
(i) 3x3 – 22x2 + 48x – 32 = 0 (ii) x3 – 11x2 + 36x – 36 = 0
22. Find the condition that the cubic x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0 should have its roots
in H.P. and hence or otherwise solve the equation 28x3 – 39x2 + 12x – 1 =
0.
23. Diminish the roots of 2x5 – x3 + 10x – 8 = 0 by 5.
24. Show that the same transformation can remove both second and fourth
terms of the equation x4 + 16x3 + 83x2 + 152x + 84 = 0 and hence solve
it.
25. Increase the roots of the equation 2x3 + x2 – 13x + 6 = 0 by 3 and hence
solve the equation.
26. Find the equation whose roots exceed by 2 the roots of the equation 4x4 +
32x3 + 83x2 + 76x + 21 = 0. Hence solve the equation.
27. Remove the second term of the equation x3 + 6x2 + 12x – 19 = 0 and
hence solve the equation.
28. Transform the equation 2x3 – 15x2 + 24x – 7 = 0 in which the third term is
missing.
29. Reduce the cubic 2x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 1 = 0 to the form Z3 + 3HZ + G = 0,
where H and G are the integers.
30. Find the equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of the equation
x3 + ax2 + bx + c = 0.
31. If , , , are the roots of the biquadratic x 4 px 3 qx 2 rx s 0 , form
an equation whose roots are 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 . Hence find the values of
2
and .
2 2 2
32. If , , are the roots of x3 + qx + r = 0 (r 0), then find the equation
whose roots are
(i) 2 , 2 ,2
(ii) , ,
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Material 133
Equations and Polynomial
33. If , , are the roots of equation x3 – 6x2 + 11
1x + k = 0, find an equation
whose roots are 2 , 2 , 2 . Also find the value
of k if roots of the given equation are in A.P.
NOTES 34. If the roots of the equation x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0 are , , , then find the
equation whose roots are 2 2 , 2 2 , 2 2 .
35. If x1, x2, x3 are the roots of the equation x3 – x2 + 4 = 0, then form an
equation whose roots are x1 + x2 2 + x32 , x2 + x32 + x12 , x3 + x12 + x2 2 .
36. Apply Descarte’s method to solve the equation x 4 12 x 5 0 .
37. Apply Descarte’s rule of signs to prove that all the roots of the equation
x 4 3 x3 5 x 2 2 x 1 0 are real.
38. Show that the equation xn – a = 0, a > 0 has
(i) Exactly two real roots if n is even.
(ii) Exactly one real root if n is odd.
3.10 FURTHER READING
Loney, S. L. 1983. Plane Trigonometry (Analytical Trigonometry), Part II.
New Delhi: S. Chand And Company Limited.
Datta, K. B. 2004. Matrix and Linear Algebra. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd.
Prasad, Chandrika. 2017. Text Book on Algebra and Theory of Equations,
11th Edition. Allahabad: Pothishala Private Ltd.
Liu, C. L. 1986. Elements of Discrete Mathematics, 2nd Edition. Noida (UP):
McGraw-Hill Education (International Edition, Computer Science Series).
Khanna, V. K. and S. K. Bhambri. 2008. A Course in Abstract Algebra, 3rd
Edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Grewal, B. S. 1998. Higher Engineering Mathematics, 34th Edition. New Delhi:
Khanna Publishers.
Narayan, Shanti. 1996. Differential Calculus, 14th Edition. New Delhi: S. Chand
And Company Limited.
Kreyszig, Erwin. 2006. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 7th Edition.
Mumbai: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Bali, N. P. 2007. A Textbook of Engineering Mathematics. New Delhi: Laxmi
Publications (P) Ltd.
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Logic and Propositional
UNIT 4 LOGIC AND PROPOSITIONAL Calculus
CALCULUS
NOTES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Logical Connectives and Logical Operations
4.3 Truth Tables
4.4 Tautology and Contradiction
4.5 Logical Equivalence
4.6 Algebra of Logical Prepositions
4.7 Propositions
4.8 Boolean Algebra - Definition and Functions
4.9 Boolean Algebra - Theorems and Properties
4.10 Switching Circuits and Its Applications
4.11 Logic Gates and Circuits
4.12 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
4.13 Summary
4.14 Key Terms
4.15 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.16 Further Reading
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is the branch of algebra
in which the values of the variables are the truth values ‘True’ and ‘False’, generally
denoted by ‘1’ and ‘0’, respectively. The main operations of Boolean algebra are
the conjunction (AND), the disjunction (OR) and the negation (NOT). It is thus a
formalism for describing logical operations in the same way that elementary algebra
describes numerical operations. Boolean algebra was introduced by George Boole
in his first book ‘The Mathematical Analysis of Logic’ (1847), and set forth
more fully in his ‘An Investigation of the Laws of Thought’ (1854). Principally,
the Boolean algebra has been fundamental in the development of digital electronics,
and is provided for in all modern programming languages. It is also used in set
theory and statistics.
Boolean algebra includes the statements and statement algebra. A declarative
sentence which is either ‘True’ or ‘False’ is called a statement. The various laws
on statement algebra and their utility are typically used in proving validity of a
statement or proposition and logic operations, such as AND, OR, NOT, NAND
and NOR. NAND function is derived from the NOT and the AND, and a NOR
function is derived from the NOT and the OR.
A Truth Table is a mathematical table used in logic, specifically in connection
with Boolean algebra, Boolean functions, and propositional calculus which sets
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Material 135
Logic and Propositional out the functional values of logical expressions on each of their functional arguments,
Calculus
that is, for each combination of values taken by their logical variables. In particular,
truth tables can be used to show whether a propositional expression is true for all
legitimate input values, the logically valid. Therefore, the Truth Table is used to find
NOTES the validity of a statement or a table that gives truth value of a compound statement
is called Truth Table. It consists of rows and columns. In the initial columns, we
write the possible truth values of the constituent statements and in the last column,
the truth value of the compound statement is written. If a compound statement is
made up of n statements, then number of rows will be 2n. A statement is said to be
a tautology, if it is true for all logical possibilities. A statement is said to be a
contradiction, if it is false for all logical possibilities.
In electronics, a logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a
Boolean function, i.e., it performs a logical operation on one or more binary inputs
and produces a single binary output. With amplification, logic gates can be cascaded
in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the construction
of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the algorithms and
mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic.
In this unit, you will study about the basic theory of logic, logical connectives,
truth tables, tautology, contradiction, logical equivalence, algebra of prepositions,
Boolean algebra – definition and properties, switching circuits and its applications,
and logic gates and circuits.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Understand the meaning of statements and propositions, and use of logical
connectives
Explain various logical operations
Construct Truth Table to check the validity of statements
Understand the basic concept of tautologies and contradictions
Recognise what logical equivalence and implications are
Explain what algebra of logic is
Elaborate on algebra of prepositions
Explain the basic concepts of Boolean algebra
Define canonical and standard forms
Describe the theorems and properties of Boolean algebra
Understand Boolean functions and Boolean logic operations
Discuss about switching circuits and its applications
Describe various types of digital logic gates
Identify logic gates and circuits
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136 Material
Logic and Propositional
4.2 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES AND LOGICAL Calculus
OPERATIONS
There are many ways of combining statements p, q, r, . . . to form a compound NOTES
statement. The words which combine simple statements to form a compound
statement are called connectives. Mathematics uses symbols for these connectives.
There are five connectives which are used frequently. These are:
(i) ‘AND’ denoted by
(ii) ‘OR’ denoted by
(iii) ‘NOT’ denoted by ~
(iv) ‘Implies’ denoted by
(v) ‘If and Only If ’ denoted by .
Notes: 1. The connective ‘’ is also called a conjunction.
2. The connective ‘’ is also called a disjunction.
3. The connective ‘~’ is also called a negation.
The connectives and may be placed between any two statements p and q to
form the compound statements such as, (p q) and (p q), which are conjunction
and disconjunction respectively. The compound statement p q is true if and only if
both p and q are true. So, if p is false or q is false or both p and q are false, then p
q is false and conversely also,
The compound statement p q is false if and only if both p and q are false.
Further, the statement ~ p is true when p is false and ~ p is false when p is true.
Logic Operations
OR Operation with OR Gates
The OR gate performs logical addition and is represented by the operator symbol
(+). An electronic circuit whose output is HIGH if one or more (all) inputs are
HIGH is called an OR gate.
If either A or B, or both, is HIGH, then the output is HIGH. The Boolean
expression is:
Y=A+B
The expression is read as Y = A OR B. Truth Table 4.1 summarizes the action
of 2-input OR gate. Figure 4.1 shows the symbols used to represent an OR gate.
A A A
Y B Y B Y
C
B C D
Y=A+B Y=A+B+C Y=A+B+C+D
(i) 2-input OR Gate (ii) 3-input OR Gate (iii) 4-input OR Gate
Fig. 4.1 Schematic Symbols of an OR Gate
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Material 137
Logic and Propositional Truth Table 4.1 Truth Table 4.2
Calculus
Inputs Output Inputs Output
A B Y=A+B A B Y = A.B
NOTES 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
AND Operation with AND Gates
The AND gate performs logical multiplication and is represented by the operator
symbol(). An electronic circuit whose output is HIGH if all its inputs are HIGH is known
as AND gate.
If A and B are HIGH, then Y is HIGH. The Boolean expression is,
Y=A B
This expression is read as Y = A AND B. Truth Table 4.2 summarizes the action of
2-input AND gate. Figure 4.2 shows the symbols used to represent an AND gate.
A A A
Y B Y B Y
C
B C D
Y = AB Y = A B C Y = ABCD
(i) 2-input AND Gate (ii) 3-input AND Gate (iii) 4-input AND Gate
Fig. 4.2 Schematic Symbols of AND Gate
NOT Operation
The operation of making the output state opposite to that of the input is called
inversion.
The NOT operation is unlike the OR and AND operations it is performed on
a single input variable. NOT gate is an electronic circuit whose output is HIGH
when its input is LOW.
Figure 4.3 shows the NOT symbol. The NOT operation is represented as
Y = A . The expression is read as Y equals NOT A. Truth Table 4.3 summarizes the
action of the NOT gate.
A y=A
Fig. 4.3 Schematic Symbol of NOT Gate
The inverter, AND and OR gate are often called decision making elements
because they recognize some input words while disregarding others. A gate recognizes
a word when its output is HIGH; it disregards a word when its output is LOW.
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138 Material
Truth Table 4.3 Truth Table 4.4 Logic and Propositional
Calculus
Input Output Inputs Outputs
A Y= A A B AND NAND NOR
0 1 0 0 0 1 1
NOTES
1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
NAND Operation
A NAND function is derived from the NOT and the AND, and it is a contradiction
of NOT AND. The function of NAND gate is defined as an AND operation
(Y = A.B) followed by a NOT operation (Y = A.B ).
Y = A.B
The action of 2-input NAND is given in Truth Table 4.4. The logic symbols for the
NAND function are derived from the AND and NOT function.
A A A
Y B Y B Y
C
B C D
Y = AB Y = A B C Y = ABCD
(i) 2-input NAND Gate (ii) 3-input NAND Gate (iii) 4-input NAND Gate
Fig. 4.4 Schematic Symbols of NAND Gate
NOR Operation
A NOR function is derived from the NOT and the OR, and it is a contradiction of
NOT OR. The function of OR gate is defined as an OR operation (Y = A + B)
followed by a NOT operation (Y = A B ).
Y= AB
NOR gate is a logic gate whose output is HIGH when all of its inputs are
LOW.
Truth Table 4.4 summarizes the action of NOR gate. From the table, it is seen
that NOR gate recognizes only the input word whose bits are all 0s. The logic
symbols for the NOR gate can be seen in Figure 4.5.
A A A
Y B Y B Y
C
B C D
Y=A+B Y=A+B+C Y=A+B+C+D
(i) 2-input NOR Gate (ii) 3-input NOR Gate (iii) 4-input NOR Gate
Fig. 4.5 Schematic Symbols of NOR Gate
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Logic and Propositional
Calculus
Check Your Progress
1. What are connectives? List their types.
NOTES 2. What is OR gate operation?
3. How is an AND gate operation performed?
4. Define inversion.
5. Explain NOR operation.
4.3 TRUTH TABLES
If a statement is true, we say its truth value is T and if it is false we say its truth
value is F. However, a table that gives truth value of a compound statement is called
Truth Table. It consists of rows and columns. In the initial columns, we write the
possible truth values of the constituent statements and in the last column the truth
value of the compound statement is written (which, of course, depends upon the
values written in the initial columns). If a compound statement is made up of two
simple statements, then number of rows will be 22 (22 = 4) and if it is made up of
three statements, then number of rows will be 23 (23 = 8), and so on.
Example 4.1: Let p be a statement. Construct the truth table for ~p.
Solution: We know that ~p is true when p is false and ~ p is false when p is true.
Now, we record these facts in the following Truth Table 4.5:
Truth Table 4.5
p ~p
T F
F T
Example 4.2: Let p and q be two statements. Construct the truth table for the
compound statement p q.
Solution: We know that p q is true if and only if p is true and q is also true. The
following will then be the truth table of p q,
Truth Table 4.6
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example 4.3: Construct the truth table for the compound statement p q.
Solution: We know that p q is false if and only if p is false and q is is false. The
following will then be the truth table of p q,
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Truth Table 4.7 Logic and Propositional
Calculus
p q pq
T T T
T F T
NOTES
F T T
F F F
Example 4.4: Construct the truth table for the compound statement,
~[(~p) (~q)]
Solution: In the given truth table, the first two columns record all the cases for truth
values of p and q. To obtain the entries in the third and fourth columns refer the
table of Example 4.1. The entries in fifth column are obtained by using the table in
Example 4.2. Finally, the entries in fifth column and the table of Example 4.1 give
the entries in sixth column—the truth values of ~[(~p) (~q)].
Truth Table 4.8
p q ~p ~q (~p) (~q) ~[(~p) (~q)]
T T F F F T
T F F T F T
F T T F F T
F F T T T F
Please note that this is also the truth table of pvq.
Example 4.5: Construct the truth table for the compound statement,
(p q) ~p
Solution: In the following truth table, the first two columns record all cases for truth
values of p and q. The entries in third and fourth columns are obtained by using truth
table of Example 4.2 and truth table of Example 4.1, respectively. Finally, the entries
in fifth column are obtained by using third and fourth columns and table of
Example 4.2.
Truth Table 4.9
p q pq ~p (p q) ~p
T T T F F
T F F F F
F T F T F
F F F T F
Please note that this shows a contradiction.
Example 4.6: Construct the truth table for the compound statement,
~[(~p) (~q)]
Solution: With the help of truth table given in Example 4.1 and Example 4.3, we
record the entries in the following truth table of ~[(~p) (~q)].
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Logic and Propositional Truth Table 4.10
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p q ~p ~q ~p ~q ~[~p ~q]
T T F F F T
NOTES T F F T T F
F T T F T F
F F T T T F
Truth values of last column is same as that of p q.
Example 4.7: Let p be the statement ‘The South-West monsoon is very good this
year’ and q be the statement ‘rivers are rising.’ Give the verbal translations for,
(i) p ~q (ii) ~(~p ~q)
Solution: (i) ~q means ‘rivers are not rising’. So, p ~q means ‘The South-West
monsoon is very good this year and rivers are not rising’.
(ii) ~p ~q means ‘Neither South-West monsoon is very good this year nor
rivers are rising.’ So ~(~p ~q) means, ‘It is not true that neither South-West
monsoon are very good this year nor rivers are rising’.
Two statements, p and q are said to be equivalent if they have same truth
values for all logical possibilities. In this case, we write p q. In other words, two
statements are equivalent if they have same truth table. For example, the truth
tables of p q (Truth Table 4.7) and ~(~p ~q) (Truth Table 4.8) are same,
implying that:
p q ~(~p ~q)
Example 4.8: Prove the following relations:
(i) ~(p q) ~p ~q
(ii) ~(p q) ~p ~q
These are called De Morgan’s Laws.
Solution: The following Truth Tables 4.11 and 4.12 prove the relations (i) and (ii).
Truth Table 4.11
p q pq ~(p q) ~p ~q ~p ~q
T T T F F F F
T F T F F T F
F T T F T F F
F F F T T T T
Truth Table 4.12
p q pq ~(p q) ~p ~q ~p ~q
T T T F F F F
T F F T F T T
F T F T T F T
F F F T T T T
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Example 4.9: Prove the following relations: Logic and Propositional
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(i) ~(~p) p
(ii) ~(p ~q) ~p q
(iii) ~(~p q) p ~q NOTES
(iv) ~(~p ~q) p q
Solution: (i) There are two logical possibilities, namely, p is true or p is false. Now,
when p is true, ~p is false, and so, ~(~p) is true. Also, when p is false, ~p is true and
so, ~(~p) is false.
Therefore, p and ~(~p) have same truth values. This proves relation (i).
(ii) By De Morgan’s Law
~(p ~q) ~p ~(~q) ~p q, by relation (i)
(iii) Also, by De Morgan’s Law
~(~p q) ~(~p) ~q p ~q, by relation (i)
(iv) Again, using De Morgan’s Law
~(~p ~ q) ~(~p) ~(~q) p q, by relation (i)
4.4 TAUTOLOGY AND CONTRADICTION
A statement is said to be a tautology if it is true for all logical possibilities.
A statement is said to be a contradiction if it is false for all logical possibilities.
In the following example, suppose t is a tautology, c is a contradiction and p is any
proposition. Then,
According to Tautology Laws:
ptp
ptt
tc
According to Contradiction Laws:
pcc
pcp
ct
The following examples and the truth tables are discussed to verify these laws.
Example 4.10: Prove that the statement p ~ p is a tautology while p ~ p is a
contradiction.
Solution: If p is false, then ~p is true. So, p ~ p is true and p ~p is false. If p
is true, then ~p is false. So, p ~p is true and p ~p is false. These are the only
logical possibilities and in each case p ~p is true while p ~p is false. This proves
our assertion.
Example 4.11: Prove that (p q) (p q) is a tautology.
Solution: The following truth table shows that the compound statement,
(p q) (p q) has truth value T for all logical possibilities and so, it is a tautology.
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Logic and Propositional Since, pq=~pq
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( p q) (p q)
= ~(p q) (p q)
NOTES Truth Table 4.13
p q pq ~ (p q) pq (p q) (p q)
= ~(p q) (p q)
T T T F T T
T F F T T T
F T F T T T
F F F T F T
Example 4.12: Prove that (p q) ~(p q) is a contradiction.
Solution: The following truth table shows that the compound statement,
(p q) ~(p q) has truth value F for all logical possibilities and so it is a
contradiction.
Truth Table 4.14
p q pq pq ~(p q) (p q) ~(p q)
T T T T F F
T F F T F F
F T F T F F
F F F F T F
Example 4.13: Prove that (p q) (q r) (p r) is a tautology. This is
also called Transitive Law.
Solution: We construct the truth table for the given compound statement to prove
the assertion.
Truth Table 4.15
p q r pq qr pr (p q) (q r) (p q) (qr) (pr)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F T F T T F T
T F F F T F F T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T F T F T
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T
Example 4.14: If t denotes tautology and p is any statement, then show that,
(i) p t p
(ii) p t t
Solution: (i) When p is true, p t is also true (as t is always true) and when p is
false, p t is false. So, p and p t are equivalent statements.
(ii) When p is true, p t is also true and when p is false, p t is true. So, p t is
always true. Hence, p t and t are equivalent statements.
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Example 4.15: If c denotes a contradiction and p be any statement, then show Logic and Propositional
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that,
(i) p c p (ii) p c c
Solution: (i) If p is true, then p c is clearly true and if p is false, then p c is false
(as c is always false). So, p c and p are equivalent statements. NOTES
(ii) If p is true, then p c is false and again p is false implies that p c is false.
So, p c is a contradiction. Hence, p c and c are equivalent statements.
Biconditional Statement
Consider the statement,
‘If you work hard you will be successful’. Suppose p stands for ‘You work
hard’ and q stands for ‘You will be successful.’ In symbols, the above statement can
be written as p q.
Such statements are called Conditional Statements. Here q depends upon p,
but p need not depend upon q.
The compound statement p q is true in every case except, when p is true
and q is false.
If two conditional statements are combined, such as p q and q P, then it is
known as biconditional statement, it is denoted as p q.
Example 4.16: Construct truth table for p q.
Solution: The truth table of p q will be:
Truth Table 4.16
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Example 4.17: Suppose p stands for ‘The triangle is isosceles’ and q stands for
‘Two sides of the triangle are of equal length’. Translate the following compound
statement into a symbolic form and give its equivalent statement, both in words and
symbols.
‘If the triangle is isosceles, then two sides of the triangle are of equal length.’
Solution: The above compound statement in symbolic form is ‘p q’.
We show that (p q) (~q) (~p). The following Truth Table 4.17 proves our
assertion:
Truth Table 4.17
p q pq ~q ~p ~q ~p
T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
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Logic and Propositional So, the equivalent statement in words will be ‘If two sides of the triangle are not
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of equal length, then the triangle is not isosceles’.
Example 4.18: Are the following statements equivalent?
‘If the traders do not reduce the prices, then the government will take action
NOTES against them’.
‘It is not true that the traders do not reduce the prices and government does not
take action against them’.
Solution: Suppose p stands for ‘traders do not reduce the prices’ and q stands for
‘government takes action against them’.
The first statement in symbolic form is p q and the second statement is
~(p ~q). We prove their equivalence by constructing the Truth Table 4.18:
Trtuh Table 4.18
p q ~q p ~q ~(p ~q) pq
T T F F T T
T F T T F F
F T F F T T
F F T F T T
Example 4.19: Construct the truth table for p q.
Solution: The following is the truth table for p q:
Truth Table 4.19
p q pq qp pq
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
Example 4.20: A firm of Chartered Accountants makes the following declaration:
An articled clerk from the firm passing the final C.A. examination in the first attempt
will be awarded a prize of Rs 100. Five clerks P, Q, R, S, U appeared in the
examination and only P, Q could pass. The firm awards prizes not only to them but
to R and S also. Is this action logically justified? U claims the prize comparing himself
with R and S but the firm refuses. Is this refusal logically justified? How should the
statement be worded so that only P and Q will be entitled for the prize.
Solution: Suppose p stands for ‘passing the examination in first attempt’ and q
stands for ‘getting a prize,’ then declaration of the firm is a conditional statement
p q Truth Table 4.19. It is very clear from truth table of p q that relationship
p q is false only when p is true and q is false. In other words, if R and S get a
prize, the action is logically justified by looking at 3rd row of the truth table. Again, U
does not get a prize implies statement q is false for U. Since ‘U has not passed the
examination’ implies p is false for U, so, 4th row suggests that action is logically
justified. Also P and Q get a prize implies q is true for P and Q. Since P and Q have
passed the examination implies p is true for P and Q. So, first row suggests that
action, P, Q get a prize is logically justified.
Now, consider the truth table of p q. Since R, S, U fail in the examination
implies p is false for R, S, U. If they get a prize, then q is true for them. Third row
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suggests that, it is not correct. If R, S, U do not get a prize, then q is false for them Logic and Propositional
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and 4th row suggests that it is correct. So, truth table of p q shows that if a
person fails, he cannot get a prize. Finally, if P, Q get a prize then p, q are true for
both P and Q and by first row, it is correct. If P, Q do not get a prize, then q is false
for P and Q and so by 2nd row, it is not true. So, the truth table of p q shows that NOTES
only P and Q can get a prize.
Hence, the statement should be ‘Those and only those persons who pass the
examination in first attempt will get a prize of Rs 100’.
Example 4.21: Are the following statements equivalent? Justify ‘it is not true that
Ashok will get a job if and only if he secures first division’.
‘Ashok will not get a job if and only if he secures first division’.
Solution: Suppose p stands for ‘Ashok gets a job’ and q stands for ‘Ashok secures
first division’. The two statements in symbolic form will then be:
~(p q), ~p q
We prove their equivalence by constructing the Truth Table 4.20.
Truth Table 4.20
p q ~p ~p q p q ~(p q)
T T F F T F
T F F T F T
F T T T F T
F F T F T F
4.5 LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
An important step used in mathematical argument is the replacement of a statement
with another statement with the same truth value. Because of this, methods that
produce propositions with the same truth value as a given compound proposition
are used extensively in the construction of mathematical arguments.
Equivalence
Two propositions are logically equivalent or simply equivalent if they have exactly
the same truth values under all circumstances.
We can also define this notion as follows,
The propositions p and q are called logically equivalent, if p q is tautology.
The equivalence of p and q is denoted by p q.
Notes: 1. One way to determine whether two propositions are equivalent is
to use a truth table. In particular, the propositions p and q are logically
equivalent, if and only if the columns giving their truth values agree.
Notes 2. Whenever we find logically equivalent statements, we can substitute
one for another as we wish, since this action will not change the
truth value of any statement.
Example 4.22: Show that ~ (p q) and ~ p ~ q are logically equivalent.
Solution: Construct the truth table of these propositions as shown below. Since
the truth values are same for all combinations, it follows that these propositions
are logically equivalent.
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Logic and Propositional Truth Table 4.21
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p q ~p ~q p q ~ (p q) ~ p ~ q
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
NOTES
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
Example 4.23: Show that two propositions p q and ~ p ~ q are logically
equivalent.
Solution: Construct the required truth table. Since the truth values of p q
and ~ p q agree,
p q ~ p q
Truth Table 4.22
p q ~p p q ~ p q
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
Example 4.24: Show that p (q r) p (~ q r) (p q) r.
Solution: Refer Example 4.23 that q r ~ q r.
Replacing q r by ~ q r, we get
p (q r) p (~ q r)
~ p (~ q r) [by Example 4.23]
(~ p ~ q) r using Associativity of
~ (p q) r (by Example 4.22)
(p q) r [by Example 4.23]
Table 4.23 contains some important equivalences. In these equivalences, 1
denotes any proposition that is a tautology, and 0 denotes any proposition that is
a contradiction. The symbol p, q, r represent arbitrary propositions. Most of the
equivalences in this table have straight forward intuitive interpretations and all of
them can be verified by constructing truth tables.
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Table 4.23 Logical Equivalences Logic and Propositional
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Equivalence Name
1. p (p p) Idempotents of NOTES
2. p (p p) Idempotents of
3. (p q) (q p) Commutativity of
4. (p q) (q p) Commutativity of
5. (p q) r p (q r) Associativity of
6. (p q) r p (q r) Associativity of
7. ~ (p q) ~ p ~ q De Morgan’s law 1
8. ~ (p q) ~ p ~ q De Morgan’s law 2
9. p (q r) (p q) (p r) Distributive of over
10. p (q r) (p q) (p r) Distributive of over
11. p 1 1 Null or Domination law 1
12. p 0 0 Null or Domination law 2
13. p 1 p Identity law 1
14. p 0 p Identity law 2
15. p ~ p 1 Negation law 1
16. p ~ p 0 Negation law 2
17. ~ (~ p) p Double Negation law
(Involution)
18. p q ~ p q Implication law
19. p q (p q) (q p) Equivalence law
20. (p q) r p (q r) Exportation law
21. (p q) (p ~ q) p Absurdity law
22. pq~q~p Contrapositive law
23. p (p q) p Absorption law 1
24. p (p q) p Absorption law 2
25. p q (p q) (~ p ~ q) Biconditional law
Example 4.25: Show that ~ (p (~ p q) and ~ p ~ q are logically equivalent.
Solution: Instead of a truth table we shall establish equivalence by developing a
series of logical equivalences using Table 4.23, starting with ~ (p (~ p q)
and ending with ~ p ~ q.
~ (p (~ p q) ~ p ~ (~ p q) by De Morgan’s law 1
~ p (~ (~ p) ~ q) by De Morgan’s law 2
~ p (p ~ q) by Involution law
(~ p p) (~ p ~ q) by Distributive law of over
0 (~ p ~ q) by Negation law 2
(~ p ~ q) 0 by Commutative law of
~ p ~ q by Identity law 2
Hence, ~ (p (~ p q)) and ~ p ~ q are logically equivalent.
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Logic and Propositional Example 4.26: Show that (p q) (p q) 1.
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Solution:
(p q) (p q) ~ (p q) (p q) by Implication law
NOTES (~ p ~ q) (p q) by De Morgan’s law 2
~ p (~ q p) q by Associative law of
~ p (p ~ q) q by Commutative law of
(~ p p) (~ q q) by Associative law of
1 1 by Negation law 1
1 by Domination law 1
Hence proved.
Note: This could also be done using a truth table.
Example 4.27: Show that (~p (~ q r)) (q r) (p r) r.
Solution:
(~ p (~ q r)) (q r) (p r)
(~ p (~ q r)) ((q p) r) by Distributive law of over
((~ p ~ q) r) ((q p) r) by Associative law of
((~ p ~ q) (q p)) r by Distributive law of on
(~ (p q) (p q)) r by De Morgan’s law 1 and
Commutative law of
1 r by Negation law 1
r by Identity law 1
Hence proved.
Example 4.28: Show that
(p q) ~ (~ p (~ q ~ r))) (~ p ~ q) (~ p ~ r) is a tautology.
Solution: Consider,
(~ p ~ q) (~ p r)
~ (p q) ~ (p r) by De Morgan’s law 1
~ ((p q) (p r)) by De Morgan’s law 2
~ (~ p (~ q ~ r))
~ (~ p ~ (q r)) by De Morgan’s law 2
~ (~ p) ~ (~ (q r)) by De Morgan’s law 2
p (q r) by Involution law
(p q) (p r) by Distributive law of over
Hence, the given formula is equivalent to,
((p q) (p r)) ~ ((p q) (p r))
If we substitute (p q) (p r) for p in p ~ p, we get the above formula.
But p ~ p 1, the given formula is a tautology.
Example 4.29: Prove the following equivalences.
(i) p (q p) ~ p (p q)
(ii) p (q r) (p q) (p r)
(iii) (p q) (r q) (p r) q
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150 Material
Solution: Logic and Propositional
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(i) Consider, p (q p) ~ p (~ q p) by Implication law
(~ p p) ~ q by Associative and Commutative
laws of
1 ~ q by Negation law 1
NOTES
1 by Null law 1
Again, ~ p (p q) ~ (~ p) (~ p q) by Implication law
p (~ p q) by Involution law
(p ~ p) q by Associative law of
1 q by Negation law 1
1 by Null law 1
Hence, p (q p) ~ p (p q).
(ii) p (q r) ~ p (q r) by Implication law
~ p ~ p (q r), since ~ p ~ p ~ p
(~ p q) (~ p r)
by Associative and Commutative laws of
(p q) (p r) by Implication law
(iii) (p q) (r q) (~ p q) (~ r q) by Implication law
(~ p ~ r) q by Distributive law of over
~ (p r) q by De Morgan’s law 1
(p q) q by Implication law
(iv) ~ (p q) ~ ((p q) ~ (p q)) by biconditional and De Morgan’s
law 1
~ (p q) ~ (~ (p q)) by De Morgan’s law 1
~ (p q) (p q) by Involution law
(p q) ~ (p q) by Commutative law of
Example 4.30: Write an equivalent formula for p (q r) (r p) which
does not contain the biconditional.
Solution: Since p q (p q) (q p), p (q r) (r p) p
(q r) (r q)) ((r p) (p r)).
Example 4.31: Write an equivalent formula for p (q r) which contains
neither the biconditional nor the conditional.
Solution: Since, p q (p q) (q p) and p q ~ p q.
p (q r) p ((q r) (r q))
p ((~ q r) (~ r q))
Duality
Two formulae or propositions are said to be dual of each other if either one can
be obtained from the other by replacing by and by .
Notes: 1. The connectives and are called duals. If the proposition contains
the special variables 1 or 0, then its dual, is obtained by replacing 1
by 0 and 0 by 1 in addition to the above mentioned interchanges.
Notes 2. If any two formulae are equivalent, then their duals are also equivalent to
each other. Self - Learning
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Logic and Propositional Example 4.32: Write the duals of the following:
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(i) (p q) r (ii) (p q) 1
(iii) ~ (p q) (p ~ (q ~ s))
NOTES
Solution: The duals are:
(i) (p q) r (ii) (p q) 0 (iii) ~ (p q) (p ~ (q ~ s)).
Example 4.33: Show that,
(i) ~ (p q) (~ p (~ p q)) (~ p q)
(ii) (p q) (~ p (~ p q)) (~ p q)
Solution:
(i) ~ (p q) (~ p (~ p q))
(p q) (~ p (~ p q)) by Implication and Involution laws
(p q) (~ p q) by Associative law
((p q) ~ p) q by Associative law
((p ~ p) (q ~ p)) q by Distributive law
(1 (q ~ p)) q by Negation law
(q ~ p) q by Identity law 1
~ p q by Associative, Idempotent and Commutative laws
(ii) In (i) we have proved that,
(p q) (~ p (~ p q)) (~ p q)
By Note (2) of duality,
(p q) (~ p (~ p q)) (~ p q)
Implication
A proposition p is said to logically imply or tautologically imply or
simply imply a proposition q if q is true whenever p is true. We can also define
this notion as follows:
A proposition p is said to logically imply a proposition q if p q is a tautolgoy.
The implication of p to q is denoted by p q.
Notes: 1. One can determine whether p q by constructing the truth table
of p and q in the same manner as was done in the determination of
p q.
Notes 2. Since (p q) (p q) (q p) (Equivalence law), it is easy
to see from the definition of equivalence and implication that
p q and if and only if p q and q p. This statement is an
alternative definition of the equivalence as two propositions.
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The implications in Table 4.24 have important applications. All of them can be Logic and Propositional
Calculus
proved by truth table or by other methods.
Table 4.24 Logical Implications
NOTES
Implication Name
1. p q p Conjunctive simplification
2. p q q Conjunctive simplification
3. p p q Disjunctive addition
4. p (p q) q Detachment
5. ~ q (p q) ~ p Contrapositive
6. (p q) ~ q p Disjunctive simplification
7. (p q) ~ p q Disjunctive simplification
8. (p q) (q r) (p r) Chain rule
9. ~ p p q
10. q p q
11. ~ (p q) p
12. ~ (p q) ~ q
13. (p q) (p q) (q r) r Dilemma
14. p q p q
15. p (q r) (p q) (p r)
Example 4.34: Show that p q logically implies p q.
Solution: Consider the truth table of p q and p q. Now p q is true
in line 1 and 4, and in these cases p q is also true. Hence, p q implies
p q.
Table 4.25
p q p q pq
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
Now we will introduce two methods to show p q.
Method 1: To show the implication p q, we assume that p has the truth value
1 and then show that this assumption leads to q having the value 1. Then p q
must have the value 1.
Method 2: To show p q, we assume that q has the truth value 0 and then
show that this assumption leads to p having the value 0. Then p q must have
the truth value 1.
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Logic and Propositional Example 4.35: Prove that the implication given in the Table 4.24 for,
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(p q) (p r)(q r) r, is true.
Solution: Now by Method 1, we assume that (p q) (p r) (q r) is
true. This assumption means that p q, p r and q r are true. Since
NOTES
p q is true, at least one p or q is true. If p is true then r must be true since
p r is true. If q is true then, r must be true since q r is true. So, r is true.
Hence, the Result (13) in Table 4.24 is true..
Example 4.36: Prove that the implication given in the Table 4.24 ~ q
(p q) ~ p, is true.
Solution: Now by method 2, assume that ~ p is false, so, p is true. If q is
true then ~ q is false. If q is false then p q is false. So, in both cases,
~ q (p q) is false. Hence, the Implication (5) in Table 4.24 is true.
Example 4.37: Show the following implications:
(i) (p q) p q
(ii) p q p
(iii) p (q r) (p q) (p r)
Solution:
(i) Assume that p q is true. This means that p and q are true. So, p q
must also be true. Hence, by Method 1, the result follows.
(ii) Assume that p is true. Then, for all possible truth values of q, q p is
true. Hence, by Method 1, the result follows.
(iii) Assume that (p q) (p r) is false. Then p r is false and
p q is true. This means that p and q are true. Since r is false, q r
is false and hence p (q r) must also be false. Hence, by Method 2,
the implication follows.
Example 4.38: Show the following implications without constructing the truth
tables.
(i) p q p (p q)
(ii) (p q) q p q
(iii) ((p~ p) q) ((p ~ p) r) q r
(iv) (q (p ~ p)) (r (p ~ p)) r q
Solution:
(i) Assume that p (p q) is false. Then, p is true and p q is false. So,
q is false. Hence, p q is false. So, by Method 2, the implication follows.
(ii) Assume that p q is false. This means that both p and q are false. So,
p q is true and hence (p q) q is false. Hence, by Method 2, the
result follows.
(iii) Suppose that q r is false. Then, q is true and r is false. This implies
that (p ~p) q is true and p ~q r is false. Hence (p ~ p)
q ((p ~ p) r) is false. By Method 2, the result follows.
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(iv) Assume that r q is false. Then, r is true and q is false. So, q ((p Logic and Propositional
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~ p) is true and r (p ~ p) is false. Hence, (q (p ~ p) r (p
~ p)) is false and the result follows.
Note: Note that p ~ p is always true and p ~ p is always false.
NOTES
Example 4.39: If p1, p2, ..., pn and p imply q, then p1, p2, ..., pn imply p q.
Solution: Let us assume that (p1 p2 ... pn p) q
This means (p1 p2 ... pn p) q is a tautology.
But we know that (p q) r p (q r)
Using this, we get (p1 p2 ... pn) (p q) is a tautology.
Hence, (p1 p2 ... pn) (p q).
Check Your Progress
6. What is a Truth Table?
7. Explain tautology and contradiction.
8. What is a statement?
9. When the two propositions are logically equivalent?
10. When are two statements p and q equivalent?
4.6 ALGEBRA OF LOGICAL PREPOSITIONS
Algebra of Statements
The following are some important laws of statements that are used to prove the
tautologies and statements.
(1) Commutative Laws. If p and q are two statements, then p q q p and
pqqp
(2) Associative Laws. If p, q and r are three statements, then
(i) (p q) r p (q r)
(ii) (p q) r p (q r)
Proof: The following Truth Table 4.26 proves the equivalence of statements:
Truth Table 4.26
p q r pq qr pq q r (p q) r p (q r) (p q) r p (q r)
T T T T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T F T T F F
T F T T T F F T T F F
T F F T F F F T T F F
F T T T T F T T T F F
F T F T T F F T T F F
F F T F T F F T T F F
F F F F F F F F F F F
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Logic and Propositional (3) Identity Laws. If t denotes a tautology and c a contradiction, then for any
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statement p,
p t t, ptp
p c p, p c c
NOTES
(4) Complement Laws. For any statement p,
p ~p t, p ~ p c
(5) Distributive Laws. If p, q and r are three statements, then
(i) p (q r) (p q) (p r)
(ii) p (q r) (p q) (p r)
Proof: We prove (i) and leave (ii) for the reader to prove the equivalence.
The following Truth Table 4.27 proves our assertion:
Truth Table 4.27
p q r pq pr qr p (q r) (p q) (p r)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F T T T
T F T F T T T T
T F F F F F F F
F T T F F T F F
F T F F F T F F
F F T F F T F F
F F F F F F F F
(6) Idempotent Laws. For any statement p,
p p p, p p p
(7) De Morgan’s Laws. If p and q are two statements, then
(i) ~(p q) ~p ~q
(ii) ~(p q) ~p ~q
(8) Contrapositive Law. For any statements p and q,
(p q) (~q ~p)
(9) Law of Double Negation. For any statement p, ~(~p) p
(10) Transitive Law. For any statements p, q and r,
(p q) (q r) (p r) is a tautology.
(11) Law of Addition. If p and q are two statements, then p (p q) is a
tautology.
Proof: The following Truth Table 4.28 establishes our assertion:
Truth Table 4.28
p q pq p (p q)
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F T
(12) Law of Simplification. If p and q are two statements, then
(i) p q p is a tautology.
(ii) p q q is a tautology.
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Notes: 1. Transitive law may also be stated as ‘If p q and q r, then p r for Logic and Propositional
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any statements p, q and r’.
2. and are same, similarly and are also same.
Deductive Reasoning NOTES
The twelve laws listed in above as ‘Algebra of Statements’, are very useful tools for
proving the equivalence of different statements. In this section, we shall prove the
equivalence of statements with the help of these laws only. The method of proof so
used, is called deductive method or deductive reasoning.
Example 4.40: Prove the following tautology by deductive method,
p (p q) q
Solution: From definition, of q
(p q) ~(p ~q)
Now, p (p q) q ~[{p (p q)} ~q]
~[{p ~(p ~q)} ~q]
~[{p (~p q)} ~q] by De Morgan’s law and
law of Double Negation
~[{(p ~p) (p q)} ~q] by Distributive law
~[{(c (p q)} ~q] by Complement
law
~[(p q) ~q] by Identity law
~[p (q ~q)] by Associative law
~[p c] by Complement
law
~c by Identity law
t
Therefore, p (p q) q is a tautology.
Example 4.41: Prove by deductive reasoning that following is a tautology.
(p q) ~p q
Solution: By definition,
(p q) ~p q ~[{(p q) ~ p} ~ q]
~[{(p ~ p) (q ~ p)} ~ q] by Distributive law
~[{c (q ~ p)} ~ q] by Complement
law
~[(q ~p) ~q] by Identity law
~[(~p q) ~q] by Commutative
law
~[~p (q ~ q)] by Associative law
~[~p c)] by Complement
law
~[c] by Identity law
t
Therefore, (p q) ~ p q is a tautology.
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Logic and Propositional
Calculus 4.7 PROPOSITIONS
In our everyday language, we come across statements that may be interrogative,
declarative or exclamatory. In Mathematics, however, a declarative sentence which
NOTES is either true or false is called a statement.
For example, each of the following is a statement:
(i) Two is an even integer.
(ii) A quadrilateral is a square.
(iii) There is no real number x such that x2 = –1.
(iv) A triangle has three sides.
None of the following is a statement:
(i) May God bless you!
(ii) Who are you?
The statements given in the examples, which are statements, are all simple
statements. A statement which is made up of two or more simple statements is
called a compound statement. For example, ‘The sum of three angles of a triangle
is equal to two right angles and the sum of the lengths of two sides of a triangle is
greater than the length of the third side’ is a compound statement.
Letters such as p, q, r, . . . . are used to represent statements.
Propositional Functions
Just as conventional calculus in mathematics deals with functions showing relationship
between quantities expressed in terms of variables within a valid domain, propositional
calculus deals with propositional functions comprising statements. It deals with the
structure of sentences as composed of components of sentences. Variables are
used to express such components rather than quantities. A normal sentence comprises
of subject and predicate. A predicate is that component of a sentence, as a word or
combination of words, which expresses the nature of a subject. Components of a
sentence are joined by logical connectives in propositional functions. In a statement,
‘x is a natural number’, the predicate is ‘a natural number’ which tells about the
nature of x. In a statement like, p(x): ‘x is a natural number’ is called an open
sentence.
An expression or statement, ‘x is mortal,’ can be converted into a proposition by
replacing ‘x’ with a determinate value. If we assign a value to ‘x’ as Aristotle, then
it becomes a proposition, ‘Aristotle is mortal’. This term originated in an attempt to
derive mathematics from logical axioms. Famous philosopher, Bartend Russell,
applying the notion of propositional functions in the analysis of propositions, has
argued that general propositions state connections between propositional functions.
For example, ‘all men are mortal’ can be analyzed into ‘whatever x may be, if x is a
man, x is mortal.’ A form of words containing an undetermined variable like, ‘x is a
man’ is a ‘propositional function’. If a value is assigned to the variable, this form of
words becomes a proposition. Propositional function is also known as ‘statement
function’.
Proposition according to mathematics, is a statement or theorem, usually
containing its proof. It is a statement that affirms or denies something. As we know
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define operations to be performed. This is also true for the propositional functions. Logic and Propositional
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In a proposition, a Boolean valued function is used which is a function of the type
f : X B. Here, X is any arbitrary set and B is a Boolean domain.
A boolean domain B is a set of 2 discrete elements, for example, B = {0, 1}.
Elements of such a domain are interpreted as logical values, for example, 0 = false NOTES
and 1 = true. This logic is followed in many applications. Discrete mathematics uses
this principle as a tool to be used by other fields too, like business and scientific
applications. For example, 0 may represent absence of a signal and 1 may denote
the presence of the signal. This finds application in the field of telecommunication.
A propositional function is an expression containing symbols for its variable
elements, becomes a proposition when values are substituted for symbols.
Propositional formula or a propositional expression or propositional function, a sentence,
or a sentential formula is a syntactic expression which is formed from the elements
of a given alphabet A of propositional variables, for example, A = {p, q, r, …},
together with the elements of a given set of operator symbols, from propositional
logic. Such operating symbols are k-adic operator symbols, like, the 0-adic operator
symbols in {false, true}, the 1-adic symbol , and some subset of the 2-adic symbols
in {}. Other collections of operator symbols are also used, which depends
on that particular formal language, used for the purpose.
A propositional variable takes Boolean value either true or false and logical
symbols. Such variables are the basic building blocks of propositional formulae or
functions. Such propositional variables are used in propositional and higher logics.
A statement is in the form of a predicate. Any statement with variables can
not be called a proposition. For example, a statement like x > 1, where x is under set
of real numbers has no definite truth value since we don’t know what x stands for.
Its truth value depends on the value of x. If we assign a value to x for x > 1, it
becomes a proposition. Else, if, we say that ‘there is a number x such that x > 1
holds’, or ‘For each number x, x > 1 holds’ or ‘For every number x, x > 1 holds’. In
this case x may not have any specific value, but it will convey a clear meaning that
value of x is a set of values greater than 1.
Thus, a predicate in terms of variables is an atomic formula, which can be
converted to a proposition by performing either of the following two operations:
(i) Assigning a value to the variable.
(ii) Quantifying the variable by adding a quantifier.
Universe of Discourse
The universe of discourse or universe is defined as the set of objects in sample
space as per context. The propositions are expressed as predicate logic. These are
statements in the sample space. Thus, the domain is an universe or sample space.
This can be the set of any mathematical object or even the set of all boys playing in
a park, the set of all scholars in a university department, etc.
Check Your Progress
11. Define commutative law.
12. What are identity laws?
13. Define propositional functions.
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Logic and Propositional
Calculus 4.8 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA - DEFINITION AND
FUNCTIONS
NOTES To understand the basic concept of Boolean algebra and logic gates, some basic
definitions of terms associated with the subject has to be understood. Boolean algebra
is the study of mathematical operations performed on binary variables having only
two values, true or false. True is represented by 1 and false is represented by 0.
This branch of knowledge provides a set of rules which is known as Boolean logic.
These are indispensable in digital circuits or switching-circuit design. Boolean
operations are done with certain algebraic operators which are called Boolean
operators. Basic operators are NOT, AND and OR.
Truth Table: A truth table is a mathematical table that gives output of all
combinations of inputs. These are used to compute the functional values of logical
expressions. Every logical operation can be represented by its truth value. A truth
table has number of columns equal to number of inputs plus one column for the
output. If there are n-input variables, then there are 2n possible combinations since
each variable can have two values 0 or 1.
Logical AND Operation: The logical AND operator indicates whether both
operends are true. The logical AND operation compares two bits and if they are
both 1(TRUE) then the result is 1(TRUE) otherwise it will be 0(FALSE). The symbol
for logical AND is (.).
Logical OR Operation: The logical OR operation compares 2 bits and if
either or both are 1(TRUE) the result is 1(TRUE) otherwise the result is 0(FALSE).
The symbol for logical OR is (+).
Logical Complementation or Negation:In Boolean algebra, the logical
complement or negation of a Boolean value is the opposite value and is denoted by
a bar or a small vertical line (prime) over the function or variable. It is also termed
as NOT operation.
Boolean Addition: The basic rules of Boolean addition are given as follows:
0+0 =0
0+1 =1
1+0 =1
1+1 =1
Boolean addition is same as the logical OR addition.
Boolean Multiplication: The basic rules of Boolean multiplication method
are given as follows:
0.0 = 0
0.1 = 0
1.0 = 0
1.1 = 1
Boolean multiplication is same as the logical AND operation.
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Principle of Duality: For any Boolean expression, another expression can Logic and Propositional
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be obtained by replacing every 0 with 1, every 1 with 0, every (+) with (.) and every
(.) with (+). Any pair of expression satisfying this property is called dual expression.
This characteristic of Boolean algebra is called the principle of duality.
NOTES
De Morgan’s Theorems: A great mathematician De Morgan has given
two of the most important theorems of Boolean algebra. The two theorems are:
Theorem I: (A + B) = A.B.
Theorem II: (A.B) = A + B
Combinational Logic: Combinational logic deals with the techniques
of ‘combining’ the basic gates into circuits that perform some desired functions.
A combinational digital logic function is completely specified using a truth
table.
Product Term: The AND function is referred as a product. In Boolean
algebra, the word ‘product’ loses its original meaning but serves to indicate an AND
function. The logical product of several variables, on which a function depends, is
considered to be a product term. The variables in a product term appear in a
complemented or an uncomplemented form. For example, AB or AB a product
term.
Sum Term: An OR function is generally referred to as a sum. The logical
sum of variables on which a function depends is considered to be a sum term.
Variables in a sum term can appear either in a complemented or an uncomplemented
form. For example, A + B or A + B is a sum term.
Minterm: A minterm is a special case product (AND) term. A minterm is a
product term that contains all of the input variables that make up a Boolean expression.
A 2-variable function has four possible combinations, viz., AB,AB,AB and AB.
Maxterm: A maxterm is a special case sum (OR) term. A maxterm is a sum
(OR) term that contains all of the input variables that make up a Boolean expression.
A 2-variable function has four possible combinations, viz., A B,A B,A B,A B.
Sum of Products: Sum of Products (SOP) is the logical sum of two or more
logical product terms is called a sum of products expression. It is logical OR of
multiple product terms. Each product term is the AND of binary literals. An ORing
of ANDed variables such as:
(i) Y = AB + BC + AC (ii) Y = AB’ + B’C + A’C’
Product of Sums: A product of sums is the logical AND of multiple OR
terms. Each sum term is the OR of binary literals. An ANDing of ORed variables
such as:
(A+B),(A
(A B) B)(A B)
Canonical forms: Canonical is a word used to describe a condition of a switching
equation. In normal use, the word means ‘conforming to a general rule’. The ‘rule’,
for switching logic, is that each term is used in a switching equation which must
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Logic and Propositional contain all of the available input variables. Two formats generally exist for expressing
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switching equations in a canonical form are: (i) Sums of minterms and (ii) Products
of maxterms.
NOTES Standard Forms
There are two standard forms in which any Boolean function can be expressed.
These are Sum of Product (SOP) and Product of Sum (POS). Both these forms
contain literals that are either in normal or in complement form. In any combination,
a variable A may be either in its normal for or in complemented form as A. These
literals are combined as Product or Sum. Every Boolean expression can be written
either in Sum of Product (SOP) expression or Product of Sum (POS).
Sum of Product (SOP) expression: It represents single product or several
products with logical sum (OR). For example, A, A+BC,AB+ABC, AB+AB,
etc.
Product of Sum (POS) expression: This may be a single sum or several sum
with logical product (AND). For example: A, A.(B+C),(A+B)(A+B+C),
(A+B)(A+B) are product of the sum form.
Check Your Progress
14. What is a product term?
15. What is a sum term?
16. What are minterm and maxterm?
17. What is meant by sum of products?
18. What is product of sums?
4.9 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA - THEOREMS AND
PROPERTIES
Basic logic functions and operations are the AND function (logical multiplication),
the OR function (logical addition) and the NOT operation (logical complementation).
Logical AND Operation
The logical AND operation between two Boolean variables, A and B, is written as
Y = A . B. The common symbol for this operation is the multiplication sign (.).
Table 4.29 shows that the result of logically ANDing the variables A and B is logical
0 for all cases except when both A and B are logical 1. Normally, the dot denoting
the AND function is omitted and A . B is written as AB.
Logical OR Operation
The logical OR operation between two Boolean variables, A and B, is written as
Y = A + B and can be represented by a truth table. Table 4.30 shows that the result
of ORing the variables A and B is logical 1 when either A or B (or both) are logical
1. The common symbol for logical addition is the plus sign (+).
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Truth Table 4.29 Logical AND Operation Truth Table 4.30 Logical OR Operation Logic and Propositional
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Logical AND Operation Logical OR Operation
A B Y=A . B A B Y=A+B
0 0 0 0 0 0
NOTES
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Logical Complementation (Inversion)
The logical inverse operation changes logical 1 to logical 0 and vice versa. It is also
called the NOT operation. The common symbol for this operation is a bar over
the function or variable. Several notations are used to indicate the NOT operation,
such as adding asterisks, stars, primes, etc., ‘NOT A’ or the ‘Complement of A’ will
be written as A or A.
A Boolean function is an algebraic expression formed with binary variables,
the logic operation symbols, parentheses and equal sign. A Boolean function can be
transformed from an algebraic expression into a logic diagram composed of AND,
OR, NOT (Inverter) gates.
The purpose of Boolean algebra is to facilitate the analysis and design of
digital circuits. It provides a convenient tool to:
(i) Express in algebraic form a truth table relationship between variables.
(ii) Express in algebraic form the input-output relationship of logic diagram.
(iii) Find simpler circuits for the same function.
Boolean Logic Operations
A Boolean function is an algebraic expression formed using binary constants, binary
variables and basic logic operation symbols.
Basic Laws of Boolean Algebra
Three logic functions (AND, OR and NOT or complement) provide the foundation
for all digital systems analysis and design. Logic operations can be expressed and
minimized mathematically using, laws and theorems of Boolean algebra. It is a
convenient and systematic method of expressing and analysing the operation of
digital circuits and systems. The following are the basic laws of Boolean algebra.
Boolean Addition: The basic of Boolean addition are given as follows:
0+0 =0
0+1 =1
1+0 =1
1+1 =1
Boolean addition is same as the logical OR addition.
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Logic and Propositional Boolean Multiplication: The basic rules of Boolean multiplication method are
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given as follows:
0.0 = 0
0.1 = 0
NOTES
1.0 = 0
1.1 = 1
Boolean multiplication is same as the logical AND operation.
Properties of Boolean Algebra: Boolean algebra is a mathematical system
consisting of a set of two or more distinct elements, two binary operators denoted by
the symbols (+) and (.), and one unary operator denoted by the symbol either bar
(–) or prime (). This satisfies the commutative, associative, distributive, absorption,
consensus and idempotency properties of the Boolean algebra.
Commutative Laws: Boolean addition is commutative and is given by,
A+B =B+A ...(1)
A.B=B.A ...(2)
These laws indicate that the order in which we OR or AND two variables is not
important; the result is the same.
Associative Laws:
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C ...(3)
A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C ...(4)
These laws state that we can group the variables in an AND expression or OR
expression any way we want.
Distributive Laws:
A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C ...(5)
A + B . C = (A + B) . (A + C)
These laws state that an expression can be expanded by multiplying term by term
just the same as in ordinary algebra.
This theorem also indicates that you can factor an expression. That is, if you
have a sum of two (or more) terms, each of which contains a common variable. The
common variable can be factored out just as in ordinary algebra.
A + (B . C) = (A + B) . (A + C) ...(6)
Proof: A+B . C =A . 1+B . C ( A . 1 = A)
= A . (1 + B) + BC ( 1 + B = 1)
= A . 1 + A . B + BC ( A(B + C) = AB + AC)
= A . (1 + C) + AB + BC ( 1 + C = 1)
= A . 1 + AC + AB + BC
= A . A + AC + AB + BC ( A . A = A)
= A(A + C) + B(A + C)
Self - Learning A + (B . C) = (A + B).(A + C)
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Absorption Laws: Logic and Propositional
Calculus
(i) A + AB = A ...(7)
Proof: A + AB = A . 1 + AB = A(1 + B)
A + AB = A . 1 = A NOTES
(ii) A . (A + B) = A ...(8)
Proof: A . (A + B) = A . A + A . B
= A + AB = A(1 + B) = A . 1
A . (A + B) = A
(iii) A A.B =A+B ...(9)
Proof: A A . B = (A A )( A B) [ A + B.C = (A + B).(A + C)]
= 1 . (A + B) ( A A 1)
A A.B =A+B
(iv) A .(A B) = AB ...(10)
Proof: A .(A B) = ( A. A) ( A.B )
A .(A B) = AB ( A . A 0 )
Consensus Laws:
(i) AB AC BC = AB AC ...(11)
Proof: AB AC BC = AB AC BC .1
= AB AC BC ( A A) ( A A = 1)
= AB AC ABC ABC
= AB(1 C ) AC (1 B )
AB AC BC = AB AC ( 1 + C = 1)
(ii) (A B )( A C )( B C) = ( A B )( A C) ...(12)
Proof: (A B )( A C )( B C ) = ( A B)( A C )( B C 0)
= ( A B)( A C )( B C AA )
= ( A B)( A C )( B C A )( B C A)
[ A + BC = (A + B)(A + C)]
= ( A B)( A B C )( A C )( A C B)
(A B )( A C )( B C) = ( A B )( A C) [ A(A + B) = A]
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Logic and Propositional The other basic laws of Boolean algebra are given in Table 4.31.
Calculus
Truth Table 4.31 Laws of Boolean Algebra
No. Boolean Laws
NOTES 2.13 (a) A + 0 = A (b) A . 1 = A
2.14 (a) A + 1 = 1 (b) A . 0 = 0
2.15 (a) A + A = A (b) A . A = A Idempotency
2.16 (a) A A =1 (b) A . A = 0 Full Set, Null Set
2.17 (a) 0 = 1 (b) 1 = 0
2.18 (a) A A (b) A A Double Inversion or Involution
Principle of Duality: From the above properties and laws of Boolean algebra, it is
seen that they are grouped in pairs as (a) and (b). One expression can be obtained
from the other by replacing every 0 with 1, every 1 with 0, every (+) with (.) and
every (.) with (+). Any pair of expression satisfying this property is called dual
expression. This characteristic of Boolean algebra is called the principle of duality.
De Morgan’s Theorems
A great mathematician De Morgan has contributed with two of the most important
theorems of Boolean algebra. De Morgan’s theorems are extremely useful in
simplifying expression in which product or sum of variables are complemented. The
two theorems are:
Theorem I: A B C .......... = A . B . C ..........
Theorem II: A . B . C .......... = A B C ..........
The complement of an OR sum equals the AND product of the complements.
The complement of an AND product is equal to the OR sum of the
complements.
These two theorems can be easily proved by checking each one for all values
of A, B, C, etc.
The complement of any Boolean expression, a part of any expression, may
be found by means of these theorems. In these rules, two steps are used to form a
complement.
1. The + symbols are replaced with symbols and symbols with + symbols.
2. Each of the term in the expression is complemented.
Implications of De Morgan’s Theorems
Consider Theorem I, A B = A.B
The equation in the left can be seen as the output of a NOR gate whose inputs are
A and B. The right-hand side of the equation is the result of the first inverting both A
and B and then putting them through an AND gate. These two representations are
equivalent and are illustrated in Figure 4.6. Hence, an AND gate with inverters on
each of its inputs is equivalent to a NOR gate.
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Y=A+B Y=AB Logic and Propositional
A A Calculus
=
B B
(a) (b)
NOTES
Fig. 4.6 De Morgan’s Theorems
Consider Theorem II, A B A B
The left-hand side of the equation can be implemented by a NAND gate with
inputs A and B. The right-hand side can be implemented by first inverting inputs A
and B and then putting them through an OR gate. These two equivalent
representations are shown in Figure 4.7(a). The OR gate with inverters on each of
its inputs is equivalent to the NAND gate. When the OR gate with inverted inputs is
used to represent the NAND function, it is usually drawn as shown in Figure 4.7(b).
Y = AB
A A Y=A+B
=
B B
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.7 OR Gate used to Represent the NAND Function
De Morgan’s theorems can be proved for any number of variables and proof of
these two theorems for 2-input variables is shown in Truth Table 4.32.
Table 4.32 De Morgan’s Theorems
A B A B A+B A.B A B AB AB A. B
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
Realization of Expression using Gates
Some examples of realization of expression using gates are given below:
Example 4.42: Simplify AB ABC A ( B AB )
Solution: AB ABC A ( B AB ) = AB ABC AB AAB )
= A( B BC ) AB AB
= A ( B C ) AB AB
= AB AC A ( B B )
= AB AC A.1
= AB AC A
= ( AB ) ( AC ) A
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Logic and Propositional
Calculus = ( A B) ( A C ) A
= A AC AB BC A
= A ( 1 C B ) BC A
NOTES
= A BC A 1 BC
= 1 =0
Example 4.43: Show that Y = ABC ABC ABC can be simplified to
Y = A (B + C)
Solution: Y = ABC ABC ABC
= AC ( B B ) ABC = AC.1 ABC
Y = A (C BC ) = A (C B)
= A (B + C)
Example 4.44: Using Boolean algebra simplify the following expression:
Y = ABC ABC ABC ABC
Realize the simplified expression for the above equation using basic logic gates.
Solution: Y = ABC ABC ABC ABC
= BC ( A A) ABC ABC
= BC .1 ABC ABC ( A A 1)
= BC ABC ABC
= B (C AC ) ABC
= B (C A) ABC ( C AC C A)
= BC AB ABC
= BC A ( B BC )
= BC A ( B C )
= BC AB AC = AB + BC + C A
The logic circuit for the above simplified expression is given in the figure.
A B C
Y=AB+BC+CA
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Example 4.45: Expand the term S = A B C using Boolean theorems. Realize Logic and Propositional
Calculus
the above expression using basic logic gates.
Solution: S = A B C
= ( AB BA) C
NOTES
= ( AB BA) C C ( AB BA)
= ( AB ) ( BA).C ABC ABC
= [( A B ) ( B A)] C ABC ABC
= [( A B ) ( B A)] C ABC ABC
= ( AB AA BB BA) C ABC ABC
= ( AB BA) C ABC ABC ( AA = 0)
S = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
The logic circuit for the simplified expression is shown in the Figure below.
A B C
A BC
ABC
S = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
ABC
ABC
Example 4.46: Simplify the following Boolean expression and realize using the
basic logic gates: ABC ABC ABC ABC
Solution: Y = ABC ABC ABC ABC
= AC ( B B ) ABC ABC
= AC.1 ABC ABC ( B B 1)
= A (C BC ) ABC
= A (C B) ABC ( C BC C B)
= AC AB ABC
= AC B ( A AC )
= AC B ( A C )
= AC AB BC = AB + BC + CA
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Logic and Propositional The above Boolean expression is realized using the basic logic gates as shown in the
Calculus
Figure below.
A B C
NOTES
Y = AB + BC + CA
Example 4.47: Apply De Morgan’s theorems to each of the following expressions:
(i) A B C (ii) A B CD (iii) ( A B) CD E F
Solution: (i) A B C = ( A B) (C )
= (A + B) . C = AC + BC
(ii) A B CD = ( A B) . CD
= ( AB) CD
= ( A . B ) . CD = ABCD
(iii) ( A B) CD E F = ( A B) (C D ) E F
= ( AC AD BC BD E F )
= ( AC ) ( AD) ( BC ) ( BD) ( E ) ( F )
= ( A C ) ( A D ) ( B C ) ( B D) ( E ) ( F )
= [ AA AD CA CD] ( BB BD CB CD) EF
= ( A AD CA CD) ( B BD CB CD) EF
( AA A)
= [ A (1 D) CA CD] [ B (1 D) (CB CD] EF
= [ A CA CD] [ B CB CD] EF ( 1 A 1)
= [ A (1 C ) CD][ B (1 C ) CD] EF
= [ A CD][ B CD] EF
= [ AB ACD BCD CD.CD] EF
= [ AB CD ( A B ) CD] EF
= [ AB CD ( A B 1) EF
= [ AB + CD] EF
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Example 4.48: Simplify the following functions using relevant theorems. Mention Logic and Propositional
Calculus
the theorems used.
(i) AB AC BC (ii) ( A BC ) ( AB C )
NOTES
(iii) ( A B) ( A C ) ( B C ) (iv) AB ABC AB ABC
Solution: (i) AB AC BC = AB C ( A B )
= AB C AB
= AB C AB (By De Morgan’s theorem
AB = A B )
Let AB = X, you have AB C AB = X CX
= X C
= AB + C
(ii) ( A BC ) ( AB C ) = AAB AC ABBC BCC
= AB AC ACB BC ( A. A A)
= AB AC (1 B ) BC
= AB + AC + BC ( 1 B 1)
(iii) ( A B) ( A C ) ( B C ) = ( A.B ) ( A C ) ( B C )
= ( AB ) ( AB AC CB CC )
= AB . AB AB AC AB . CB 0
( CC = 0)
= AB ABC ABC ( AB . AB = AB and BB = B )
= AB (1 C ) ABC
= AB ABC ( 1 C = 1)
= AB (1 C ) ( 1 C = 1)
= AB
(iv) AB ABC AB ABC = AB (1 C ) AB ABC
= AB AB ABC ( 1 C = 1)
= B ( A A) ABC
= B + ABC ( A A = 1)
Example 4.49: Write the truth tables of the following Boolean expressions and
draw their logic diagrams:
(i) Y = ABC ABC AB (ii) Y = AB AC
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Logic and Propositional
Calculus Solution: (i) Y = ABC ABC AB
Truth Table
Inputs Output
NOTES
A B C A B ABC ABC AB Y = ABC ABC AB
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Logic Diagram
A B C
ABC
ABC Y = A B C + A BC + AB
AB
(ii) Y = AB AC
Truth Table
Inputs Output
A B C A B AB AC Y = AB AC
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
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Logic Diagram Logic and Propositional
Calculus
A B C
AB NOTES
Y = AB + AC
AC
Example 4.50: Simplify and realize using only NAND gates the following Boolean
expressions:
(i) XYZ XYZ YZ Z (ii) ( A B C ) ( A B C ) ( A B)
Solution: (i) Output = XYZ XYZ YZ Z ( A A 1)
= XYZ YZ Z
= YZ ( X 1) Z
= YZ + Z = YZ .Z ( 1 + A = 1)
Logic Diagram
Y YZ
Z
O = YZZ = YZ + Z
Z
(ii) ( A B C ) ( A B C ) ( A B )
= ( AA AB AC BA BB BC CA CB CC ) ( A B )
= (0 AB AC BA 0 BC CA CB 0) ( A B ) ( AA 0)
=AAB AAC ABA ABC ACA ACB BAB BAC BBA BBC BCA BCB
= AB AC 0 ABC 0 ABC 0 BAC BA BC BCA 0
= AB AC (1 B ) BA (1 C ) BC ( A 1) ABC
= AB AC BA BC ABC = AB (1 C ) AC BA BC
Y = AB + AC + AB + BC = AB.AC. A B.B C
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Logic and Propositional Logic Diagram
Calculus
A B C
AB
NOTES
AC
F
AB
BC
Example 4.51: Find the complement and simplify:
(i) AB AB (ii) A B 1 (iii) AB 0
Solution: (i) Y = AB AB
Y = AB AB
= ( AB) ( AB )
= ( A B ) ( A B)
= AA AB BA BB = 0 + AB BA 0
= AB BA = A B
(ii) Y = A B 1
Y = A B 1
= A 1= 1 ( B 1 = 1)
=0
(iii) Y = AB + 0
Y = AB 0
= ( AB) (0) = ( A B ) (1) = A + B
Example 4.52: Simplify and realize using only NOR gates:
Y = ABC ABC BC AC
Solution: Y = ABC ABC BC AC
= BC ( A A) BC AC
= BC BC AC ( A A = 1)
= BC AC ( A A = 1)
= C (B + A)
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Logic diagram using NOR gates. Logic and Propositional
Calculus
Y Y Y = = ( A B) C ( A B) C
A ( A + B) NOTES
B
B Y
C
C
Example 4.53: Simplify the following Boolean expression: f (Y) = AB AC BC
Solution: f (Y) = AB AC BC
= AB AC BC .1
= AB AC BC ( A A) ( A A = 1)
= AB AC BCA BCA
= AB (1 C ) AC (1 B)
= AB + AC ( 1 B = 1 = 1 + C )
Combinational Logic
Combinational logic deals with the techniques of ‘combining’ the basic gates into
circuits that perform some desired functions. In combinational logic circuits, at any
time, the logic level at the output depends on the combination of logic levels present
at the inputs. A combinational circuit has no memory characteristic, so its output
depends only on the current value of its inputs. A combinational logic digital function
is completely specified by a truth table. Truth table shows output of the function
corresponding to each and every possible combination of input variables. So, a truth
table has number of columns equal to number of inputs plus one column for the
output. If there are more than one outputs, then, only one output is considered at a
time for designing the function. If there are n-input variables, since each variable
can have two values 0 or 1, so there are 2n possible combinations. Thus, the truth
table has 2n rows. Hence, a three variable combination logic function truth table has
4 columns and 8 rows. Thus, the truth table specifies the complete requirement of
the digital function.
An arbitrary logic function can be understood in the following terms:
(i) Sum of Products (SOP) (ii) Product of Sums (POS)
Product Term: The AND function is referred to as a product. In Boolean
algebra, the word ‘product’ loses its original meaning but serves to indicate an AND
function. The logical product of several variables, on which a function depends, is
considered to be a product term. The variables in a product term appear in a
complemented or uncomplemented form. For example, AB C is a product term.
Sum Term: An OR function is generally referred to as a sum. The logical
sum of variables on which a function depends is considered to be a sum term.
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Logic and Propositional Variables in a sum term can appear either in complemented or uncomplemented
Calculus
form. For example, A B C is a sum term.
Sum of Products
NOTES Sum of Products (SOP) is the logical sum of two or more logical product terms is
called a sum of products expression. It is logical OR of multiple product terms. Each
product term is the AND of binary literals. This is an ORing of ANDed variables
such as:
(i) Y = AB + BC + AC (ii) Y = AB BC AC
Product of Sums
A product of sums is the logical AND of multiple OR terms. Each sum term is the
OR of binary literals. This is an ANDing of ORed variables, such as:
(i) Y = (A + B)(B + C)( A C ) (ii) Y = ( A B )( B C )( A C)
Minterm: A minterm is a special case product (AND) term. A minterm is a
product term that contains all of the input variables that make up a Boolean expression.
A two variable function has four possible combinations viz., AB , AB, AB and AB.
Maxterm: A maxterm is a special case sum (OR) term. A maxterm is a
sum (OR) term that contains all of the input variables that make up a Boolean
expression. A two variable function has four possible combinations, viz. A + B,
A B , A B and A B .
Table 4.33 shows the complement nature of minterms and maxterms. Note
that an input variable is complemented when it has a value of 0, if you are writing
minterms. The input variables are complemented when they have a value of 1, if
you are writing maxterms. Minterms represent output variable 1s and maxterms
represent output variable 0s. Lower case m is used to denote a minterm and upper
case M is used to denote a maxterm. The number subscript indicates the decimal
value of the term.
Output equations can be written directly from the truth table using either
minterms or maxterms. When an output equation is written in minterms or maxterms,
it is a canonical expression.
Table 4.33 Minterm and Maxterm Designations for Three Variables
Input variables Minterm Maxterm
A B C Term Designation Term Designation
0 0 0 A BC m0 A+B+C M0
0 0 1 ABC m1 A B C M1
0 1 0 A BC m2 A B C M2
0 1 1 A BC m3 A B C M3
1 0 0 ABC m4 A B C M4
1 0 1 AB C m5 A B C M5
1 1 0 A BC m6 A B C M6
1 1 1 ABC m7 A B C M7
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Canonical Forms Logic and Propositional
Calculus
Canonical is a word used to describe a condition of a switching equation. In normal
use, the word means ‘conforming to a general rule’. The ‘rule’ for switching logic, is
that each term is used in a switching equation which must contain all of the available
NOTES
input variables. Two formats generally exist for expressing switching equations in a
canonical form : (i) sums of minterms, and (ii) products of maxterms.
I. To place a SOP equation into canonical form using Boolean algebra, you can
do the following:
1. Identify the missing variable(s) in each AND term.
2. AND the missing term(s) and its complement with the original AND term,
AB ( C C ) . Because C + C = 1, the original AND term value is not
changed.
3. Expand the term by application of the property of the distribution,
ABC ABC .
II. To place a POS equation into canonical form using Boolean algebra, we do
the following:
1. Identify the missing variable(s) in each OR term.
2. OR the missing term(s) and its complement with the original OR term,
A B CC . Because CC = 0, the original OR term value is not changed.
3. Expand the term by application of distributive property, ( A B C)
(A B C ).
Example 4.54: Convert A + B to minterms.
Solution: A+B =A .1+B .1 ( A . 1 = A)
= A(B B ) B( A A)
= AB AB BA BA (Commutative)
Y = A + B = AB AB BA (AB is redundant)
This general form obtained is called the minterm canonical form, sometimes
also referred to as the standard sum.
Example 4.55: Convert (A + BC) to minterms.
Solution: A + BC = A . 1 + BC . 1
= A ( B B ) BC ( A A)
= AB AB ABC BCA
= AB.1 AB .1 ABC BCA
= AB ( C C ) AB ( C C ) ABC BCA
= ABC ABC ABC ABC ABC BCA
Y = A + BC = ABC ABC ABC ABC ABC
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Logic and Propositional Example 4.56: Find the minterms for AB + ACD.
Calculus
Solution: ABXX generates ABC D , ABC D, ABCD , ABCD
AXCD generates ABCD and AB CD
NOTES
Y = AB + ACD
= ABC D ABC D ABCD ABCD ABCD
Example 4.57: Find the minterm designation of AB C D .
Solution: Substituting 1’s for nonbarred letters and 0’s for barred letters we have
AB C D = 1000 = m8
Example 4.58: Express the function Y = A B C in canonical SOP and POS forms.
Solution: (i) Sum of Products (SOP)
Y = A BC = A . (B B) B . C (A A) ( A A = 1)
= AB AB ABC ABC
= AB ( C C ) AB ( C C ) ABC ABC
= ABC ABC ABC ABC ABC ABC
= ABC ABC ABC ABC ABC
Y = m7 + m6 + m5 + m4 + m1
The S sign is generally used to write the canonical SOP form of an expression,
Y = (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
(ii) Product of Sums (POS)
Y= A BC (A B )( A C)
[ A BC (A B )( A C )]
= (A B C )( A B C )( A B C )( A B C)
[ ( A B)( A B ) A ]
Y = (A B C )( A B C )( A B C)
or Y = M2 . M3 . M0 = M0 M2 M3
In this case symbol is used to represent a product of maxterms. Then,
Y = (0, 2, 3)
Deriving Sum of Product Expression from a Truth Table
The Sum of Product (SOP) expression for a Boolean function can be derived from
its truth table by summing (OR operation) the product terms that correspond to the
combinations containing a function value. In the product term, the input variable
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appears either in uncomplemented form if it possesses the value 1, or in complement Logic and Propositional
Calculus
form if it contains the value 0.
Truth Table 4.34
Inputs Output Product NOTES
A B C Y terms
0 0 0 0 –
0 0 1 0 –
0 1 0 1 A BC
0 1 1 1 A BC
1 0 0 0 –
1 0 1 0 –
1 1 0 1 A BC
1 1 1 1 ABC
Consider the Truth Table 4.34, for a three input circuit. Here, the output (Y)
value is 1 for the input combinations 010, 011, 110 and 111 and their corresponding
proudct terms are ABC , A BC , ABC and ABC, respectively..
The final expression for the output Y is obtained by ORing the four AND
terms. Thus,
Y = ABC ABC ABC ABC
The general expression for obtaining the output expression from a truth table
in SOP can be summarized as follows:
1. Write a product term for each case in the table where the output is 1.
2. Each product term contains input variable in either complemented or
uncomp-lemented form. If the input variable is 0, then it appears in
complemented form, if the input variable is 1, it appears then in
uncomplemented form.
3. All the product terms are then added (ORed) together to produce the
final expression of the output.
Deriving Product of Sum Expression from a Truth Table
The Product of Sum (POS) expression for a Boolean function can also be obtained
from a truth table by multiplying (AND operation) of the sum terms corresponding
to the combinations for which the function assumes the value 0. In the sum term, the
input variable appears in an uncomplemented form if it has the value 0 in the
corresponding combination, and in the complemented form if it has the value 1.
Consider the Truth Table 4.35, for a 3-input circuit. From the table it is observed
that the Y value is 0 or the input combinations 001, 010, 100 and 110. The corresponding
sum terms are ( A B C ), ( A B C ) , ( A B C ) and ( A B C ) respectively..
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Logic and Propositional The final POS expression for the output Y is obtained by multiplying (AND
Calculus
operation) the four sum terms as follows:
Y = ( A B C )( A B C )( A B C )( A B C)
NOTES Truth Table 4.35
Inputs Output Sum Product
A B C Y terms Y Y terms
__ __
0 0 0 1 ABC 0
__
0 0 1 0 (A B C) 1 ABC
__
0 1 0 0 (A B C) 1 ABC
__ __
0 1 1 1 ABC 0
__
1 0 0 0 (A B C) 1 ABC
__ __
1 0 1 1 ABC 0
__
1 1 0 0 ( A B C) 1 ABC
__ __
1 1 1 1 ABC 0
The procedure for obtaining the output expression in POS form that from a
truth table can be summarized as follows:
1. Write a sum term for each input combination in the table, which has an
output value of 0.
2. Each sum term contains all its input variables in complemented or
uncomplemented form. If the input variable is 0, then it appears in an
uncomplemented form; if the input variable is 1, it appears in the
complemented form.
3. All the sum terms are multiplied (ANDed) together to obtain the final
POS expression of the output.
The POS expression for a Boolean function can also be obtained form its
SOP expression using the fact that POS expression is complement of SOP.
Consider a function,
Y = ABC ABC ABC ABC , in SOP..
Y will be in POS form, which is:
ABC ABC ABC ABC
= ( A B C )( A B C )( A B C )( A B C )
This expression is in the desired POS form.
4.10 SWITCHING CIRCUITS AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
Boolean function is defined as a function of the form f: Bk ’ B, where B = {0, 1}
is a domain known as Boolean domain. It has only two values, 0 and 1 and k is
known as arity of the function which is a nonnegative integer. If k = 0, the function
is a constant element of B. In symmetric Boolean function value of the function is
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independent of the permutation of its input bits. In other words, the value depends Logic and Propositional
Calculus
only on the number of ones in the input. According to this definition, more compact
representation for an n-variable symmetric Boolean function instead of truth table.
This n-variable symmetric function having (n + 1) vector and ith entry (i = 0, ..., n)
as value of the function with input vector with i number of 1s. NOTES
Special cases of Boolean functions are:
Threshold Functions: These functions have value 1 on input vectors
having k or more ones for a fixed k.
Exact Value Functions: These functions have value 1 on input vectors
with k ones for a fixed k.
Counting Functions: These functions have value 1 on input vectors
with the number of ones congruent to k mod m for fixed k, m.
Parity Functions: These functions have value 1 if the input vector has
odd number of 1s.
Parity function is used in theoretical investigation of circuit complexity involving
Boolean functions.
Boolean Functions in Applications
A Boolean function determines a Boolean output (two value output) of Boolean
inputs which is based on logical calculation involving these inputs. Such functions
have great importance in the design of circuits and chips for digital computers.
Properties of such functions have critical role in cryptography. It has great importance
in the design of symmetric key algorithms. A Boolean-valued function is a
characteristic function or indicator function. It may be a predicate or a proposition.
Implementation
In mathematics, algebraic or logical expressions are simplified for easier understanding
and writing and making it less prone to error. Most important reason for such
minimization or simplification is more efficient and effective implementation. A
Boolean expression contains variables and terms. Such simplification leads to better
and more efficient algorithms, programs and circuits made up of logic gates. Boolean
functions are physically implemented by using electronic gates. Important points for
implementation are as follows:
A power supply is required for electronic gates.
Two nominal values of voltages are used for gate inputs. These are 0 V for
logical 0 and 5V for logical 1.
Similarly, for output of a gate, two nominal values of voltage are used. 0 V for
logical 0 and 5V for logical 1.
In any physical implementation, some time delay is always there between
input and output.
Logic Gates
Truth tables show the function of a logic gate. Digital systems are also made of logic
gates using NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR and NOR gates. Representation
of logic gates and their basic operations are given below with truth tables.
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Logic and Propositional AND Gate
Calculus
AND gate represents an electronic circuit that has high output (shown as logic 1) if
and only if all inputs are 1. A dot (.) shows AND operation. This dot, in practice, is
NOTES omitted and instead of A.B, AB is written.
OR Gate
OR gate represents an electronic circuit that has high output (shown as logic 1) if
one or more inputs are 1. A + sign shows OR operation. A or B is written as A + B.
NOT Gate
NOT gate produces a negation. Hence, it is called inverter. If input is A, the inverted
output is NOT A. This is shown as A’ or alternatively as A with a bar over its head
as shown in the figure below.
NAND Gate
This gate is a combination of NOT and AND. It is equivalent to an AND gate
followed by a NOT gate. It is a negation of AND gate and is represented below:
NOR Gate
This gate is a combination of OR and AND. It is equivalent to an OR gate followed
by a NOT gate. It is a negation of OR gate and is represented below:
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XOR Gate Logic and Propositional
Calculus
The ‘Exclusive-OR’ gate gives a high output, given by logical 1 if their truth values
are not identical. This means that either of the two inputs is high, but not both. An
encircled plus sign ( ) shows the XOR operation. If truth values of both the inputs NOTES
are identical, it shows low, given by logical 0.
XNOR Gate
The ‘Exclusive-NOR’ gate is negation of XOR gate. It will give a high output if
truth values of two inputs are identical.
Notes:
1. Both, NAND and NOR gates are universal functions. Using either of these
all other gates can be created.
2. A ‘Sum of Product’ form can be implemented using NAND gates that would
replace all AND, OR and NOT gates by NAND gates.
3. A ‘Product of Sums’ form can be implemented using NOR gates that would
replace all AND, OR and NOT gates by NOR gates.
Symbols of Logic Gates and their Truth Tables
Below is a summary of all the symbols used for logic gates discussed in this unit.
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Logic and Propositional The following table shows the summary of truth tables for all the gates:
Calculus
NOTES
The above truth table shows the ‘n’ inputs having 2n rows. The, outputs of
different gates can be compared using this table.
Check Your Progress
19. How are logical AND of two variablesdenoted?
20. How are logical OR of two variables denoted?
21. Create a truth table for a logical AND operation.
22. Create a truth table for a logical OR operation.
23. What is a truth table?
24. State the rules of Boolean addition.
25. What is principle of duality?
26. What are De Morgan’s laws?
4.11 LOGIC GATES AND CIRCUITS
In electronics, a logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean
function, i.e., it performs a logical operation on one or more binary inputs and
produces a single binary output. With amplification, logic gates can be cascaded
in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the construction
of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the algorithms and
mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic.
A digital logic gate is an electronic circuit which makes logical decisions
based on the combination of digital signals present on its inputs.
OR Operation with OR Gates
The OR gate performs logical addition and is represented by the operator symbol.
An electronic circuit whose output is HIGH if one or more (all) inputs, is HIGH
is called an OR gate.
If either A or B, or both, is HIGH, then the output is HIGH. The Boolean
expression is:
Y=A+B
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The expression is read as Y = A OR B. Truth Table 4.36 summarizes the Logic and Propositional
Calculus
action of 2-input OR gate. Figure 4.8 shows the symbols used to represent an OR
gate.
A A A
Y B Y B Y NOTES
C
B C D
Y=A+B Y=A+B+C Y=A+B+C+D
(a) two input OR gate (b) three input OR gate (c) four input OR gate
Fig. 4.8 Schematic Symbols of an OR Gate
Truth Table 4.36 Truth Table 4.37
Inputs Output Inputs Output
A B Y=A+B A B Y=A–B
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
AND Operation with AND Gates
The AND gate peforms logical multiplication and is represented by the operator
symbol (). An electronic circuit whose output is HIGH if all its inputs are HIGH is
known as AND gate.
If A and B are HIGH, then Y is HIGH. The Boolean expression is
Y=A B
This expression is read as Y = A AND B. Truth Table 4.37 summarizes the
action of two input AND gate. Figure 4.9 shows the symbols used to represent an
AND gate.
A A A
Y B Y B Y
C
B C D
Y = AB Y = A B C Y = ABCD
(a) two input AND gate (b) three input AND gate (c) four input AND gate
Fig. 4.9 Schematic Symbols of AND Gate
NOT Operation
The operation of making the output state opposite to that of the input is called
inversion.
The NOT operation is unlike the OR and AND operations in that it can be
performed on a single input variable. NOT gate is an electronic circuit whose output
is HIGH when its input is LOW.
Figure 4.10 shows the NOT symbol. The NOT operation is represented as
Y = A . The expression is read as Y equals NOT A. Truth Table 4.38 summarizes the
action of the NOT gate.
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Logic and Propositional The inverter, AND and OR gate are often called decision making elements
Calculus
because they recognize some input words while disregarding others. A gate recognizes
a word when its output is HIGH and it disregards a word when its output is LOW.
Truth Table 4.38 Truth Table 4.39
NOTES
Input Output Inputs Outputs
A Y= A A B AND NAND NOR
0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
A
=y>A
Fig. 4.10 Schematic Symbol of NOT Gate
NAND Operation
A NAND function is derived from the NOT and the AND, and it is a contraction of
NOT AND. The function of NAND gate is defined as an AND operation
(Y = A × B) followed by a NOT operation (Y = AB ).
Y = AB
The action of 2-input NAND is given in Truth Table 4.39. The logic symbols
for the NAND function are derived from the AND and NOT function.
A A A
Y B Y B Y
C
B C D
Y = AB Y = A B C Y = ABCD
(a) two input NAND gate (b) three input NAND gate (c) four input NAND gate
Fig. 4.11 Schematic Symbols of NAND Gate
NOR Operation
A NOR function is derived from the NOT and the OR, and it is a contraction of OR.
The function of OR gate is defined as an OR operation (Y = A + B) followed by a
NOT operation (Y = A B ).
Y= AB
NOR gate is a logic gate whose output is HIGH when all of its are HIGH.
Truth Table 4.39 summarizes the action of NOR gate. From the table, it is
seen that NOR gate recognizes only the input word whose bits are all 0s. The logic
symbols for the NOR gate can be seen in Figure 4.12.
A A A
Y B Y B Y
C
B C D
Y=A+B Y=A+B+C Y=A+B+C+D
(a) 2-input NOR gate (b) 3-input NOR gate (c) 4-input NOR gate
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Fig. 4.12 Schematic Symbols of NOR Gate
186 Material
Logic Designation Logic and Propositional
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Logical 1 and 0 are represented in most modern logic systems by voltage levels.
Note that assignments of 0 and 1 to LOW and HIGH are somewhat arbitrary.
Assuming 0 to LOW and 1 to HIGH seems most natural and is called positive
NOTES
logic. The opposite assignment, 1 to LOW and 0 to HIGH, is not often used and is
called negative logic.
Since a wide range of physical values represent the same binary value, digital
logic is highly immune to component and power-supply variations and noise.
Furthermore, buffer amplifier circuits are used to regenerate ‘weak’ values into
‘strong’ ones, so that digital signals can be transmitted over arbitrary distances without
loss of information. For example, a buffer amplifier for CMOS logic converts any
HIGH input voltage into an output very close to 5.0 V and any LOW input voltage
into an output very close to 0 V.
Logic Families
There are many ways to design an electronic logic circuit. The inventions of the
semiconductor diode and the bipolar junction transistor allowed the development of
smaller, faster and more capable computers. In the 1960s, the invention of the
Integrated Circuit (IC) allowed multiple diodes, transistors and other components
to be fabricated on a single chip and computers still got better.
A logic family is a collection of different integrated circuit chips that have
similar input, output and internal circuit characteristics, however they perform
different logic functions. Chips from the same family can be interconnected to perform
any desired logic function. On the other hand, chips from differing families may not
be compatible and may use different power supply voltages or may use different
input and output conditions to represent logic values.
The most successful bipolar logic family is Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL).
In the mid-1980s, advances in the design of MOS circuits, in particular complementary
MOS (CMOS) circuits, vastly increased their performance and popularity. CMOS
circuits now account for the vast majority of the worldwide IC market.
CMOS logic is both the most capable and the easiest to understand commercial
digital logic technology.
Gate Propagation Delay Time
A logic signal always experiences a delay in going through a circuit. The speed of
operation is specified in terms of the propagation delay. The terms low speed and
high speed, when applied to logic circuits, refer to the propagation delays. The
shorter the propagation delay, the higher the speed of the circuit.
The propagation delay of a logic gate is defined as the time interval
between the application of an input pulse and the occurrence of the resulting
output pulse.
There are two propagation delays associated with a logic gate:
1. tPLH : It is the delay time in going from logical 0 (LOW) to logical 1 (HIGH)
state.
2. tPHL: It is the delay time in going from logical 1 (HIGH) to logical 0 (LOW)
state.
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Material 187
Logic and Propositional Figure 4.13 illustrates these propagation delays for both inverted and non-
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inverted outputs.
Propagation delay is measured in seconds. The propagation delay for the
LOW-to-HIGH transition of the input to the inverter is different from the HIGH-to-
NOTES LOW delay. Notice that both will vary depending on capacitive loading conditions.
Note also that the two propagation delay times are measured between the 50 percent
points on the leading edges of the input and output pulses and between the 50 percent
points on the trailing edges of the input and output pulses. The propagation delay
time of a TTL gate is in the vicinity of 10ns.
Power Dissipation
Generally, as propagation delays decrease (increased speed); the power consumption
and related heat generation increase.
The power dissipation of a logic gate is equal to the product of dc supply
voltage VCC and average supply current ICC.
H Y Output
Input Output
Input
H
Output
H
50% Input
50%
L
L
t
Ouput H
H
Output L
50%
L
tPHL tPLH tPLH tPHL
Fig. 4.13 Propagation Delay Times
Average power, PAVG = VCC ICC
The power dissipation is actually the power required to operate a gate.
Normally, the value of ICC for a LOW gate output is higher for a HIGH output. The
average ICC is determined based on a 50 percent duty cycle operation of the gate
(LOW half of the time and HIGH of the time).
It is desirable to have low power dissipation because it reduces cooling and
power supply costs but it may lead to increased propagation delay due to increased
resistances in the circuit. A standard TTL gate has a power dissipation of about
10 mW. It may vary from this value because of signal levels, tolerances, etc., but on
an average, it is 10 mW per gate.
Noise Immunity
Noise is a term used to denote an undesirable signal voltage that is super imposed
upon the normal operating signal. A number of factors contribute to noise.
Stray electric and magnetic fields can induce voltages on the connecting wires
between logic circuits. These unwanted; spurious signals are called noise and can
sometimes cause voltage at the input to a logic circuit to drop below VIH(min.) or
rise above VIL(max.) which could produce an unpredictable operation.
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The noise immunity of a logic circuit is defined as the circuits’ ability to Logic and Propositional
Calculus
tolerate noise without causing spurious changes in the output voltage. A
quantitative measure of noise immunity is called noise margin.
DC Noise Margins
NOTES
DC noise margins is defined as the difference between the guaranteed logic state
voltage limits of a driving gate and the voltage requirements of a driven device. The
term DC noise margin applies to noise voltages of relatively long duration compared
to a gate’s response time.
AC Noise Margins
The term AC noise margin applies to the noise immunity of a gate to noise of very
short duration. A logic gate is immune to AC noise because it often cannot respond
fast enough to be affected. Therefore, AC noise margins are considerably higher
than DC noise margins.
Drive Capabilities
In a digital system, the output of a logic gate is connected to the inputs of several
other similar gates so the load on the driving gate becomes an important factor. One
indication of output drive capability of a digital IC is called its fan-out.The fan-out
of a gate is defined as the number of gate inputs that a single gate output can
drive and still maintain voltage and current specifications. If the fan-out for
standard TTL gate is 10, this means that the output of a single gate can drive up to
10 inputs of the gates in the same family.
Logic Gate Applications
AND Gate Application
An AND gate detects the existence of a specified number of conditions and, in response,
to initiate an appropriate action.
An automobile’s safety system may require that only audible signals be
produced so that the driver is correctly warn the driver that the seat belt is not
engaged. The conditions for this are that the ignition be switched on, the seat belt
unbuckled and the warning signal lasts for a specified time and then turned off
automatically. The first two conditions can be represented by switch positions on the
third by a timing circuit.
+ V (HIGH)
Ignition B
ON
OFF S1
OFF
A
(Unhooked) Seat belt
B Audio
ON S2 alarm
(Hooked) C
Low
Timer
Fig. 4.14 Example of an AND Gate Application
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Logic and Propositional Figure 4.14 shows an AND gate whose output activates a buzzer when three
Calculus
conditions are met on its inputs A, B and C. When the ignition switch S1 is ON, a
HIGH is connected to the gate input A. When the belt is not properly bucked, switch
S2 is OFF, and a HIGH is connected to the gate input B. At the instant the ignition
NOTES switch is ON, the timer is activated and produces a HIGH on gate input C. The
resulting output of AND gate activates the alarm. After a specified time the timer’s
output goes LOW, disadding the AND gate and turning off the alarm. If the seat belt
is buckled when the ignition is turned ON, a LOW is applied to input B, keeping the
AND gate output LOW, thus, preventing the alarm from sounding.
OR Gate Application
An OR gate can also be used to detect the existence of specified number of conditions
and, in response, initiates an approximate action.
For example, a room has three doors. If an indicator lamp is ON, when any of
the doors is not completely closed.
Figure 4.15 shows an OR gate whose output activates (HIGH) a lamp when
any or all of the doors are open.
+ V (HIGH)
R R R
Open door switches
(LOW)
Fig. 4.15 Example of an OR Gate Application
Check Your Progress
27. Draw the truth table for a NAND gate.
28. Draw the truth table for an XOR gate.
29. Draw the truth table for an XNOR gate.
30. What is propagation delay?
4.12 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’
1. The words which combine simple statements to form a compound statement
are called connectives. There are five connectives which are used frequently.
These are:
(i) ‘AND’ denoted by
(ii) ‘OR’ denoted by
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(iii) ‘NOT’ denoted by ~ Logic and Propositional
Calculus
(iv) ‘Implies’ denoted by
(v) ‘If and Only If ’ denoted by
2. The OR gate performs logical addition and is represented by the (+) operator NOTES
symbol. An electronic circuit whose output is HIGH if one or more inputs is
HIGH is called an OR gate.
3. The AND gate performs logical multiplication and is represented by the
operator symbol (). An electronic circuit whose output is HIGH if all its
inputs are HIGH is known as AND gate.
4. The operation of making the output state opposite to that of the input is
called Inversion.
5. A NOR function is derived from the NOT and the OR and it is a contraction
of NOT OR. The function of OR gate is defined as an OR operation
(Y = A + B) followed by a NOT operation Y A B .
6. A table that gives truth value of a compound statement is called Truth Table.
It consists of rows and columns. In the initial columns, we write the possible
truth values of the constituent statements and in the last column the truth
value of the compound statement is written.
7. A statement is said to be a tautology if it is true for all logical possibilities. A
statement is said to be a contradiction if it is false for all logical possibilities.
According to tautology laws:
ptp
ptt
tc
According to contradiction laws:
pcc
pcp
ct
8. A declarative sentence which is either true or false is called a statement.
9. Two propositions are logically equivalent or simply equivalent if they have
exactly the same truth values under all circumstances.
10. Two statements p and q are said to be equivalent if they have same truth
values for all logical possibilities. In this case we write p q.
11. If p and q are two statements, then according to commutative law:
p q q p and p q q p
12. According to identity laws:
p t p, p t t and p c c, p c p
Where, t is a tautology and c is a contradiction.
13. Propositional calculus deals with propositional functions comprising of
statements. It deals with the structure of sentences as composed of
components of sentences. Variables are used to express such components
rather than quantities. A normal sentence is composed of subject and
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Logic and Propositional predicate. A predicate is that components of a sentence, as a word or
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combination of words which express the nature of a subject. Components
of a sentence are joined by logical connectives in propositional functions.
NOTES 14. Product Term: The AND function is referred as a product. In Boolean
algebra, the word ‘product’ loses its original meaning but serves to indicate
an AND function. The logical product of several variables, on which a
function depends, is considered to be a product term. The variables in a
product term appear in a complemented or an uncomplemented form. For
example, AB or AB a product term.
15. Sum Term: An OR function is generally referred to as a sum. The logical
sum of variables on which a function depends is considered to be a sum
term. Variables in a sum term can appear either in a complemented or an
uncomplemented form. For example, A + B or A + B is a sum term.
16. Minterm: A minterm is a special case product (AND) term. A minterm is a
product term that contains all of the input variables that make up a Boolean
expression. A 2-variable function has four possible combinations, viz.,
AB,AB,AB and AB.
Maxterm: A maxterm is a special case sum (OR) term. A maxterm is a sum
(OR) term that contains all of the input variables that make up a Boolean
expression. A 2-variable function has four possible combinations, viz.,
AB,AB,AB,AB.
17. Sum of Products (SOP) is the logical sum of two or more logical product
terms is called a sum of products expression. It is logical OR of multiple
product terms. Each product term is the AND of binary literals. An ORing
of ANDed variables, such as:
(i) Y = AB + BC + AC (ii) Y = AB’ + B’C + A’C’
18. A product of sums is the logical AND of multiple OR terms. Each sum term
is the OR of binary literals. An ANDing of ORed variables, such as:
(A B),(A B)(A B)
19. The logical AND operation between two Boolean variables, A and B, is
written as Y = A . B. The common symbol for this operation is the
multiplication sign (.).
20. The logical OR operation between two Boolean variables, A and B, is written
as Y = A + B.
21. The logical AND operation is a follows:
A B Y=A . B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
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22. The logical OR operation is a follows: Logic and Propositional
Calculus
A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1 NOTES
1 1 1
23. A truth table is a mathematical table that gives output of all combinations of
inputs. These are used to compute the functional values of logical expressions.
Every logical operation can be represented by its truth value. A truth table
has number of columns equal to number of inputs plus one column for the
output. If there are n-input variables, then there are 2n possible combinations
since each variable can have two values 0 or 1.
24. Boolean Addition: The basic of Boolean addition are given as follows:
0+0 =0
0+1 =1
1+0 =1
1+1 =1
Boolean addition is same as the logical OR addition.
25. Principle of Duality: For any Boolean expression, another expression can
be obtained from the other expression by replacing every 0 with 1, every 1
with 0, every (+) with (.) and every (.) with (+). Any pair of expression
satisfying this property is called dual expression. This characteristic of
Boolean algebra is called the principle of duality.
26. De Morgan’s two theorems are:
Theorem I: (A + B) = A.B.
Theorem II: (A.B) = A + B
27. This gate is a combination of NOT and AND. It is equivalent to an AND
gate followed by a NOT gate. It is a negation of AND gate and is represented
below:
28.
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Material 193
Logic and Propositional 29. The ‘Exclusive-NOR’ gate is negation of XOR gate. It will give a high
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output if truth values of two inputs are identical.
NOTES
30. The propagation delay of a logic gate is defined as the time interval between
the application of an input pulse and the occurrence of the resulting output
pulse.
4.13 SUMMARY
A statement which is made up of two or more simple statements is called a
compound statement.
A propositional variable takes Boolean value either true or false and logical
symbols. Such variables are the basic building blocks of propositional formulae
or functions. Such propositional variables are used in propositional and higher
logics.
The universe of discourse or universe is defined as the set of objects in
sample space as per context. The propositions are expressed as predicate
logic. These are statements in the sample space.
The NOT operation is unlike the OR and AND operations it is performed on
a single input variable. NOT gate is an electronic circuit whose output is
HIGH when its input is LOW.
A statement is said to be a tautology if it is true for all logical possibilities.
A statement is said to be a contradiction if it is false for all logical possibilities.
Two propositions are logically equivalent or simply equivalent if they have
exactly the same truth values under all circumstances.
The logical OR operation compares 2 bits and if either or both are 1 (TRUE)
the result is 1 (TRUE) otherwise the result is 0 (FALSE). The symbol for
logical OR is (+).
In Boolean algebra, the logical complement or negation of a Boolean value
is the opposite value and is denoted by a bar or a small vertical line (prime)
over the function or variable. It is also termed as NOT operation.
Three logic functions (AND, OR and NOT or Complement) provide the
foundation for all digital systems analysis and design. Logic operations can
be expressed and minimized mathematically using, laws and theorems of
Boolean algebra. It is a convenient and systematic method of expressing
and analysing the operation of digital circuits and systems.
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Boolean addition is commutative and is given by, Logic and Propositional
Calculus
A+B =B+A
A.B =B.A
Distributive Laws are, NOTES
A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C
A + B . C = (A + B) . (A + C)
De Morgan’s Laws. If p and q are two statements, then
(i) ~(p q) ~p ~q
(ii) ~(p q) ~p ~q
Contrapositive Law. For any statements p and q,
(p q) (~q ~p)
Transitive Law. For any statements p, q and r, (p q) (q r)
(p r) is a tautology.
The method of proof used, is called deductive method or deductive reasoning.
The Product of Sum (POS) expression for a Boolean function can also be
obtained from a truth table by multiplying (AND operation) of the sum
terms corresponding to the combinations for which the function assumes
the value 0. In the sum term, the input variable appears in an uncomplemented
form if it has the value 0 in the corresponding combination, and in the
complemented form if it has the value 1.
Truth tables show the function of a logic gate. Digital systems are also made
of logic gates using NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR and NOR
gates.
The NOT operation is unlike the OR and AND operations in that it can be
performed on a single input variable. NOT gate is an electronic circuit whose
output is HIGH when its input is LOW.
The propagation delay of a logic gate is defined as the time interval between
the application of an input pulse and the occurrence of the resulting output
pulse.
DC noise margins is defined as the difference between the guaranteed logic
state voltage limits of a driving gate and the voltage requirements of a driven
device. The term DC noise margin applies to noise voltages of relatively
long duration compared to a gate’s response time.
The term AC noise margin applies to the noise immunity of a gate to noise
of very short duration. A logic gate is immune to AC noise because it often
cannot respond fast enough to be affected. Therefore, AC noise margins
are considerably higher than DC noise margins.
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Logic and Propositional
Calculus 4.14 KEY TERMS
Statement: It is a declarative sentence which can be true or false.
NOTES Compound statement: It is a statement made up of two or more simple
statements.
Connectives: It combines simple statements to form a compound statement.
Tautology: It is a statement which is true for all logical possibilities.
Contradiction: It is a statement which is false for all logical possibilities.
Logical AND: The logical AND operation between two Boolean variables,
A and B, is written as Y = A . B. The common symbol for this operation is
the multiplication sign (.). Result of logically ANDing the variables A and B
is logical 0 for all cases except when both A and B are logical 1.
Logical OR: Logical OR The logical OR operation between two Boolean
variables, A and B, is written as Y = A + B. Result of ORing the variables A
and B is logical 1 when A or B or both are logical 1.
Logical NOT: The logical NOT operation changes logical 1 to logical 0
and vice versa. The common symbol for this operation is a bar over
the function or variable. Several notations are used to indicate the NOT
operation, such as adding asterisks, stars, etc.
Boolean function: A Boolean function is an algebraic expression formed
with binary variables, the logic operation symbols, parentheses and equal
sign. A Boolean function can be transformed from an algebraic expression
into a logic diagram composed of AND, OR and NOT gates.
Product term: The AND function is referred to as a product. In Boolean
algebra, the word ‘product’ loses its original meaning but serves to indicate
an AND function. The logical product of several variables, on which a
function depends, is considered to be a product term. The variables in a
product term appear in a complemented or an uncomplemented form.
Sum term: An OR function is generally referred to as a sum. The logical
sum of variables on which a function depends is considered to be a sum
term. Variables in a sum term can appear either in a complemented or an
uncomplemented form.
4.15 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. Explain the basic logic operations.
2. Analyse the importance of truth tables.
3. Construct truth tables for the following statements:
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196 Material
4. Define biconditional statements with the help of examples. Logic and Propositional
Calculus
5. Differentiate between tautology and contradiction.
6. What are propositions?
7. Describe the rules for algebra of statements. NOTES
8. What is a Boolean equation?
9. What is a logic gate?
10. Define OR and AND operation.
11. Write the Boolean expression for a five-input OR gate.
12. What is an OR and AND gate?
13. What is an IVERTER gate?
14. What is a NAND and NOR gate?
15. What is an XOR and XNOR gate?
16. When is the output of an AND gate HIGH/LOW?
17. When 1 is on the input of an inverter, what is its output?
18. When is the output of an OR gate HIGH/LOW?
19. Write the truth table of 3-input of an AND and OR gate.
20. When is the output of a NAND gate HIGH/LOW?
21. When is the output of a NOR gate HIGH/LOW?
22. Write the truth table of 2-input of a NAND/NOR gate.
Long-Answer Questions
1. In each of the following sentences, determine which is a statement (S), or
not (N):
(i) Every rectangle is a square.
(ii) The sum of three angles of a triangle is 180°.
(iii) How are you?
(iv) 2 + 1 = 3
(v) 2 is a rational number..
2. In each of the following, translate the given compound statement into a
symbolic form,
(i) It is not true that I am not friendly to you.
(ii) The sky is blue and grass is green.
(iii) Ashok reads Indian Express or Statesman.
(iv) If it rains then we will not go to school.
(v) He will be successful if and only if he works hard.
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Logic and Propositional 3. If c is a contradiction, prove that (p ~q) c is equivalent to p q.
Calculus
4. Prove that (p q) [(p r) (q r)] is a tautology.
5. Prove that p (p q) is equivalent to p.
NOTES 6. Prove that ~(p q r) ~p ~ q ~r.
7. Prove that ~(p q r) ~p ~q ~r.
8. Prove that p q is equivalent to (p q) (~p ~q).
9. Prove that p q is equivalent to p p q.
10. Prove that (p q) (p ~q) ~p.
11. Prove that (p q) (p r) p (q r).
12. Prove that (p r) (q r) (p q) r.
13. Prove by deductive method that (p q) ~p q is a tautology.
14. Prove by deductive method that (p q) ~p q is a tautology.
15. What is a logic gate? Explain the basic logic operations of Boolean algebra.
16. What is an OR gate? Write its logic symbol and truth table.
17. What is an AND gate? Write its logic symbol and truth table.
18. Write a note on INVERTER gate.
19. Explain De Morgan’s theorems giving examples.
20. Write the symbols and truth tables for the following gates:
21. (i) AND (ii) OR (iii) NAND (iv) NOR
22. Explain how AND, OR and NOT operations can be obtained using only
NAND gates?
23. Explain how AND, OR and NOT operations can be obtained using only
NOR gates?
24. Explain the characteristics of an XOR gate and draw its logic diagram and
write its Truth Table.
25. Explain the characteristics of an XNOR gate and draw its logic diagram
and write its Truth Table.
26. Briefly explain (i) Propagation Delay and (ii) Power Dissipation of Logic
Gates.
27. Write a note on: (i) Noise Immunity and (ii) Fan Out of Logic Gates.
28. Prove that a logic NAND operation is equivalent to a negative logic OR
operation and vice versa.
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4.16 FURTHER READING Calculus
Loney, S. L. 1983. Plane Trigonometry (Analytical Trigonometry), Part II.
New Delhi: S. Chand And Company Limited. NOTES
Datta, K. B. 2004. Matrix and Linear Algebra. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd.
Prasad, Chandrika. 2017. Text Book on Algebra and Theory of Equations,
11th Edition. Allahabad: Pothishala Private Ltd.
Liu, C. L. 1986. Elements of Discrete Mathematics, 2nd Edition. Noida (UP):
McGraw-Hill Education (International Edition, Computer Science Series).
Khanna, V. K. and S. K. Bhambri. 2008. A Course in Abstract Algebra, 3rd
Edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Grewal, B. S. 1998. Higher Engineering Mathematics, 34th Edition. New Delhi:
Khanna Publishers.
Narayan, Shanti. 1996. Differential Calculus, 14th Edition. New Delhi: S. Chand
And Company Limited.
Kreyszig, Erwin. 2006. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 7th Edition.
Mumbai: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Bali, N. P. 2007. A Textbook of Engineering Mathematics. New Delhi: Laxmi
Publications (P) Ltd.
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Expansion of Trigonometric
UNIT 5 EXPANSION OF Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS,
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS AND NOTES
SERIES
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 De - Moivre’s Theorem and its Applications
5.3 Hyperbolic Functions
5.4 Inverse Circular and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
5.5 Gregory’s Series
5.6 Expansion of Trigonometric Functions
5.7 Logarithm of Complex Quantities
5.8 Summation of Trigonometrical Series
5.9 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
5.10 Summary
5.11 Key Terms
5.12 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.13 Further Reading
5.0 INTRODUCTION
Abraham de Moivre was one of the mathematicians who used the complex numbers
in trigonometry. He gave the formula (cos + isin )n = (cos n + isin n) which
is known by his name and was instrumental in bringing trigonometry out of the
realm of geometry and into that of analysis. The De Moivre’s theorem was applied
to simplify complex numbers and to find solution of equations.
De Moivre’s Theorem is a formula which is specifically used for finding
powers and roots of complex numbers. A complex number is made up of both
real and imaginary components. Therefore, the De Moivre’s Theorem is used in
the mathematical fields of complex numbers since it allows complex numbers in
polar form to be easily raised to certain powers. In addition, the De Moivre’s
Theorem also works for negative integer powers.
In mathematics, hyperbolic functions are analogs of the ordinary trigonometric
functions defined for the hyperbola rather than on the circle, just as the points (cos
t, sin t) form a circle with a unit radius, the points (cosh t, sinh t) form the right half
of the equilateral hyperbola. Hyperbolic functions occur in the solutions of many
linear differential equations, for example, the equation defining a catenary, of some
cubic equations, in calculations of angles and distances in hyperbolic geometry,
and of Laplace’s equation in Cartesian coordinates.
Trigonometric series is a series in cosines and sine’s of multiple angles. It
can be calculated as the sum function of a convergent or summable trigonometric
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Expansion of Trigonometric series which is almost periodic in nature. The summation of the terms of the
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series sequence known as series. The series can be finite or infinite. Finite series have
defined first and last terms whereas infinite series continue indefinitely.
In this unit, you will study about the De - Moivre’s theorem and its
NOTES
applications, direct and inverse circular and hyperbolic functions, expansion of
trigonometric functions, logarithm of complex quantities, Gregory’s series, and the
summation of trigonometrical series.
5.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Define and prove the De Moivre’s theorem
Determine the roots of a complex number
Solve and form an equation
Prove trigonometrical formulae for complex quantities
Define logarithm of complex quantities and learn about laws related to it
Expand sinh and cosh in powers of
Find a relation between hyperbolic and circular functions
Convert a product into a sum or difference of hyperbolic sine’s or cosines
and vice versa
Define inverse circular functions of real and complex quantities
Derive relation between inverse circular functions
Define inverse hyperbolic functions and determine its general and principal
values
Express inverse hyperbolic functions in terms of logarithms
Relate inverse circular and inverse hyperbolic functions
Expand Gregory’s series and evaluate the value of
Find the sum of series of sine’s and cosines of n angles which are in A.P
Find the sum of the series depending upon hyperbolic series
5.2 DE - MOIVRE’S THEOREM AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
De Moivre’s Theorem is a formula which is specifically used for finding powers
and roots of complex numbers. A complex number is made up of both real and
imaginary components. Therefore, the De Moivre’s Theorem is used in the
mathematical fields of complex numbers since it allows complex numbers in polar
form to be easily raised to certain powers. In addition, the De Moivre’s Theorem
also works for negative integer powers.
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202 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
For any integer n, positive or negative, cos i sin n cos n i sin n . Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
For any fraction n, positive or negative, one of the values of
cos i sin n is cos n i sin n . NOTES
Proof: Case I: Let n be a positive integer.
cos 1 i sin 1 cos 2 i sin 2
cos 1 cos 2 i cos 1 sin 2 i sin 1 cos 2 i 2 sin 1 sin 2
= cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 i sin 1 cos 2 cos 1 sin 2
= cos 1 2 i sin 1 2
Now, cos 1 i sin 1 cos 2 i sin 2 cos 3 i sin 3
= cos 1 2 i sin 1 2 cos 3 i sin 3
= cos 1 2 3 i sin 1 2 3
If we proceed in the similar way for n factors, we get
cos 1 i sin 1 cos 2 i sin 2 ......... cos n i sin n
= cos 1 2 ...... n i sin 1 2 ...... n
Now, by putting 1 2 ...... n in the above equation, we get
cos i sin cos i sin .......to n factors
= cos ......to n terms i sin ......to n terms
cos i sin n cos n i sin n …(1)
Case II: Let n be a negative integer, say –m, where m is a positive integer.
Then, cos i sin n = cos i sin m
1 1
= (cos i sin ) m cos m i sin m [Using Equation (1)]
1 cos m i sin m
=
cos m i sin m cos m i sin m
cos m i sin m
= = cos m i sin m
cos 2 m sin 2 m
= cos( m) i sin(m) = cos n i sin n [ n = –m]
p
Case III: When n is a fraction, positive or negative, say n q , where p is any
integer and q 0 is a positive integer.
From Equation (1),
q
cos i sin cos q. i sin q. cos i sin
q q q q
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Material 203
Expansion of Trigonometric On taking qth root of both sides, we get
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
one of the values of (cos i sin )
1
q as cos i sin .
q q
NOTES Now, upon raising each of the quantities to the pth power, we get
p
p
one of the values of (cos i sin ) q as cos i sin .
q q
p p p
Or, one of the values of (cos i sin ) q as cos q i sin q .
p
Or, one of the values of (cos i sin )n as cos n i sin n n
q
Corollary
1. cos i sin n cos n i sin n
2. cos i sin n cos n i sin n
1
3. cos i sin
cos i sin
Note
1. The cosine and sine must have the same angle.
For example, cos i sin m cos m i sin m
2. If n is any fraction (in lowest term) positive or negative, then the total number
of values is equal to the denominator of the fraction n.
3. cos i sin is generally denoted by cis . Hence,
cis
(i) cis cis cis ( +) (ii) cis cis ( )
4. sin i cos n sin n i cos n , but
sin i cos cos n i sin n
n
2 2
Example 5.1: If the roots of the equations t 2 2t 2 0 are and , show that
x a x
n n
sin n
, where x 1 cot .
sin n
Solution: Given, t 2 2t 2 0
2 4 8 2 2i
t 1 i
2 2
Thus, 1 i and 1 i
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204 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
x x 1 i and x x 1 i Functions, Hyperbolic
By putting the value of x 1 cot , we get Functions and Series
cos cos i sin
x cot i i
sin sin NOTES
cos i sin
n
cos n i sin n
x
n
sin n
sin n
cos cos i sin
and x cot i sin i sin
cos i sin n
n
cos n i sin n
x
n
sin n sin n
cos n i sin n cos n i sin n
x x
n n
sin n sin n
Now,
1 i 1 i
cos n i sin n cos n i sin n 2i sin n sin n
2i.sin n
2i sin n sin n
Example 5.2: If , be the roots of x 2 2 x 4 0 , then prove that
n
n n 2n 1 cos .
3
Solution: Given, x 2 2 x 4 0
2 4 16 2 i 2 3
x 1 i 3
2 2
Since , are the roots of the given equation, thus let 1 i 3
and 1 i 3
By putting 1 r cos and 3 r sin and then squaring followed by adding,
we get
r 2 4 r 2 [Taking only + ve sign]
1 3
cos and , which gives 60
0
2 2 3
n n
Now, n n 1 i 3 1 i 3
r cos ir sin r cos ir sin
n n
r n cos i sin cos i sin
n n
r n cos n i sin n cos n i sin n
n
r n 2cos n 2n 2cos n. 2n 1 cos
3 3 Self - Learning
Material 205
Expansion of Trigonometric Roots of a Complex Number
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series 1
Theorem 5.1: (cos i sin ) q has q and only q distinct values, q being any
positive integer.
NOTES Proof: From De Moivre theorem, when n is a fraction then one of the
values of (cos i sin )n is cos n i sin n . To find all the values
of (cos i sin ) n , we take cos as cos(2r ) and sin as sin(2r ) , where
r is an integer.
1 1
(cos i sin ) q
cos(2r ) i sin(2r ) q
1
So, one of the values of cos(2r ) i sin(2r ) q is
(2r ) (2r )
cos i sin …(2)
q q
By putting r = 0, 1, 2,…, (q – 1) successively in Equation (2), we get
cos i sin ,
q q
(2 ) (2 )
cos i sin ,
q q
………………………………
2( q 1) 2( q 1) )
cos i sin
q q
Now, if we put r = q in Equation (2), we get (q + 1)th value
(2q ) (2q )
= cos i sin
q q
= cos 2 q i sin 2 q = cos q i sin q
This is same as the value obtained by putting r = 0.
Similarly, if we put r =q + 1 in Equation (2), we get the same value as the
value obtained by putting r = 1.
Hence, if we put r = q, q + 1, q + 2,…, the values obtained are same as
previously obtained values.
1
Thus, (cos i sin ) q has q and only q distinct values.
p
Theorem 5.2: (cos i sin ) q has q and only q distinct values, p and q being
integers, prime to each other.
Proof: Proceed on similar lines as above theorem.
p
q
Theorem 5.3: The q values of (cos i sin ) , p and q being integers, prime to
Self - Learning
each other, form a G.P. whose sum is zero.
206 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
p 1 Functions, Hyperbolic
Proof: We can write (cos i sin ) q
(cos i sin ) p q
Functions and Series
1 1
= (cos p i sin p) q = cos(2r p) i sin(2r p) q
NOTES
2r p 2r p
= cos i sin , where r = 0, 1,…., (q – 1)
q q
2r p 2r p
= cos q q i sin q q
p p 2r 2r
= cos q i sin q cos q i sin q
r
p p 2 2
= cos i sin cos i sin … (3)
q q q q
p p 2 2
= ar , where a cos q i sin q , cos q i sin q
By putting r = 0, 1,…,(q – 1) in Equation (3), we get a, a,..., aq 1 as q
roots of this equation.
The above roots are in G.P. with first term as a and common ratio as .
2 2
q
a 1 cos i sin
q
Sum of the roots = a 1 q q
1 1
a 1 (cos 2 i sin 2) a (1 1)
= 0
1 1
3/ 4
Example 5.3: Find all the values of 1 3 and show that their continued
product is 8.
Solution: Let 1 i 3 r cos i sin
Then, by equating real and imaginary parts, we get1 r cos and 3 r sin
On squaring and then adding these two equations, we get r 2 4 r 2
and on dividing, we get tan 3
3
3/ 4
3/ 4
1 i 3 2 cos i sin
3 3
2 cos i sin 2 cos 2r i sin 2r
3/ 4 1/ 4 3/ 4 1/ 4
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Material 207
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
23/ 4 cos
2r 1 i sin 2r 1
Functions and Series , where r 0,1, 2,3.
4 4
NOTES 3/ 4 3 3
cos i sin ; 2 cos i sin ;
3/ 4
The required values are 2
4 4 4 4
5 5 7 7
23/ 4 cos i sin and 23/ 4 cos i sin
4 4 4 4
Thus, their continued product
7 23 cis 3 5 7
3 3 3 3
3 5
24 4 4 4
cis .cis .cis .cis
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
8 cis4 8
1
Example 5.4: If Z cos i sin 3 ,
(i) What is the number of roots? (ii) Are the roots real or complex?
(iii) Do the roots form a G.P.?(iv) If = 0, write down the roots.
1 1
Solution: Given, Z cos i sin 3 Z = cis 3
1 2r
Z = cis (2r ) 3 = cis , where r = 0, 1, 2
3
2 4
= cis , cis , cis
3 3 3 3 3
(i) Number of roots = 3
(ii) Roots are complex
2 4
(iii) Roots = cis , cis , cis
3 3 3 3 3
2
2 4 2 2
= cis , cis cis , cis cis = cis , cis . cis , cis .cis
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Yes, roots form a G.P.
2 4
(iv) By putting = 0, we get roots as 1, cis , cis
3 3
1 3 1 3
= 1, i , i
2 2 2 2
Solution of Equation
Here we will see how De Moivre’s theorem helps in solving certain type of
equations.
2k 1
Example 5.5: Show that the roots of x 16 x 16 0 are i cot ,
12
where k = 0, 1, 2.
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208 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
Solution: Given, x 16 x 16 0 x 16 x 16 Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
6
x 1
1 = cos i sin
x 1 NOTES
x 1 1 1
= cos i sin 6 = cos (2r ) i sin (2r ) 6
x 1
(2r 1) (2r 1)
= cos i sin , where r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
6 6
x 1 2r 1
= cos i sin , where
x 1 6
Applying componendo and dividendo, we get
( x 1) ( x 1) cos i sin 1
( x 1) ( x 1) cos i sin 1
2 cos 2
i.2 sin cos
2 x (1 cos ) i sin x 2 2 2
2 (1 cos ) i sin 2
2 sin i.2 sin cos
2 2 2
2cos cos i sin
2 2 2 1 i 2r 1
x cot 2 cot i cot
i 2 i 2 12
2i sin cos i sin
2 2 2
where r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
3
When r = 0, x i cot ; When r = 1, x i cot ; When r = 2,
12 12
5
x i cot
12
7 5 5
When r = 3, x i cot i cot i cot
12 12 12
9 3 3
When r = 4, x i cot i cot i cot
12 12 12
11
When r = 5, x i cot i cot i cot
12 12 12
3 5
Thus, the roots of the given equation are i cot , i cot , i cot or
12 12 12
2k 1
i cot , where k = 0, 1, 2.
12
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Material 209
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic 4r 1
Functions and Series Example 5.6: Show that the roots of 1 x 3 i 1 x 3 are x i tan ,
12
where r 0,1, 2 .
NOTES 3
1 x
Solution: Given, 1 x 3
i 1 x
3
i cos i sin
1 x 2 2
cos 2r i sin 2r
2 2
4r 1 i sin 4r 1
1/ 3
1 x
cos
1 x 2 2
cos
4r 1 i sin 4r 1
, where r = 0, 1, 2
6 6
1 x
cos i sin , where
4r 1
1 x 6
Applying componendo and dividendo, we get
1 x 1 x cos i sin 1
1 x 1 x cos i sin 1
2i sin cos 2cos 2
2 i sin 1 cos 2 2 2
2 x i sin 1 cos 2
2i sin cos 2sin
2 2 2
cos i sin cos cos i sin
1 2 2 2 1
cot 2 2 cot
x 2
i 2 cos i sin
sin i cos sin i
2 2 2 2 2
(4r 1)
Thus, x i tan i tan , where r = 0, 1, 2.
2 12
Check Your Progress
1. Using De Moivre’s theorem, find an equation whose roots are the nth
power of the roots of the equation x 2 2 x cos 1 0 .
2. If sin sin sin cos cos cos 0 , then find the value of
sin ( ) .
3. Find the five fifth roots of unity by De Moivre's theorem and prove that
the sum of nth powers of the roots, n being an integer not divisible by
5 is zero.
4. Solve the equation using De Moivre's theorem.
5. Find the roots of the equation .
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210 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
5.3 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
In mathematics, hyperbolic functions are analogs of the ordinary trigonometric
functions defined for the hyperbola rather than on the circle, just as the points (cos NOTES
t, sin t) form a circle with a unit radius, the points (cosh t, sinh t) form the right half
of the equilateral hyperbola.
Hyperbolic functions occur in the solutions of many linear differential
equations, for example, the equation defining a catenary, of some cubic equations,
in calculations of angles and distances in hyperbolic geometry, and of Laplace’s
equation in Cartesian coordinates.
For all real or complex values of θ , we define:
eθ e θ
(i) sinh θ = as hyperbolic sine of θ (to be read as sinh θ ).
2
eθ e θ
(ii) cosh θ = as hyperbolic cosine of θ (to be read as cosh θ ).
2
sinh θ eθ e θ
(iii) tanh θ = as hyperbolic tangent of θ .
cosh θ eθ e θ
cosh θ eθ e θ
(iv) coth θ = as hyperbolic cotangent of θ .
sinh θ eθ e θ
1 2
(v) sech θ = = θ θ as hyperbolic secant of θ .
cosh θ e e
1 2
(vi) cosech θ = θ θ as hyperbolic cosecant of θ .
sinh θ e e
eθ e θ eθ e θ
(vii) cosh θ + sinh θ = + = eθ
2 2
eθ e θ eθ e θ
(viii) cosh θ – sinh θ = – = eθ
2 2
e e 1 1
Corollary: sinh = ,
2 2
e e 1 1
cosh = 1,
2 2
sinh
tanh =
cosh 1
Self - Learning
Material 211
Expansion of Trigonometric Expansion of sinh and cosh
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
1 θ θ 1 θ2 θ2
sinh θ = e e = 1 θ + ... 1 θ ...
2 2 2! 2!
NOTES
θ3 θ5
= θ ...
3! 5!
1 θ θ 1 θ2 θ2
cosh θ = e e = 1 θ + ...
1 θ ...
2 2 2! 2!
θ2 θ4
=1+ ...
2! 4!
Periodicity of Hyperbolic Functions
Here we will discuss the periods of the hyperbolic functions sinh θ , cosh θ , tanh θ
and coth θ .
Periodicity of sinh θ and cosh θ
1 θ θ
We have, sinh θ =
2
e e
Consider,
1 θ 2 ni θ 2 ni
sinh θ 2nπi = e e , where n is any integer
2
1 θ 2 ni θ 2 ni
= e .e e .e
2
Since, Since, e 2 ni cos 2n i sin 2n 1
and e2 ni cos 2n i sin 2n 1 , so we get
1 θ θ
sinh θ 2nπi e e = sinh θ
2
As, sinh θ does not change with increase in θ by any multiple of 2πi , hence
sinh θ is a periodic function with a period of 2πi .
Similarly, cosh θ also does not change, i.e., cosh ( θ + 2n πi) = cosh θ ,
with increase in θ by any multiple of 2πi . Hence, cosh θ is a periodic function with
a period of 2πi .
Corollary: sech θ and cosech θ are reciprocal of cosh θ and sinh θ , respectively..
So, they will also be a periodic function with same period of 2πi .
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212 Material
Periodicity of tanh θ and coth θ Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
eθ e θ
We have, tanh θ = .
eθ e θ NOTES
Consider,
eθ ni e θ ni
tanh ( θ + nπi ) = , where n is any integer..
eθ ni e θ ni
eθ .e ni e θ .e ni
= θ ni θ ni
e .e e .e
By multiplying the numerator and denominator by enπi , we get
eθ .e 2 ni e θ eθ e θ
tanh ( θ + nπi ) = = = tanh θ
eθ .e 2 ni e θ eθ e θ
As, tanh θ does not change with increase in θ by any multiple of πi , hence
tanh θ is a periodic function with a period of πi .
Similarly, coth θ does not change, i.e., coth ( θ + n π i) = coth θ , with increase
in θ by any multiple of πi . Hence, coth θ is a periodic function with a period of
πi .
Relation Between Hyperbolic and Circular Functions
For all values of θ , we have
eiθ e iθ
(i) sin θ =
2i
2 2
ei x e i x e x e x
sin (ix) = [Putting θ = ix]
2i 2i
e x e x e x e x
= i i i sinh x
2i 2 2
Thus, sin (ix)= i sinh x.
eiθ e iθ
(ii) cos θ =
2
2 2
ei x e i x
cos (ix) = [By putting θ = ix]
2
e x e x e x e x
= = cosh x
2 2
Self - Learning
Material 213
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic sin ix i sinh x
Functions and Series (iii) tan ( ix) = i tanh x
cos ix cosh x
cos ix cosh x
NOTES (iv) cot (ix) = = – i coth x
sin ix i sinh x
1 1
(v) sec (ix) = sech x
cos ix cosh x
1 1
(vi) cosec (ix) = sin ix i sinh x i cosech x
Corollary: 1. sinh (ix) = i sin x 2. cosh (ix) = cos x 3. tanh (ix) = i tan x
Formulae of Hyperbolic Functions
Hyperbolic functions have some fundamental as well as addition and subtraction
formulae. Here, we will discuss each of them one by one.
Fundamental Formulae
(a) cosh2x – sinh2x = 1
(b) sech2x + tanh2x = 1
(c) coth2x – cosech2x = 1
2 2
e x e x e x e x
Proof: (a) cosh x – sinh x =
2 2
2 2
e 2 x e 2 x 2 e2 x e2 x 2
=
4 4
e 2 x e 2 x 2 e 2 x e 2 x 2 4
= 1
4 4
(b) We have cosh2x – sinh2x = 1 [From (a)] …(4)
Dividing both the sides of the Equation (4) by cosh2x, we get
sech2x + tanh2x = 1
1 – tanh2x = sech2x
(c) Now, dividing both the sides of Equation (4) by sinh2x, we get
coth2x – 1 = cosech2x coth2x – cosech2x = 1
Addition and Subtraction Formulae
(a) sinh x y = sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y
(b) cosh x y = cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y
tanh x tanh y
(c) tanh x y =
1 tanh x tanh y
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214 Material
Proof: (a) We have sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
e x e x e y e y e x e x e y e y
= . + . [By definition]
2 2 2 2
NOTES
x y x y x y x y x y x y x y x y
e e e e e e e e
=
4 4
x y
e x y e
= = sinh (x +y)
2
Simialrly, we can prove that
sinh x y = sinh x cosh y – cosh x sinh y
(b) Similarly, we can prove that
cosh x y = cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y.
(c) We know that
sinh x y
tanh x y =
cosh x y
sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y
=
cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y
Dividing R.H.S of the numerator and denominator by cosh x cosh y, we get
tanh x tanh y
tanh x y =
1 tanh x tanh y
Hyperbolic Functions of 2x and 3x
2 tanh x
(a) sinh 2x = 2sinh x cosh x =
1 tanh 2 x
(b) cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 2cosh2 x – 1
1 tanh 2 x
= 1 + 2sinh x = 2
1 tanh 2 x
2 tanh x
(c) tanh 2x =
1 tanh 2 x
(d) sinh 3x = 3 sinh x + 4 sinh3 x
(e) cosh 3x = 4 cosh3 x – 3 cosh x
3 tanh x tanh 3 x
(f) tanh 3x =
1 3tanh 2 x
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Material 215
Expansion of Trigonometric Proof: (a) We know that,
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series sin 2θ = 2sin θ cos θ
sin (2ix) = 2 sin ix cos ix [Putting θ = ix]
NOTES
i sinh 2x = i 2sinh x cosh x
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
2 tan θ
Also, sin 2 θ =
1+ tan 2θ
2 tan ix
sin 2ix = [Putting θ = ix]
1+tan 2ix
i.2 tanh x
i sinh 2x =
1+ i tanh x
2
2 tanh x
sinh 2x =
1 tanh 2 x
(b) We know that, cos 2 θ = cos2 θ – sin2 θ
cos 2ix = cos2 (ix) – sin2 (ix)
[Putting θ = ix]
cosh 2x = cosh2 x – (i sinh x)2 = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
Also, cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 1 + sinh2 x + sinh2 x
[ cosh 2 x sinh 2 x 1 ]
= 1 + 2sinh2 x
Now, cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
= cosh2 x + cosh2 x – 1= 2 cosh2x – 1
1 tan 2 θ
Again, cos 2 θ =
1 tan 2 θ
2
1 tan 2 ix 1 i tanh x
cos 2ix = 2
1 tan 2 ix 1 i tanh x
1 tanh 2 x
1 tanh 2 x
[Putting θ = ix]
cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
1 tanh 2 x
= 2cosh2 x – 1 = 1 + 2sinh2 x =
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1 tanh 2 x
216 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
2 tan θ Functions, Hyperbolic
(c) We know that tan 2 θ = Functions and Series
1 tan 2 θ
2 tan ix
tan 2ix [Putting θ = ix] NOTES
1 tan 2 ix
2i tanh x
i tanh 2x =
1 i tanh x
2
2 tanh x
tanh 2x =
1 tanh 2 x
(d) We know that, sin 3 θ = 3 sin θ – 4 sin3 θ
sin (3ix) = 3 sin ix – 4 sin3 (ix) [Putting θ = ix]
i sinh 3x = 3i sinh x – 4 (i sinh x) 3
sinh 3x = 3 sinh x + 4 sinh3 x
(e) We know that, cos 3 θ = 4 cos3 θ – 3 cos θ
cos 3ix = 4 cos3 (ix) – 3 cos ix [Putting θ = ix]
cosh 3x = 4 cosh3 x – 3 cosh x
3 tan θ tan 3 θ
(f) We know that, tan 3 θ =
1 3 tan 2 θ
3 tan ix tan 3 ix
tan (3ix) = [Putting θ = ix]
1 3 tan 2 ix
3i tanh x i tanh x
3
i tanh3x =
1 3 i tanh x
2
3i tanh x i tanh 3 x
= [i2 = –1]
1 3i 2 tanh 2 x
3 tanh x tanh 3 x
tanh 3x =
1 3tanh 2 x
Conversion of a Product into a sum or Difference of Hyperbolic sines or
cosines
(a) 2 sinh A cosh B = sinh (A + B) + sinh (A – B)
(b) 2 cosh A sinh B = sinh (A + B) – sinh (A – B)
(c) 2 cosh A cosh B = cosh (A + B) + cosh (A – B)
(d) 2 sinh A sinh B = cosh (A + B) – cosh (A – B)
Self - Learning
Material 217
Expansion of Trigonometric Proof: (a) We have,
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series 2 sin x cos y = sin (x + y) + sin (x – y)
2 sin (iA) cos (iB) = sin (iA + iB) + sin (iA – iB)
NOTES
[Putting x = iA and y = iB]
2i sinh A cosh B = i sinh (A + B) + i sinh (A – B)
2 sinh A cosh B = sinh (A + B) + sinh (A – B)
Similarly, we can prove the remaining formulae.
Conversion of Sum and Difference of Hyperbolic sines and cosines
into Product
CD CD
(a) sinh C + sinh D = 2 sinh cosh
2 2
CD CD
(b) sinh C – sinh D = 2 cosh sinh
2 2
CD CD
(c) cosh C + cosh D = 2 cosh cosh
2 2
CD CD
(d) cosh C – cosh D = 2 sinh sinh
2 2
x y x y
Proof: (a) We have, sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2
iC iD iC iD
sin iC + sin iD = 2 sin cosh
2 2
[Putting x = iC and y = iD]
CD CD
i sinh C + i sinh D = 2i sinh cosh
2 2
CD CD
sinh C + sinh D = 2 sinh cosh
2 2
Similarly, we can prove the remaining formulae.
π θ
Example 5.7: If u = log tan , then prove that
4 2
(a) cosh u = sec θ (b) tanh u = sin θ (c) sinh u = tan θ
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218 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
π θ
Solution: Given, u = log tan
Functions, Hyperbolic
4 2 Functions and Series
θ
tan tan
π θ 4 2 NOTES
eu tan eu 2 .eu 2
4 2 θ
1 tan tan
4 2
θ
1 tan
eu 2 2
u 2
e θ
1 tan
2
By applying componendo and dividendo, we get
θ
e u 2
e u 2 2 tan
2 tan θ tanh u tan θ
u 2 u 2
e e 2 2 2 2
…(5)
(a) We know that,
θ u
1 tan 2 1 tanh 2
1 2 2 cosh u
sec θ = = =
cos θ 1 tan 2 θ 1 tanh 2 u
2 2
[From Equation (5)]
(b) We know that,
θ u
2 tan 2 tanh
2 2 tanh u
sin θ = θ u … (6)
1 tan 2 1 tanh 2
2 2
(c) We know that,
tanh u
sin θ 1 sinh u
tan θ = = = cosh u sinh u
cos θ cosh u cosh u
[From Equation (6)]
Separation of Circular and Hyperbolic Functions into Real and
Imaginary Parts
The circular and hyperbolic functions with complex arguments can be expressed
in the form x + iy, where x and y denotes the real and the imaginary parts,
respectively.
Example 5.8: Separate tanh (x + iy) into real and imaginary parts.
1 1
Solution: tanh (x + iy) = tan i x iy = 2 tan ix y
i i
Self - Learning
Material 219
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic sin ix y 2sin ix y cos ix y
Functions and Series i = – i
cos ix y 2 cos ix y cos ix y
NOTES sin ix y ix y sin ix y ix y
=–i
cos ix y ix y cos ix y ix y
sin 2ix sin 2 y i sinh 2 x sin 2 y
=–i i
cos 2ix cos 2 y cosh 2 x cos 2 y
sinh 2 x sin 2 y
= i
cosh 2 x cos 2 y cosh 2 x cos 2 y
cosh 2 y cos 2 x
Example 5.9: If tan x iy i , prove that 2 2 .
cosh 2 y sin 2 x
sin x iy 2sin x iy cos x iy
Solution: We have, tan x iy
cos x iy 2cos x iy cos x iy
sin 2 x sin 2iy sin 2 x i sinh 2 y
= cos 2 x cos 2iy cos 2 x cosh 2 y
sin 2 x sinh 2 y
= cos 2 x cosh 2 y i cos 2 x cosh 2 y
Given, tan x iy i
sin 2 x sinh 2 y
i i
cos 2 x cosh 2 y cos 2 x cosh 2 y
By equating real and imaginary parts, we get
sin 2 x sinh 2 y
and
cos 2 x cosh 2 y cos 2 x cosh 2 y
sin 2 2 x sinh 2 2 y 1 cos 2
2 x cosh 2 2 y 1
2 2
cos 2 x cosh 2 y cos 2 x cosh 2 y
2 2
cosh 2 2 y cos2 2 x cosh 2 y cos 2 x
=
cos 2 x cosh 2 y cos 2 x cosh 2 y
2
2cosh y 1 2cos
2 2
x 1
cosh 2 y cos 2 x
=
1 2sin x 2cosh
2 2
y 1 cosh 2 y sin 2 x
Example 5.10: If tan i cos i sin , where the letters denote real
n
quantities, prove that , where n is an integer..
2 4
Self - Learning
220 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
Solution: Given, tan i cos i sin … (7) Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
tan i cos i sin … (8)
tan i tan i NOTES
Now, tan 2 tan i i
1 tan i tan i
cos i sin cos i sin
1 cos i sin cos i sin
[Using Equations (7) and (8)]
2cos 2cos
1 cos sin
2 2
0
tan 2 tan
2
n
2 n .
2 2 4
Check Your Progress
6. Prove that (cosh x + sinh x)n = cosh nx + sinh nx.
7. Separate into real and imaginary part:
(i) cosh (x + iy) (ii) sin2 (x + iy)
5.4 INVERSE CIRCULAR AND INVERSE
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Inverse Circular Functions of a Real Variable
We know that the equation cos x means cos of angle is equal to x. We can
write this equation in another way as = cos–1x which is read as ‘ is equal to the
cos inverse x’. Thus,
cos x …(9)
= cos–1x …(10)
Putting the value of from Equation (10) in Equation (9) and that of x from
Equation (9) in Equation (10),
cos cos 1 x x and = cos–1(cos )
Clearly, cos and cos–1 are two inverse operators which cancel each other.
Similarly, the inverses of sin x, tan x, sec x, cosec x and cot x are sin–1 x, tan–1 x,
sec–1 x, cosec–1 x and cot–1 x, respectively.
Self - Learning
Material 221
Expansion of Trigonometric Principal and General Values
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
Consider the equation tan 1 . Now,, tan 1 tan
4
NOTES
n , where n is zero, positive or negative integer..
4
tan 1 1 , , 2 ,
4 4 4
Thus, we can see that tan 1 1 is a multi-valued function. The value lying
between and , i.e., the value which is least in magnitude is called the principal
2 2
value of tan 1 1 . Thus, the principal value of tan 1 1 is . If is the smallest
4
positive or negative angle and tan = x, then the general value of tan 1 x is
given by n . Similarly, the general values of sin–1 x and cos–1 x are n 1n
and 2n , respectively. The principal values of inverse circular functions are
given in the following table.
S.No Function Range Domain
1. y sin 1 x –1 x 1
y
2 2
2. y cos 1 x 0 y –1 x 1
3. 1
y tan x –<x<
y
2 2
4. y cot 1 x 0 y –<x<
5. y sec1 x 1x<
0 y 2 – < x –1
y 0
2
6. y cos ec1 x 1x<
2 y 0 – < x –1
0 y
2
For writing the general values of the inverse circular functions, use first letter
as capital while for principal values, use first letter as small. Thus, we have
n 1
sin 1 x n 1 sin 1 x , cos 1 x 2n cos 1 x and tan x n tan 1 x .
Relations between Inverse Circular Functions
1
I. (a) sin 1 x cosec 1
x
Proof: Let sin 1 x . Then x sin
Self - Learning
222 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
1 1 1
Now, cosec cosec 1 Functions, Hyperbolic
sin x x Functions and Series
1
sin 1 x cosec 1
x NOTES
1
(b) cosec1 x sin 1
x
Proof: Let cosec1 x . Then x cosec
1 1 1
Now, sin sin 1
cosec x x
1
cosec1 x sin 1
x
1
(c) cos 1 x sec 1
x
1 1 1
(d) sec x cos
x
1 1 1
(e) tan x cot
x
1
(f) cot 1 x tan 1
x
(c) to (f) can be proved on similar lines as above parts.
II.(a) sin 1 x sin 1 x
Proof: Let sin 1 x . Then x sin
x sin x sin sin 1 x sin 1 x
sin 1 x sin 1 x
(b) tan 1 x tan 1 x
(c) cot 1 x cot 1 x
(d) cosec1 x cosec 1 x
We can prove the results (b) to (d) on similar lines as (a).
(e) cos 1 x cos 1 x
Proof: Let cos 1 x . Then, x cos .
x cos x cos cos 1 x cos 1 x
cos 1 x cos 1 x
Self - Learning
Material 223
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic (f) sec 1 x sec 1 x
Functions and Series
Using the above method, we can prove this result.
NOTES III.(a) sin 1 x cos 1 x
2
Proof: Let sin 1 x . Then x sin
x cos cos 1 x cos 1 x sin 1 x
2 2 2
sin 1 x cos 1 x
2
(b) tan 1 x cot 1 x
2
1 1
(c) sec x cosec x
2
We can prove the results (b) and (c) on similar lines as (a).
1 1 1 x y
IV.(a) tan x tan y tan 1 xy
Proof: Let tan 1 x A x tan A …(11)
and tan 1 y B y tan B …(12)
tan A tan B x y
As we know that, tan A B 1 tan A.tan B or tan A B 1 xy
x y 1 x y
A B tan 1 1 1
tan x tan y tan
1 xy 1 xy
1 x y z xyz
(b) tan 1 x tan 1 y tan 1 z tan 1 yz zx xy
Proof: tan 1 x tan 1 y tan 1 z tan 1 x tan 1 y tan 1 z
x y
tan 1 1
tan z [From (a)]
1 xy
x y
z
1 xy
tan 1 1 x y z xyz
x y tan 1 yz zx xy
1 z
1 xy
2x
(c) 2 tan 1 x tan 1 2
1 x
Self - Learning
224 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
1 x y 1 1 Functions, Hyperbolic
Proof: From (a), we have tan x tan y tan 1 xy Functions and Series
Substituting x= y, we get
NOTES
x x 1 2 x
tan 1 x tan 1 x tan 1 1
2 tan x tan 2
1 x.x 1 x
3x x3
(d) 3tan 1 x tan 1 2
1 3x
1 1 1 1 x y z xyz
Proof: From (b), we have tan x tan y tan z tan 1 yz zx xy
1 3 x x
3
1
Substituting x = y = z, we get 3tan x tan 2
1 3x
xy 1
V. cot 1 x cot 1 y cot 1
yx
Proof: Let cot 1 x A x cot A and cot 1 y B y cot B
cot A.cot B 1 xy 1
We know that, cot A B cot B cot A
yx
1 xy 1
1 1 1 xy 1
A B cot y x cot x cot y cot y x
x 1 x2
VI. (a) sin 1 x cos 1 1 x 2 tan 1 cot 1
1 x2 x
1 1
sec 1 cosec 1
1 x 2 x
Proof: Let sin 1 x x sin
Now, cos 1 sin 2 1 x 2 cos 1 1 x 2
sin x x
tan tan 1
cos 1 x 2
1 x 2
1 1 x 2 1 x 2
cot cot 1
tan x x
1 1 1
sec sec 1
cos 1 x 2
1 x2
1 1 1
cosec cosec 1
sin x x
Self - Learning
Material 225
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic x 1 x2
Functions and Series sin 1 x cos 1 1 x 2 tan 1 cot 1
1 x2 x
1 1
NOTES sec 1 cosec 1
1 x2 x
1 1 1 1 x2 x
(b) cos x sin 1 x tan
2
cot 1
x 1 x2
1 1
sec1 cosec 1
x 1 x2
1 1 x 1 1
(c) tan x sin cos 1 cot 1
1 x 2 1 x 2 x
1 x 2
cosec 1 sec 1 1 x 2
x
We can prove the results (b) and (c) on similar lines as (a).
VII.
(a) 3sin 1 x sin 1 3x 4 x 3
Proof: Let sin 1 x x sin
Now, sin 3 3sin 4sin 3 3 x 4 x3
3 sin 1 3 x 4 x3 3sin 1 x sin 1 3x 4 x 3
(b) 3cos 1 x cos 1 4 x3 3x
Proof: Let cos 1 x x cos
Now, cos3 4cos3 3cos 4 x3 3 x
3 cos 1 4 x3 3 x 3cos 1 x cos 1 4 x 3 3 x
VIII.
(a) sin 1 x sin 1 y sin 1 x 1 y 2 y 1 x 2
Proof: Let sin 1 x A . Then x sin A …(13)
cos A 1 sin 2 A 1 x 2 …(14)
and sin 1 y B y sin B …(15)
cos B 1 sin 2 B 1 y 2 …(16)
Self - Learning
226 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
Now, sin A B sin A cos B cos A sin B Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
A B sin 1 x 1 y 2 y 1 x 2
NOTES
[From Equations (13), (14), (15) and (16)]
sin 1 x sin 1 y sin 1 x 1 y 2 y 1 x 2
Note: sin x sin y sin x 1 y y 1 x is valid if
1 1 1 2 2
x 2 y 2 1, x 0, y 0 and sin x sin y sin x 1 y y 1 x
1 1 1 2 2
is valid if 0 x, y 1 .
(b) cos 1 x cos 1 y cos 1 xy 1 x 2 . 1 y 2
Proof: Let cos 1 x A . Then x cos A …(17)
sin A 1 cos 2 A 1 x 2 …(18)
and cos 1 y B y cos B …(19)
sin B 1 cos 2 B 1 y 2 …(20)
Now, cos A B cos A cos B sin A sin B
A B cos 1 xy 1 x 2 . 1 y 2
[From Equations (17), (18), (19) and (20)]
cos 1 x cos 1 y cos 1 xy 1 x 2 . 1 y 2
Note: cos 1 x cos 1 y cos 1 xy 1 x 2 . 1 y 2 is valid if 0 x, y 1 and
cos 1 x cos 1 y cos1 xy 1 x 2 . 1 y 2 is valid if 1 x y 1 .
(c)
2sin 1 x sin 1 2 x 1 x 2
Proof: We know that sin x sin y sin x 1 y y 1 x
1 1 1 2 2
Substituting
1 1
x = y, we get 2sin x sin 2 x 1 x
2
(d) 2 cos 1 x cos 1 2 x 2 1
Self - Learning
Material 227
Expansion of Trigonometric
Proof: We know that cos x cos y cos xy 1 x . 1 y
1 1 1 2 2
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
Substituting x = y, we get 2cos 1 x cos1 2 x 2 1
NOTES
1 1 4 5 16
Example 5.11: Show that sin sin sin 1 .
5 13 65 2
4 5 16 4 5 16
Solution: sin
1
sin 1 sin 1 sin 1 sin 1 sin 1
5 13 65 5 13 65
4 5
2
5 4
2
16
sin 1 1 1 sin 1
5
13 13
5 65
4 25 5 16 16
sin 1 1 1 sin 1
5 169 13 25 65
4 12 5 3 16
sin 1 . . sin 1
5 13 13 5 65
2
63 16 63 63
sin 1 cos 1 1 sin 1 cos 1
65 65
65 65 2
Example 5.12: If tan 1 x tan 1 y tan 1 z , prove that x y z xyz
Solution: Let tan 1 x A x tan A
and tan 1 y B y tan B
tan 1 z C z tan C
Since, it is given that tan 1 x tan 1 y tan 1 z
Also, A B C
A B C tan A B tan C
tan A tan B
tan C tan A tan B 1 tan A.tan B tan C
1 tan A.tan B
tan A tan B tan C tan A.tan B.tan C x y z xyz
Inverse Circular Functions of a Complex Number
Let x iy and u iv be two complex numbers which are connected by the
relation sin x iy u iv . Then x iy sin 1 u iv is called sine-inverse of
u iv . In the same manner, cos 1 u iv , tan 1 u iv , cot 1 u iv , etc. can
Self - Learning be defined.
228 Material
Principal and General Values Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
We know that if n is any integer, then u iv sin x iy sin n 1 x iy .
n
This implies that sin 1 u iv n 1n x iy . Thus, sin 1 u iv is a many- NOTES
valued function. Its principal value is the value whose real part lies between
2
and and the general value is given by Sin 1 u iv = n 1n x iy , i.e.,
2
n 1 sin 1 u iv . Similarly, the principal value of cos u iv is the value
n 1
whose real part lies between 0 and and the principal value of tan 1 u iv is the
value whose real part lies between and . Their general values are given by
2 2
Cos 1 u iv 2n cos 1 u iv and Tan 1 u iv n tan 1 u iv ,
respectively.
Example 5.13: Separate sin 1 ix into real and imaginary parts.
e i e i
Solution: Let sin 1 ix . Then ix sin
2i
i 1 e 2 i 1
2i x e
2
2 x
e i e i
e 2i 2 xei 1 0 , which is quadratic in ei .
Solving the above equation, we get
2 x 4 x 2 4
ei x x 2 1
2
ei x x 2 1 [Rejecting negative values]
e i
x 1 x
2
x 2 1 x
x 1 x
2
e i
1 x 2
x2
1
x 2 1 x
1
x 2 1 x x 1 x
2
1
Taking log of both sides, we get log ei log x 2 1 x
i log x 2 1 x i i log
2
x 2 1 x
i log x 2 1 x sin
1
ix i log x 2 1 x
Self - Learning
Material 229
Expansion of Trigonometric Thus, the general value of the given expression is
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
Sin 1 ix n 1 i log
n
x 2 1 x
NOTES Real part = n and imaginary part = 1 log
n
x 2 1 x
Example 5.14: If cos 1 i i , prove that
(a) 2 sec h 2 2 cosech 2 1
(b) 2 sec2 2 cosec 2 1
Solution:
(a) i cos i cos cos i sin sin i
cos cosh i sin sinh
Equating real and imaginary parts,
cos cosh and sin sinh …(21)
cos and sin
cosh sinh
Squaring and adding these equations,
2 2
cos 2 sin 2 2 sec h 2 2 cosech 2 1
cosh 2 sinh 2
(b) From Equation (21), cosh and sinh
cos sin
Squaring and subtracting these equations,
2 2
cosh 2 sinh 2 2 sec2 2 cosec 2 1
cos sin
2 2
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
If the relation sinh y = x connects x and y, then y is called the inverse hyperbolic
sine of x and is written as y sinh 1 x . Similarly, the inverse hyperbolic functions
cosh 1 x, tanh 1 x,coth 1 x, sech 1 x and cosech 1 x can be defined.
Principal and General Values
Like inverse circular functions, we write the general values of inverse hyperbolic
functions by writing the first letter as capital and the principal values with small
letter.
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions in terms of Logarithms
(a) Sinh x ni 1 log x x 1
1 n 2
Self - Learning
230 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
e y e y Functions, Hyperbolic
Proof: (a) Let sinh x y . Then x
1
sinh y Functions and Series
2
1
2x e e 2 y 2 x e y 1 0
y
NOTES
ey
2x 4 x2 4
On solving, we get e y x x 2 1
2
y 2r i log x x 1 , where r is any integer..
2
y 2r i log x x 1 and y 2r i log x x 2 1
2
x x 1
2
x x 1 x x 1 2 2
Now,
x x 1 2
x 2 x 2 1 x 2 x 2 1 1
x x 1 2
x x 1 2
x x 2 1
log x x 2 1 log 1
x x 2 1 log 1 log x x 1
2
log ei log x x 2 1 1 cos i sin ei
i log x x 2 1
2r i log x x 2 1 2r i i log x x 2 1
2r 1 i log x x 2 1
Either y 2r i 1 log x x 2 1
2r
or y 2r 1 i 1
2 r 1
log x x 2 1
Both these values of y can be included in
y ni 1 log x x 2 1 ,
n
where n is any integer. Thus, Sinh x ni 1 log x x 1 , which
1 2 n
is the general value of sinh 1 x and to obtain the principal value, put
n = 0, i.e, sinh x log x x 1 .
1 2
Self - Learning
Material 231
Expansion of Trigonometric
(b) Cosh x 2ni log x x 1
Functions, Hyperbolic 1 2
Functions and Series
e y e y
NOTES Proof : Let cosh 1 x y . Then x coshy
2
1
2x e e 2 y 2 x e y 1 0
y
ey
2x 4 x2 4
On solving, we get e y x x 2 1
2
y 2r i log x x 2 1 , where r is any integer..
y 2r i log x x 1 and y 2r i log x x 1
2 2
x x 1
2
x x 1 x x 1 1
2 2
Now,
x x 1 2
x x 1 2
Taking log of both sides, log x x 1 log
2
x x 2
1
1
log x x 2 1
Thus, for any integer n, y 2ni log x x 1 includes both the values
2
of y. This is the general value of cosh 1 x and to obtain the principal value,
put n = 0, i.e., cosh x log x x 1 .
1 2
1 1 x
t 1 x ni log
(c)Tanh
2 1 x
e y e y
Proof: Let tanh x y . Then
1x tanh y
e y e y
1 x e e e e
y y y y
1 x e y e y e y e y
[Applying componendo and dividendo]
y
2e
e2 y
2e y
Taking log of both sides, we get 2 y log e
2 ni
log 11 xx
1 x 1 1 x
2 y 2ni log y ni log , where n is any
1 x 2 1 x
integer.
Self - Learning
232 Material
1 x Expansion of Trigonometric
1 1
Tanh x y ni 2 log 1 x Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
which is the general value of tanh 1 x and to obtain the principal value, put
n = 0. NOTES
1 1 x
tanh 1 x log
2 1 x
Relation Between Inverse Circular and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
(a) sinh 1 x isin 1 ix
Proof: Let sinh 1 x y . Then x sinh y
ix isinhy sin iy
1 1
iy sin 1 ix y sin ix y i sin 1 ix
i
Hence, sinh 1 x isin 1 ix
(b) cosh 1 x icos 1 x
Proof: Let cosh 1 x y . Then x cosh y cos iy
1 1
iy cos 1 x y cos x y i cos 1 x
i
Hence, cosh 1 x icos 1 x
(c) tanh 1 x itan 1 ix
Proof: Let tanh 1 x y . Then x tanhy
ix i tanh y tan iy
1 1
iy tan 1 ix y tan ix y i tan 1 ix
i
Hence, tanh 1 x itan 1 ix
1
1 x2 1
In the similar manner, we have cosech x log ,
x
1 1 x2
sech 1 x log and coth 1 x 1 log x 1 .
x 2 x 1
Self - Learning
Material 233
Expansion of Trigonometric
x
Example 5.15: Prove that log tan i i tan sinh x
Functions, Hyperbolic 1
Functions and Series 4 2
x x
NOTES x 1 tan 2 i 1 i tanh 2
Solution: log tan i log log
4 2 1 tan x i 1 tanh x
2 2
x x
cosh 2 i sinh 2
log
cosh x i sinh x
2 2
x x x x
log cosh i sinh log cosh i sinh
2 2 2 2
1 x x x
log cosh 2 sinh 2 i tan 1 tanh
2 2 2 2
1 x x x
log cosh 2 sinh 2 i tan 1 tanh
2 2 2 2
x
2i tan 1 tanh
2
x
2 tanh 2
1
i tan
1 tanh 2 x i tan sinh x
1
2
Check Your Progress
3
1 3a x x
2
tan 2
a a 3 x
8. Write the simplest form of 2
1 1 x
2
1 2x
9. Solve the equation: tan cot
1 x 2
2x 3
10. Separate cos 1 cos i sin into real and imaginary parts.
11. Solve the equation tan 1 eix tan 1 eix tan 1 i .
1 1 z2
12. Prove that tanh 1 z cosh 1 .
2 1 z2
5.5 GREGORY’S SERIES
Gregory’s series states that if lies in the interval to , then
4 4
1 1
tan tan 3 tan 5 .
Self - Learning
3 5
234 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
Proof: We know that cos i sin cos 1 i tan Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
sec cos i sin 1 i tan
sec .ei 1 i tan NOTES
Taking log of both sides, we get log sec i log 1 i tan …(22)
As lies in the interval to , thus i tan 1 .
4 4
Now, from Equation (22), we have
i tan i tan i tan i tan
2 3 4 5
log sec i i tan
2 3 4 5
tan 2 tan 4 tan 3 tan 5
log sec i i tan
2 4 3 5
Equating imaginary parts, we get
1 1
tan tan 3 tan 5
3 5
This is Gregory’s series.
If we equate the real parts, we get
tan 2 tan 4
log sec log cos
2 4
Gregory’s Series can be expressed in another way as
x 3 x5
tan 1 x x , when x 1 .
3 5
Proof: Let tan x , when 1 x 1 .
tan 1 x …(23)
1 1
Since, tan tan tan
3 5
…(24)
3 5
Using the result of Equation (23) in Equation (24), we get
x 3 x5
tan 1 x x …(25)
3 5
1
n 1
x 2 n 1
The general term of the series is .
2 n 1
Thus the expression in Equation (25) can be put in summation form as
1
1n 1 x 2 n 1
tan x .
2n 1 Self - Learning
n 1 Material 235
Expansion of Trigonometric General Value
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
1 3 1 5
Let f lies in the interval to . Then tan tan tan
4 4 3 5
NOTES And the general value of Gregory’s series is given by
1 1
n n tan tan 3 tan 5
3 5
Evaluation of
Here, we are going to evaluate the value of using Gregory’s series.
x3 x5 x 7 x 9
We know that tan 1 x x
3 5 7 9
Substituting x = 1, we get
1 1 1 1
tan 1 1 1
4 3 5 7 9
Since this series is not rapidly convergent, thus we have to take a fairly large
number of terms to calculate the value of correct to certain decimal places.
Example 5.16: With the help of Gregory’s series, prove that
1 1 1
...
8 1.3 5.7 9.11
1 1 1 1 2 2 2
Solution: R.H.S = .... = ....
1.3 5.7 9.11 2 1.3 5.7 9.11
1 3 1 7 5 11 9
= 2 1 . 3 5 . 7 9 . 11 ....
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 2 1 3 5 7 9 11 ....
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 ....
2 3 5 7 9 11
1 x3 x5 x 7
=2 x .... , where x 1
3 5 7
1 1 1
= L.H.S.
1 1
= tan x tan 1 =
2 2 2 4 8
Self - Learning
236 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
5.6 EXPANSION OF TRIGONOMETRIC Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
FUNCTIONS
NOTES
If n is a positive integer, then cos n i sin n cos i sin [From De
n
Moivre’s theorem]
Expanding the R.H.S by binomial theorem, we get
cos n i sin n cos n n C1 cos n 1 (i sin ) n C 2 cos n 2 (i sin ) 2
n C3 cos n 3 (i sin )3 ... n Cn 1 cos (i sin ) n 1 n C n (i sin ) n
cos n i sin n cos n i n C1 cos n1 sin n C2 cos n 2 sin 2
i n C3 cos n 2 sin 3 n C 4 cosn 4 sin 4 ... i n 1n cos sin n 1 i n sin n
… (26)
i 2 1, i 3 i , i 4 1, i5 i and so on
Now, n may be either even or odd.
Case I: If n is even, n – 1 is odd.
n 2
n 2
i n 1 i i n 2 i i 2 2 i 1 2 , n 2 is also even
n n
in i2 2 1 2
So, by putting the value of i n 1 and i n in Equation (26), we get
cos n i sin n cos n i n C1 cos n 1 sin n C2 cos n 2 sin 2
n 1 n
n n 3 3 n 1
i C3 cos sin ... i (1) n cos sin ( 1)
2 2 sin n
Now, by equating real and imaginary parts, we get
n
cos n cos n n C2 cos n 2 sin 2 n C4 cos n 4 sin 4 ..... (1) 2 sin n
n2
sin n n C1 cos n 1 sin n C3 cos n 3 sin 3 ..... ( 1) 2 n.cos sin n 1
Case II: If n is odd, n – 1 is even.
n 1
n 1 n 1
i n 1 i 2 2 1 2 , i n i.i n 1 i 1 2
So, by putting the value i n 1 and i n in Equation (26), we get
cos n i sin n cos n i n C1 cos n 1 sin n C 2 cos n 2 sin 2 i n C3 cos n 3 sin 3
n 1 n 1
n n4 4 n 1
C4 cos sin ... n(1) 2 cos sin i (1) 2 sin n
Now, by equating real and imaginary parts, we get
n 1
cos n cosn n C2 cos n 2 sin 2 n C 4 cosn 4 sin 4 ..... n(1) 2 cos sin n 1
n 1
sin n n C1 cos n 1 sin n C3 cos n 3 sin 3 ..... ( 1) 2 sin n
Self - Learning
Material 237
Expansion of Trigonometric Expansion of tann
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series sin n
We know that tan n
cos n
NOTES n
C1 cosn 1 sin n C3 cos n 3 sin 3 .....
=
cos n n C 2 cos n 2 sin 2 n C 4 cos n 4 sin 4 .....
Dividing both numerator and denominator by cosn, we get
n
C1 tan n C3 tan 3 .....
tan n
1 n C2 tan 2 n C 4 tan 4 .....
The last terms of numerator and denominator will be
n 1 n 1
(1) 2 tan n and (1) 2 n tan n 1 , respectively when n is odd
n 2 n
and (1) 2 n tan n 1 and (1) 2 tan n respectively, when n is even.
Expansion of tan 1 2 ... n
We know that cos 1 i sin 1 cos 2 i sin 2 ... cos n i sin n
= cos 1 2 ... n i sin 1 2 ... n … (27)
Also, we have cos 1 i sin 1 cos 1 (1 i tan 1 )
cos 2 i sin 2 cos 2 (1 i tan 2 )
…………………………………..
cos n i sin n cos n (1 i tan n )
By putting the values from above in Equation (27), we get
cos 1 2 ... n i sin 1 2 ... n
= cos 1 cos 2 ....cos n (1 i tan 1 )(1 i tan 2 )....(1 i tan n )
cos 1 cos 2 ....cos n [1 i tan 1 tan 2 ...... tan n
i 2 tan 1 tan 2 tan 2 tan 3 ....
i 3 tan 1 tan 2 tan 3 ... .....]
= cos 1 cos 2 ....cos n 1 i S1 S2 iS3 S4 iS5 ....
= cos 1 cos 2 ....cos n (1 S2 S4 ....) i (S1 S3 S5 ....) ,
where S1 tan 1 , S2 tan 1 tan 2 and so on.
Now, equating the real and imaginary parts and then dividing the obtained
results, we get
S1 S3 S5 ....
tan 1 2 ... n … (28)
1 S2 S4 ....
This can be expressed in another way also.
Self - Learning
238 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
S1 S3 S5 ....
From Equation (28), 1 2 ... n tan
1 Functions, Hyperbolic
1 S2 S4 .... Functions and Series
Putting tan 1 x1 , tan 2 x2 and so on, we get
NOTES
S1 S3 S5 ....
tan 1 x1 tan 1 x2 ... tan 1 xn tan 1
1 S2 S4 ....
Note: The last terms of the numerator and denominator
n 1 n 1
are (1) 2 S and ( 1) 2 S , respectively, when n is odd and these terms
n n 1
n 1 n
are (1) 2 S and (1) 2 Sn , respectively, when n is even.
n 1
Example 5.17: If 1 , 2 , 3 be three values of which satisfy the equation
tan 2 tan and if no two of these values differ by a multiple of , show
that 1 2 3 is a multiple of .
Solution: Given, tan 2 tan
2 tan tan tan
1 tan
2
1 tan tan
tan 3 2 tan tan 2 2 tan tan 0
Since the above equation is a cubic equation in tan and hence it has three
roots. Let the roots be tan 1 , tan 2 and tan 3 .Then
2 tan 2 tan 2
S1 tan 1 , S2 tan 1 tan 2
tan
and S3 tan 1 tan 2 tan 3 tan
2
tan tan
S S
Now, 1 2 3 1 S2
tan 1 3
2
1
2 tan tan
except when = 1
2
tan
1 2 3 n n , where n is any integer..
1 2 3 n, a multiple of
When 1 , the given equation becomes tan 2 tan . which
gives 2 n or
n , so that the values of differ by multiples of .
Self - Learning
Material 239
Expansion of Trigonometric Formation of Equation
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series Here we learn to form an equation whose roots are sin or cos where
2 n (2n 1)
is or .
NOTES 2r 1 2r 1
If t-ratio is sine or cosine of angle , then we write the relation as
(r 1) (2n 1) r or 2n r and expand or simplify it by taking sine or
cosine of both sides. When t-ratio is tangent, then the relation is written as
(2r 1) 2n or (2n 1) . We can simplify this relation by taking tangent of
both sides and then expanding the left hand side.
Finally, put the t-ratio of as x to get the required equation.
2 4 8
Example 5.18: Form an equation whose roots are cos ,cos and cos .
7 7 7
2 4 6
Hence form an equation whose roots are sec ,sec ,sec .
7 7 7
2n
Solution: Let , where n can be any integer, zero, positive or negative.
7
2 4 8
For n = 0,1,2,4 the values of cos are 1,cos ,cos ,cos
7 7 7
We can easily see that cos has no new value for n = 3, 5, 6, 7….etc.
6 8 8
For n 3 , cos cos cos 2 cos
7 7 7
10 4 4
For n 5, cos cos cos 2 cos
7 7 7
12 2 2
For n 6 , cos cos cos 2 cos ...so on
7 7 7
Now 7 2n or 4 2n 3
cos 4 cos 2n 3 cos3
2cos 2 2 1 4cos3 3cos
2 2cos 1 1 4cos 3cos
2 2 3
2 4cos 1 4cos 1 4cos 3cos 0
4 2 3
8cos4 4cos3 8cos 2 3cos 1 0
Now putting cos x in the above equation, we get
8 x 4 4 x 3 8 x 2 3 x 1 0 x 1 8 x 4 x 4 x 1 0
3 2
2 4 8
The roots of above equation are 1, cos ,cos and cos
7 7 7
Self - Learning
240 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
2 4 8 Functions, Hyperbolic
Equation with roots cos ,cos and cos is 8 x 3 4 x 2 4 x 1 0 Functions and Series
7 7 7
… (29)
2 4 6 NOTES
Now to form an equation whose roots are sec ,sec ,sec , we assume
7 7 7
2 1 1 1
y sec or x
that the transformed equation be in y. Then 7 cos 2 x y
7
1
Hence, replacing x by y in Equation (29), we get
1 1 1
8 3
4 2 4 1 0 y3 4 y 2 4 y 8 0
y y y
cosn and sinn in Terms of x
Let x cos i sin . Then
1 1
cos i sin
x cos i sin
1 1
x 2 cos and x 2i sin
x x
By De Moivre’s theorem, x n cos i sin cos n sin n …(30)
n
1
cos i sin cos n i sin n
n
n …(31)
x
1
Adding Equations (30) and (31), we get x 2 cos n
n
xn
1
Subtracting Equation (31) from Equation (30), we get x 2i sin n
n
xn
Expansion of cosn and sinn
Let n be a positive integer.
1 1
We know that x 2 cos and x n n 2 cos n . Thus,
x x
n
2 cos x x n n C1 x n1. n C2 x n2 . 2 ... n Cn1 x. n1 n Cn n
n 1 1 1 1 1
x x x x x
… (32)
On combining terms of equal co-efficient in pairs in the R.H.S, we get
1 n n2 1 1
2 cos
n
xn n
C1 x n 2 n C 2 x n 4 n 4 .....
x x x
Self - Learning
Material 241
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic 1 1
Functions and Series But x
n
n
2 cos n , x n 2 n 2 2 cos(n 2)......
x x
2 cos 2 cos n C1.2 cos(n 2) C 2 .2cos(n 4) .....
n n n n
NOTES … (33)
Dividing both sides by 2n , we get
1
cos n cos n n C1.cos( n 2) n C2 .cos(n 4) .....
n 1
2
1 1
Also, we have x 2 cos n, x 2i sin and
n
n
x x
1
xn 2i sin n …(34)
xn
Similarly as above we can show that
n n 1 n
1 1 1 1 1
2i sin
n
x x n n C1 x n 1. n C2 x n 2 . 2 ..... n Cn 1 x. n Cn
x x x x x
As n Cn 1 n C1 ,n Cn 2 n C 2 and so on, thus on combining terms of equal
coefficients in pairs in the R.H.S and with the help of Equation (34), we can
expand sin n .
Example 5.19: Prove that
128sin 8 cos8 8cos 6 28cos 4 56cos 2 35.
Solution: We have x cos i sin
1 1
cos i sin and x 2i sin ... (35)
x x
1
Also x n cos n i sin n; n cos n i sin n
x
1
x 2i sin n
n
... (36)
xn
1
xn 2cos n ... (37)
xn
So, from Equation (35), we have
8
1 1 1 1 1 1
2i sin
8
x x8 8 C1 x 7 . 8 C2 x 6 . 2 8C3 x 5 . 3 8 C 4 x 4 . 4 8 C5 x 3 . 5
x x x x x x
1 8 1 1
8 C6 x 2 . 6
C7 x. 7 8 C8 . 8
x x x
1 8 1 1 1
x8 8 C1 .x 6 8 C2 x 4 8 C3 x 2 8 C 4 8 C5 . 2
C 6 . 4 8 C 7 . 6 8
x x x x
1 1 1 1
x8 8 8 x 6 6 28 x 4 4 56 x 2 2 70
x x x x
Self - Learning
242 Material
Using n = 8, 6, 4 and 2 in Equation (37), we get Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
28.i 8 sin 8 2cos8 8.2cos 6 28.2cos 4 56.2cos 2 70 Functions and Series
Dividing by 2, we get
27 sin 8 cos8 8cos 6 28.cos 4 56cos 2 35 i 8 1 NOTES
Hence, 128 sin 8 cos8 cos 6 28cos 4 56cos 2 35.
Example 5.20: Express sin 6 cos 2 in a series of cosines of multiples of .
1
Solution: Let x cos i sin so that cos i sin
x
1 1
x 2cos and x cos r
r
x xr
1 1
Also x 2i sin and x 2i sin r
r
x xr
6 2
1 1
(2i sin ) 2cos
2
6
x x
x x
6
1
Now, the co-efficients in the expansion of x are
x
1 6 C1 6 C 2 6 C3 6 C 4 6 C5 6 C6
i.e., 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 ... (38)
6
1 1
Co-efficients in x x are [Take upper + L. H.]
x x
1 5 9 5 5 9 5 1 ... (39)
6 2
1 1
Co-efficients in x x are [Take upper + L. H.]
x x
1 4 4 4 10 4 4 4 1
Thus, we have
6 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
x x x 4 x 4 x 4 x 10 4. 2 4. 4 4. 6 8
8 6 4 2
x x x x x x
1 1 1 1
x8 8 4 x 6 6 4 x 4 4 4 x 2 2 10
x x x x
28 sin 6 cos 2 2cos8 4 2cos 6 4 2cos 4 4 2cos 2 10
[ i 6 i 2 i 4 1 ]
1
sin cos
6 2
cos8 4cos 6 4cos 4 4cos 2 5
27
Self - Learning
Material 243
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic 5.7 LOGARITHM OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES
Functions and Series
We know that for real quantities a, x and N, if ax = N, then x is the logarithm of N
to the base a. Symbolically, x = loga N.
NOTES
Similarly, we can define logarithm function for complex quantities.
If two complex quantities z = x + iy and = +i are connected by the
x iy x iy
2 3
relation +i = e x iy 1 x iy ... , i.e., if = ez, then z
2! 3!
is called the logarithm of to the base e. Symbolically, z = loge .
Some Important Results
Result I: loge is many valued function.
Proof: Let ez = . Then
ez +2ni = ez . e2ni = ez. cos 2n i sin 2n = ez(1 + i.0) = ez =
We have loge = z + 2ni, where n I [By definition]
Thus, if z is a logarithm of , then so is z + 2ni. This shows that the
logarithm of a complex quantity has infinitely many values and hence loge is a
many valued function.
Corollary: z + 2ni is called general value of loge . It is denoted by Loge .
Loge = z + 2ni = 2ni + loge
On putting n = 0 in the general value, we get the principal value of z, which
is loge .
This means that we can obtain the general value of logarithm of any complex
quantity by adding
2ni to the principal value of logarithm.
Result II: Log N = x + 2ni, where ex = N such that N and x are positive real
quantities.
Proof: Here, ex = N
ex +2ni = ex . e2ni = ex. cos 2n i sin 2n = ex(1 + i.0) = ex = N
By definition, we have Log N = x + 2ni
Corollary: If n = 0, Log N = x. This shows that one value of the logarithm of a
positive real number is real and there are infinite number of imaginary values.
Result III: Principal value of Log (–N) = log N + i
Proof: –N = N(–1) = N cos i sin = Nei
Now, log (–N) = log (Nei) = log N + log ei = log N + i
Log (–N) = 2ni + log N + i
On putting n = 0, the principal value of Log (–N) = log N + i.
Self - Learning
244 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
Result IV: log (i) = log + i Functions, Hyperbolic
2 Functions and Series
i
Proof:
i cos i sin e 2
NOTES
2 2
2 i
i
log i = log e log log e 2
log i
2
Corollary: 1. Log (i) = log i + 2ni
2
2. Putting = 1 in log (i) = log + i, we get log i = log 1 + i
2 2
log i = i.
2
Laws of Logarithms for Complex Quantities
Let z1 and z2 be complex numbers. Then
Law I: Log z1z2 = Log z1 + Log z2
Proof: Let Log z1 = 1 and Log z2 = 2. Then z1 = e and z2 = e 1 2
z1 z2 e .e e
1 2 1 2
1 + 2 = Log z1z2 Log z1z2 = Log z1 + Log z2
The following laws can be proved on similar lines as above.
z1
Law II: Log z = Log z1 – Log z2
2
Law III: Log z1 z z2 Log z1
2
Log e z1
Law IV: Log z2 z1
Log e z2
Separating Log ( + i) into real and imaginary parts
Let +i = r(cos + i sin ) .
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get r cos = …(40)
and r sin = …(41)
Squaring and adding Equations (40) and (41), we get r2 (cos2 + sin2 ) =
+
2 2
r 2 2 2 r 2 2 …(42)
1
Dividing Equation (41) by (40), we get tan tan …(43)
Self - Learning
Material 245
Expansion of Trigonometric Log ( +i) = 2ni + log ( +i)
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series = 2ni + log [r(cos + i sin )] = 2ni + log (r.ei)
1
NOTES = 2ni + log r + i = 2ni + log 2 2 + i tan
[From Equations (42) and (43)]
1
= log 2 2 i 2n tan 1 …(44)
2
1
Thus, Re[Log ( +i)] = log 2 2 and
2
1
Im[Log ( +i)] = 2n tan
Corollary: Putting n = 0 in Equation (44), we get
1
Log ( +i) = log 2 2 i tan 1
2
Example 5.21: Find the general value of log (–3).
Solution: –3 = 3(–1) = 3(cos + i sin ) = 3ei
log (–3) = log 3 + log ei = log 3 + i
Thus, Log (–3) = 2ni + log 3 + i = log 3 + i(2n + 1)
a ib a 2 b 2
Example 5.22: Prove that cos i log .
a ib a 2 b 2
b
Solution: Let a + ib = r(cos + i sin ) such that r a 2 b2 and tan
a
a ib r (cos i sin ) ei
Now, cos i log cos i log cos
= i log
a ib r (cos i sin ) e i
cos i log e 2i
= cos[i(2i)] cos(2) cos(2)
b2
1
1 tan 2 a2 a 2 b2
= = b 2 =
1 tan 2 1 2 a 2 b2
a
Example 5.23: Show that log(1 + cos 2 + i sin 2) = log (2cos ) + i
Solution: log(1 + cos 2 + i sin 2) = log (2 cos2 + i.2sin cos )
= log[2cos (cos + i sin )]
Self - Learning
246 Material
= log[2cos . ei] Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
= log (2cos ) + log ei Functions and Series
= log (2cos ) + i
Example 5.24: Resolve Log (4 + 3i) into real and imaginary parts. NOTES
Solution: Let 4 + 3i = r(cos + i sin ). Equating real and imaginary parts,
rcos = 4 and rsin = 3
Squaring and adding, r2 = 42 + 32 = 25 r = 5
3 3
And on dividing, tan = = tan–1 4
4
4 + 3i = 5(cos + i sin ) = 5ei
Now, Log (4 + 3i) = 2ni + log (4 + 3i)
= 2ni + log (5ei) = 2ni + log 5 + i
1 3
= log 5 + i 2n tan
4
1 3
Re[Log (4 + 3i)] = log 5 and Im[Log (4 + 3i)] = 2n tan .
4
Example 5.25: Express Log (Log i) in the form A + iB.
i
Solution: log i = log cos i sin log e 2 i
2 2 2
Log i = 2ni + i
2
i π π i
i cos i sin e
2
= 2 n i 2 n e 2 2 2
2 2
i i
Log (Log i) = Log 2n e 2 2mi log 2n e 2
2 2
1 1
2mi log 2n i log 2n i 2m
2 2 2 2
Check Your Progress
13. Expand sin 5 in terms of powers of sin .
1
14. Prove that Log i = i 2n .
2
15. Resolve Log (1 - i) into real and imaginary parts.
Self - Learning
Material 247
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic 5.8 SUMMATION OF TRIGONOMETRICAL
Functions and Series
SERIES
NOTES Trigonometric series is a series in cosines and sine’s of multiple angles. It can be
calculated as the sum function of a convergent or summable trigonometric series
which is almost periodic in nature.
The summation of the terms of the sequence known as series. The series
can be finite or infinite. Finite series have defined first and last terms whereas
infinite series continue indefinitely.
Series of Sines and Cosines of Angles Which are In A.P.
Here, we are going to find the sum of sines and cosines of n angles when the
angles are in arithmetical progression.
Sum of Sines of n Angles which are in A.P.
Let the sum of n terms of the series sin sin sin 2 sin 1
sin sin sin 2 sin n 1 is denoted by S. Then S sin sin sin 2 sin 1
S sin sin sin 2 sin n 1
Multiplying both sides by 2sin , we get
2
2sin S 2sin sin 2sin sin 2sin 2 sin 2sin 1 sin
2 2 2 2 2
2sin S 2sin sin 2sin sin 2sin 2 sin 2sin n 1 sin … (45)
2 2 2 2 2
We know that 2sin A sin B cos A B cos A B . Using this result on
R.H.S. of Equation (45), we get
1st term 2sin sin cos cos
2 2 2
3
2nd term 2sin sin cos cos
2 2 2
3 5
3rd term 2sin 2 sin cos cos
2 2 2
……………………………………………………………
cos 2n 3 cos 2n 1
nth term 2sin n 1 sin
2 2 2
Adding vertically and using Equation (45), we get
2sin . S cos cos
2n 1
2 2 2
Self - Learning
248 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
n 1 n
2sin . S 2sin sin Functions, Hyperbolic
2 2 2 Functions and Series
C D DC
cos C cos D 2sin 2 sin 2 NOTES
n 1 n
sin sin
2 2
S
sin
2
Hence, sin sin sin 2 sin n 1
n 1 n
sin sin
2 2 … (46)
sin
2
First angle Last angle n Difference of two consecutive angles
sin sin
2 2
Difference of two consecutive angles
sin
2
Corollary 1: Putting b = a in Equation (46), we get
n 1 n
sin sin
sin sin 2 sin 3 sin n 2 2
sin
2
sin
n 1 sin n
2 2
sin
2
2. Putting = + in Equation (46), we get
sin sin sin 2 to n terms sin sin . sec
n 1 n
sin sin sin 2 to terms sin sin . sec
2 2 2
2π
3. Putting in Equation (46), we get
n
2 4
sin sin sin to n terms 0
n n
n 1 2 n 2
sin . .sin .
2 n 2 n 0
sin sin sin to terms
1 2
sin .
2 n
Self - Learning
Material 249
Expansion of Trigonometric 4. Putting = i and = i in Equation (46), we get
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series sin i sin i i sin i 2i sin i n 1 i
n 1 in
sin i sin
NOTES 2 2
i i i i i i n i
i
sin
2
sinh sinh sinh 2 sinh
n 1
n 1 n
sinh sinh
2 2
sinh sinh sinh 2 sinh 1
sinh
2
Sum of Cosines of n Angles which are in A.P.
Let the sum of n terms of the series
cos
coscos
cos cos
cos 22
cos n11
cos
is denoted by S.
Then SScos cos
coscos cos
cos 22
cos n11
cos
Multiplying both sides by 2sin , we get
2
2sin .S 2cos sin 2cos sin 2cos 2 sin 2cos 1 sin
2 2 2 2 2
2sin .S 2cos sin 2cos sin 2cos 2 sin 2cos n 1 sin … (47)
2 2 2 2 2
We know that 2 cos Asin B sin A B sin A B . Using this result on
R.H.S. of Equation (47), we get
1st term 2 cos sin sin sin
2 2 2
3
2nd term 2cos sin sin sin
2 2 2
5 3
3rd term 2cos 2 sin sin sin
2 2 2
……………………………………………………………
2 n 1 2n 3
nth term 2cos n 1 sin sin sin
2 2 2
Adding vertically and using (47), we get
2 n 1
2sin . S sin sin
2 2 2
Self - Learning
250 Material
n 1 n C D CD Expansion of Trigonometric
2sin . S 2 cos
2
sin
2 2 sin C sin D 2cos 2 sin 2 Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
n 1 n
cos sin
S 2 2 NOTES
sin
2
Hence,
n 1 n
cos sin
2 2
cos cos cos 2 cos
n 1
sin
2
First angle Last angle n Difference of two consecutive angles
cos sin
2 2
Difference of two consecutive angles
sin
2
Example 5.26: Find the sum of the series sin x sin 3 x sin 5 x ... to n terms
and deduce the sum of the series 1 3 5 ... 2n 1 .
Solution: Let the sum of the given series is denoted by Sn . Then,
Sn sin x sin 3x sin 5 x ..... to n terms
n 1 n.2 x
sin x 2 x sin
2 2
= [ Common difference is 2x]
2x
sin
2
sin nx .sin nx
=
sin x
sin 2 nx
sin x sin 3x sin 5 x ..... to n terms =
sin x
sin x sin 3 x sin 5 x sin 2n 1 x sin nx sin nx
...... .
x x x x x sin x
[Dividing both sides by x]
sin x sin 3 x sin 5 x
3. 5. ...... 2 1
x 3 x 5x 2n 1 x
sin nx sin nx
n .n.
sin 2n 1 x
nx nx
3. 5. ...... 2n 1
x 3x 5x 2n 1 x sin x
x
n.n
Now taking limits when x 0 , we get, 1 3 5 ...... 2n 1 n2 .
1
Self - Learning
Material 251
Expansion of Trigonometric Example 5.27: Sum to n terms the series: cos cos 2 cos3 .... and deduce
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series the sum of 12 22 32 .... n 2 .
n n
cos sin
NOTES 2 2
Solution: cos cos 2 cos 3 .... cos n
sin
2
cos n 1 n
.sin
2 2
= … (48)
sin
2
3 5 2 4
We know that sin ..... and cos 1 ....
3! 5! 2! 4!
Expanding both sides of Equation (48), we get
2 3 2 n 2
2
2
1 .....
1 ..... 1 ..... ..... 1 .....
2! 2! 2! 2!
n 1 2 1 n n 3 1
1 . ... . ...
2 2! 2 2 3!
= 3
1
.
2 2 3!
n 12 2 1 n3 2 1 2 1
1
= 1 . ... n . 1 2 . ...
22 2!
2
2 3! 2 3!
[Cancelling from num. and den.]
2
n 12 2 1 n 1
3 2
2
= 1 2 2
. ... n 2 . ... 1 2 ...
2! 2 3! 2 .3!
n 12 2 1 n3 2 1 n 2
= 1 . ... n . ...
22 2! 22 3! 22.3!
Equating the co-efficient of 2 , we get
n n 1
2
1 2 n3 n
1 22 32 ... n 2 2
2
2 ...
2! 2 .2! 2 .3! 2 .3!
n n 1
2
n3 n
1 2 3 ..... n
2 2 2 2
2 ....
22 2
2 .3 2 .3
n
2
3 n 1 n 2 1
2
=
3.2
n n n n 1 2n 1
= 4n 2 6n 2 2n 2 3n 1 .
12 6 6
Self - Learning
252 Material
Method of Differences Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
In the method of differences, we split each term of the series as the difference of Functions and Series
two expressions such that one expression of each difference occurs in the succeeding
difference with the opposite sign. All the terms except two terms in which one is NOTES
from the first difference and other is from the last difference cancel out on addition.
For splitting terms as the difference of two expressions following results will be
helpful:
(i) cosec = cot cot
2
(ii) tan = cot – 2 cot 2
(iii) tan .sec 2 = tan 2 – tan
(iv) tan 2 .tan 2 tan 2 2 tan
1 x y
(v) tan tan 1 x tan 1 y
1 xy
(vi) sec sec = cos ec tan tan
Example 5.28: Sum to n terms the following series
cosec cosec 4 + cosec 4 cosec 7 + cosec 7 cosec 10 + …
1
Solution: First term, T1 = cosec cosec 4 =
sin sin 4
sin 3 sin 4
=
sin 3 sin sin 4 sin 3 sin sin 4
sin 4 cos cos 4 sin 1
= cot cot 4
sin 3 sin sin 4 sin 3
= cosec 3 cot cot 4
Similarly, T2 = cosec 4 cosec 7 = cosec 3 cot 4 cot 7
T3 = cosec 7 cosec 10 = cosec 3 cot 7 cot10
…………………………………………………………….
Tn = cosec (3n – 2) cosec (3n + 1) = cosec 3
cot 3n 2 cot 3n 1
Adding vertically, we get Sn = cosec 3 cot cot 3n 1
Self - Learning
Material 253
Expansion of Trigonometric Example 5.29: Sum to n terms the series:
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
1 1 1
sin 3 sin 3 3 2 sin 3 32 3 sin 3 33 ...
3 3 3
NOTES
Solution: We know that, sin 3 = 3 sin – 4
1
sin3 sin 3 3sin sin 3
4
1
T1 = sin3 = 3sin sin 3
4
1 3 1 1 2
Similarly, T2 = sin 3 = sin 3 sin 3
3 4 3
1 1 1 1 3
sin 3 32 = sin 3 2 sin 3
2
T3 =
32
4 3 3
……………………………………………..
1 1 1 1
Tn = n 1
sin 3 3n 1 n 2 sin 3n 1 n 1 sin 3n
3 4 3 3
1 1
Adding vertically, we get Sn = 3sin n1 sin 3n
4 3
Series Depending on Logarithmic Series
Here, we will discuss some examples which are helpful in understanding the concept
of series which depends on logarithmic series.
1 1
Example 5.30: Sum the series: cos θ cos 2θ cos 3θ ... .
2 3
1 1
Solution: Let C cosθ cos 2θ + cos 3θ ...
2 3
1 1
and S sin θ sin 2θ + sin 3θ ...
2 3
1 1
Then, C iS (cos θ i sin θ) (cos 2θ +i sin 2θ) + (cos3θ + i sin 3θ) ...
2 3
1 1 z 2 z3
= e e e ... = z ..., where z ei θ
iθ 2iθ 3i θ
2 3 2 3
= log(1 z ) log(1 eiθ ) log(1 cosθ i sin θ)
1 sin
= log (1 cos ) sin i tan
2 2
1 cos
y
log( x iy ) log x y i tan
2 2 1
Self - Learning x
254 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
2sin cos Functions and Series
1 2 2
= log 1 cos 2 cos sin i tan
2 2
2cos 2
2
NOTES
= log 2(1 cos ) i tan 1 tan = log 2cos i.
2 2 2
By equating real parts, we get C log 2cos
2
Example 5.31: Sum the series to infinity:
1 1 1
sin 2 θ sin 2θsin 2 θ sin 3θsin 3θ sin 4θsin 4θ ...
2 3 4
1 1 1
Solution: Let S = sinθ.sinθ sin θ sin 2θ sin θ sin 3θ sin θ sin 4θ ...
2 3 4
2 3 4
1 1 1
C = sinθ.cosθ sin θ cos2θ sin θ cos3θ sin θ cos4θ ...
2 3 4
and
2 3 4
Then,
1 1
C iS sin θ(cosθ i sin θ) sin 2 θ(cos 2θ +i sin 2θ) + sin 3 θ(cos3θ + i sin 3θ) ...
2 3
1 1
= sin θ e sin θ e sin θ e ...
iθ 2 2iθ 3 3i θ
2 3
z 2 z3
= z ..., where z sin θ ei θ
2 3
= log(1 z ) log(1 sin θ eiθ ) log[1 sin θ(cosθ i sin θ)]
= log[1 sin θ cosθ i sin 2 θ]
1
log 1 sin cos 2 sin 4 i tan 1 sin 2
= 2 1 sin cos
1 1 sin 2
log
= 2 1 2sin cos sin 2
cos 2
sin 2
i tan
1 sin cos
1 1 sin 2
log
= 2 1 2sin cos sin 2
i tan
1 sin cos
sin 2
By equating imaginary parts, we get S tan 1
1 sin cos
Self - Learning
Material 255
Expansion of Trigonometric Summation of Series Depending on tan–1x
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series Here, we will discuss the summation of series depending upon tan–1x, where
x 3 x5 x 7
tan 1 x x ...
NOTES 3 5 7
c3 c5
Example 5.32: Sum the series to infinity: c sin sin 3 sin 5 ...
3 5
c3 c5
Solution: Let C = c cos cos3 cos5 ...
3 5
c3 c5
and S = c sin sin 3 sin 5 .....
3 5
Then,
c3 c5
C iS c(cos i sin ) (cos 3 +i sin 3) + (cos 5 + i sin 5) ...
3 5
i c 3 3i c 5 5 i x3 x5
= ce e e ... = x ..., where x ceiα
3 5 3 5
C iS tan 1x tan 1 (cei ) tan 1 (c cos
ic sin
) … (49)
By changing i into –i, we get
C iS tan 1 (c cos ic sin ) … (50)
Subtracting Equation (50) from Equation (49), we get
2iS tan 1 (c cos ic sin ) tan 1 (c cos ic sin )
1 c cos ic sin c cos ic sin
= tan 1 (c cos ic sin )(c cos ic sin )
1 x y
tan x tan y tan 1 xy
1 1
1 2ic sin 1 2c sin
= tan i tanh 2
1 c 1 c
2
1 2c sin
S = tanh 1 2
2 1 c
Summation of Series Depending on Hyperbolic Series
Here we will consider the series which involves hyperbolic functions like sinh az
or cosh az, where a is a positive integer. These series can be splitted into two
Self - Learning
256 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
e az e az e az e az Functions, Hyperbolic
other series by substituting sinh az = , cosh az = . We can sum Functions and Series
2 2
each of these series by using results of standard series.
Example 5.33: Sum the series: NOTES
n( n 1)
cosh n cosh 2 cosh 3 ...to n 1 terms .
2!
n( n 1)
Solution: Given, cosh n cosh 2 cosh 3 ...to n 1 terms
2!
e e e2 e2 n( n 1) e3 e3
= n ...to n 1 terms
2 2 2! 2
1 2 n(n 1) 3
= 2 e ne 2!
e ...to(n 1) terms
2 n( n 1) 3
+ e ne 2!
e ...to (n 1) terms
1 n(n 1) 2
= 2 e 1 ne 2!
e ....to ( n 1) terms
n(n 1) 2
+ e 1 ne 2!
e ....to (n 1) terms
1
e 1 e e 1 e
n
=
2
1 n 2 2
e .e e e 2 e .e n 2 e 2 e 2
n n
=
2
1
n 2 n n 2 n
2cosh e
2 2
= 2 e 2
2cosh
2
n 2 2
n 2
e e 2
2n cosh n cosh n 2
2 cosh
n n
2 2 2 2
Self - Learning
Material 257
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series Check Your Progress
16. Find the sum to n terms the series cos + sin 2 – cos 3 – sin 4
NOTES + cos 5 + sin 6 – …
17. Sum to n terms the following series:
(i) tan 2 tan 2
2
2 tan 2
2 3
2 tan 2
3
...
1 4 1 6 1 8 1 10
(ii) tan tan tan tan ...
13 73 241 601
sin n
18. Sum the series to infinity: ;0 2 .
1 n
19. Sum the series to infinity:
1 1
r sin( 2 ) r 3 sin( 4 ) r 5 sin( 6 ) ... .
3 5
sinh 2 sinh 3
20. Sum the series: sinh ... .
2! 3!
5.9 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’
1. 1; x 2 2 x cos n 1 0
2. 0
2r 2r
3. cos i sin , where r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
5 5
r r
4. 1, i,cos i sin , where r = 1, 3
5 5
(2r 1)
5. i tan , where r = 1, 2, 3,…n
4n
n
e x e x e x e x
6. (cosh x + sinh x) = n
2 2
= [ex]n = enx = cosh nx + sinh nx
7. (i) cosh x cos y + isinh x sin y
1
(ii) 1 cos 2 x cosh 2 y i sin 2 x sinh 2 y
2
1 x
8. 3tan
a
Self - Learning
258 Material
Expansion of Trigonometric
9. 2 – 3 Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
10. sin
1
sin ; log 1 sin sin
NOTES
11. x n (1)
n
, where n is any integer
2
12. Let tanh 1 z u . Then z tanh u
1 z 2 1 tanh 2 u
Now, cosh 2u
1 z 2 1 tanh 2 u
1 z2 1 1 z2
2u cosh 1 2
tanh 1 z cosh 1
1 z 2 1 z2
13. 5sin 20sin 3 16sin 5
i
14. We know that i cos i sin e 2 .
2 2
i 2 1
Log i = 2 n i log i 2 n i log e 2ni i i 2n
2 2
1
15. log 2; 2n
2 4
n 1 n 1
16. cos sin cosec .
2 2 2 2 2 2
n 2 3n
1
17. (i) cot 2 cot 2
n n
(ii) tan 2
2n 6n 5
1
18.
2
1 1 2r sin r 2 1 2r cos
19. cos( ) log sin( ) tan 1 2
4 1 2r sin r 2
2 1 r
20. ecosh .sinh (sinh )
5.10 SUMMARY
If n is an integer, positive or negative, then
cos i sin n cos n i sin n .
If n is a fraction, positive or negative, then one of the values of
cos i sin n is cos n i sin n .
Self - Learning
Material 259
Expansion of Trigonometric
1
Functions, Hyperbolic q
Functions and Series (cos i sin ) has q and only q distinct values, q being any positive
p
integer. Also, (cos i sin ) q has q and only q distinct values, p and q
NOTES being integers, prime to each other.
p
The q values of (cos i sin ) q , p and q being integers, prime to each
other, form a G.P. whose sum is zero.
eθ e θ eθ e θ
sinh = is known as hyperbolic sine of and cosh = is
2 2
known as hyperbolic cosine of .
sinh and cosh are periodic functions with a period of 2πi .
tanh θ and coth θ are periodic functions with a period of πi .
Fundamental formulae are
(i) cosh2x – sinh2x = 1
(ii) sech2x + tanh2x = 1
(iii) coth2x – cosech2x = 1
The inverses of sin x, cos x, tan x, sec x, cosec x and cot x are sin–1 x, cos–
1
x, tan–1 x, sec–1 x, cosec–1 x and cot–1 x, respectively.
The general values of sin –1 x, cos –1 x and tan –1 x are
Sin 1 x n 1 sin 1 x ,
n
Cos 1 x 2n cos 1 x and
Tan 1 x n tan 1 x , respectively. The ranges of their principal values
are y , 0 y and y , respectively..
2 2 2 2
If the relation sinh y = x connects x and y, then y is called the inverse
hyperbolic sine of x and is written as y sinh 1 x . Similarly, the inverse
hyperbolic functions cosh 1 x, tanh 1 x,coth 1 x, sech 1 x and cosech 1 x can
be defined.
The general values of inverse hyperbolic functions sinh 1 x , cosh 1 x and
s 1 x ni 1 log x x 2 1 ,
tanh 1 x are Sinh
n
1 1 x
c 1 x 2ni log x x 2 1 and ,Tanh
Cosh t 1 x ni log , respectively..
2 1 x
The general value of Gregory’s series is given by
1 1
n n tan tan 3 tan 5 .
3 5
Self - Learning
260 Material
If n is even, n – 1 is odd, then Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
n
Functions and Series
cos n cos n n C2 cos n 2 sin 2 n C 4 cos n 4 sin 4 ..... ( 1) 2 sin n
n2
sin n n C1 cos n 1 sin n C3 cos n 3 sin 3 ..... (1) 2 n.cos sin n 1 NOTES
If n is odd, n – 1 is even, then
n 1
cos n cos n n C 2 cos n 2 sin 2 n C 4 cos n 4 sin 4 ..... n(1) 2 cos sin n 1
n 1
sin n n C1 cos n 1 sin n C3 cos n 3 sin 3 ..... (1) 2 sin n
n
C1 tan n C3 tan 3 .....
tan n
1 n C2 tan 2 n C 4 tan 4 .....
S S S ...
tan 1 2 ... n 1 S S ...
1 3 5
2 4
1
cos
n
cos n n C1.cos(n 2) n C 2 .cos(n 4) .....
n 1
2
If two complex quantities z = x + iy and = +i are connected by the
x iy x iy
2 3
relation +i = e x iy
1 x iy ... , i.e., if = ez,
2! 3!
then z is called the logarithm of to the base e.
The loge is many valued function, Log N = x + 2ni, where ex = N such
that N and x are positive real quantities, principal value of Log (–N)
= log N + i and log (i) = log + i.
2
The logarithmic formulae which are valid for real quantities are also true for
complex quantities.
Sum of the sines of n angles which are in A.P.
First angle Last angle n Difference of two consecutive angles
sin sin
2 2
Difference of two consecutive angles
sin
2
Sum of the cosines of the n angles which are in A.P.
First angle Last angle n Difference of two consecutive angles
cos sin
2 2
Differenceof two consecutive angles
sin
2
In the method of differences, we split each term of the series as the difference
of two expressions such that one expression of each difference occurs in
the succeeding difference with the opposite sign. All the terms except two
terms in which one is from the first difference and other is from the last
difference cancel out on addition.
Self - Learning
Material 261
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic 5.11 KEY TERMS
Functions and Series
De Moivre’s theorem: If n is an integer, positive or negative, then
NOTES cos i sin n cos n i sin n . If n is a fraction, positive or negative,
then one of the values of cos i sin n is cos n i sin n .
General value of loge : z + 2ni is called general value of loge . It is
denoted by Loge .
Periodic function: A function f is said to be periodic if there exists a real
number T > 0, such that f (x + T) = f (x) for all x and if there exists smallest
value of T > 0 such that f (x + T) = f (x) for all x, then T is called the period
of the function.
Gregory’s series: Gregory’s series states that if lies in the interval
4
1 3 1 5
to , then tan tan tan . This series can be expressed
4 3 5
x 3 x5
in another way as tan 1 x x , when x 1 .
3 5
Series: A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. Finite series have
defined first and last terms, whereas infinite series continue indefinitely.
5.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
Short-Answers Questions
1. Define De-Moivre’s theorem and give its application.
2. What are the hyperbolic function?
3. How will you determine the sinh q and cosh q?
4. Give the fundamental formulae of hyperbolic functions.
5. What are the principal values and general values?
6. Give some relations between inverse circular functions.
7. What are the principal and general values of inverse circular function?
8. Write the principal and general values of inverse hyperbolic functions.
9. What is the Gregory series?
10. Drive a relation for expansion of tan nq.
11. What are the laws of logarithm for complex quantities?
Self - Learning
262 Material
Long-Answers Questions Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
Simplify: Functions and Series
(i) cos i sin 4 cos i sin 3
NOTES
(cos i sin )3 (cos i sin )4
(ii)
(cos3 i sin 3 )5
(cos i sin )(cos i sin )
(iii) (cos i sin )(cos i sin )
2. Prove that:
n n
(i) cos cos i sin sin cos cos i sin sin
n 1 n( )
=2 cos n cos
2 2
n
(ii) 1 cos i sin n 1 cos i sin n 2n1 cosn cos
2 2
3. If a cos 2 i sin 2 with similar expressions for b, c, d, then show that
a b a b
(i) b
a
2cos( ) (ii)
b
a
2i sin( )
1 ab c
(iii) abcd 2cos( ) (iv) 2cos 2( )
abcd c ab
1 1
4. If 2 cos x x , 2cos y y , then show that one of the values
n 1
of x is 2cos n .
xn
5. If a cos i sin , b cos i sin , c cos i sin , then prove that
(b c)(c a )( a b)
8cos cos cos .
abc 2 2 2
6. If xr cos r
i sin r , show that
3 3
1 1
x1.x2 .......xn cos 1 n i sin 1 n .
2 3 2 3
Hence prove that nlim x1.x2 .......xn i .
7. Find the values of:
(i) (1)1 6 (ii) (1 i )2 3 (iii) ( 3 i )1 3 (iv) i 1 4
3/ 4
1 i 3
8. Find all the values of 2 2 and show that the continued product of
all the values is 1.
Self - Learning
Material 263
Expansion of Trigonometric 9. Find the ‘n’ nth roots of unity and show that the sum of their pth powers
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series always vanishes unless p be a multiple of n (p being an integer) an then
the sum is n.
2 2
NOTES 10. If a cos i sin , b a a 2 a 4 , c a 3 a 5 a 6 ; show that b and c
7 7
are the roots of the equation x 2 x 2 0 .
11. Solve the following equations using De Moivre’s theorem:
(i) x 7 1 0 (ii) x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 0
(iii) x 7 x 4 x 3 1 0 (iv) x8 x 4 1 0
12. Find by De Moivre’s theorem the 9 roots of x9 1 0 and point out which
of these roots are also the root of x3 1 0 .
13. Show that the roots of the equation (5 x)5 (5 x)5 0 are given
r
by x 5i tan , where r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
5
14. Expand cos5 in terms of powers of cos .
15. Expand tan 6 in terms of tan and deduce that
2 5
cot cot cot ....cot 1 .
6 6 6
16. Prove that the equation ah sec bk cos ec a 2 b2 , has four roots and
that the sum of the four values of , which satisfy it is equal to an odd
multiple of radians.
2 4 6
17. Form an equation whose roots are cos ,cos and cos .
7 7 7
6
18. Show that tan tan ........ tan 7 tan .
7 7 7
19. Prove that 32cos 6 cos 6 6cos 4 15cos 2 10 .
20. Prove that 28 sin 9 sin 9 9sin 7 36sin 5 84sin 3 126sin
21. Find the general value of: (i) log (–i) (ii) log (–4) (iii) log (–5)
1
22. Prove that (i) sin(log i i ) 1 (ii) Log (–i) = i 2n
2
23. Express Log[Log(cos + i sin )] in the form A +iB.
24. Find the general and the principal value of log(–1 + i) – log (–1 – i).
25. Prove that log (1 + i tan) = log sec + i, where is a positive acute
angle.
u
26. Prove that tanh = tan , if u = log tan .
2 2 4 2
Self - Learning
264 Material
27. Prove that Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
(i) sinh (A + B) sinh (A – B) = sinh2 A – sinh2 B Functions and Series
tanh x tanh y tanh z tanh x tanh y tanh z
(ii) tanh (x + y + z) = NOTES
1 tanh y tanh z tanh z tanh x tanh x tanh y
3
1 tanh x
(iii) cosh 6 x sinh 6 x
1 tanh x
28. If tan = tanh x. cot y and tan = tanh x. tanh y, then prove that
sin 2 cosh 2 x cos 2 y
.
sin 2 cosh 2 x cos 2 y
29. Separate into real and imaginary parts:
(i) cosech (x + iy) (ii) sinh (x + iy)
cos x iy
(iii) log (iv) tan 1 x iy
cos x iy
30. If sin (u + iv) = x + iy, prove that
x2 y2 x2 y2
(i) 1 (ii) 1
cosh 2 v sinh 2 v sin 2 u cos 2 u
31. If cos 1 ( x iy ) A iB , then prove that
(i) x 2 sec 2 A y 2cosec2 A 1
(ii) x 2sech 2 B y 2 cosech 2 B 1
32. If cos ( i) cos i sin , show that
(i) cos 2 cosh 2 2 (ii) sin sin 2 sinh 2
33. If sin ( i) tan i sec , then show that cos 2 cosh 2 3 .
34. If cos i 1 , then show that sin 2 sinh 2 .
35. Show that the general solution of sinh x = 1 is
x in (1) n log 1 2 .
36. Prove that if tan i i , and being real, then is indeterminate
and is infinite.
cos( x iy )
37. Show that log is purely imaginary..
cos( x iy )
Self - Learning
Material 265
Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic 38. If cos ( i) sec ( i), where , ,, are all real, prove that:
Functions and Series
(i) tanh 2 cosh 2 sin 2 (ii) tanh 2 cosh 2 sin 2
NOTES 39. If x = 2 cos cosh , y = 2 sin sinh , then show that
4x
(i) sec i + sec i =
x y2
2
4iy
(ii) sec i – sec i =
x y2
2
1 cos x sin x
40. Write tan cos x sin x in the simplest form.
41. Prove that:
1 1
(i) 2sin x sin 2 x 1 x
2
1 3 x x
3
1
(ii) 3tan x tan 2
1 3x
1 1 1 1 x
(iii) tan x 2 cos 1 x
1 cos x x
(iv) tan 1 sin x 4 2
1 x y 1 yz
1 zx
(v) tan 1 xy tan 1 yz tan 1 zx 0
1 a b 1 bc
1 1
(vi) tan 1 ab tan 1 bc tan a tan c
42. Show that:
1 5 3 56
(i) sin sin 1 sin 1
13 5 65
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(ii) tan 1 tan 2 tan 3 2 tan 1 tan tan
2 3
1 1
1 1
(iii) 2 tan tan
3 7 4
1 4
1 12 33
(iv) cos cos cos 1
5 13 65
Self - Learning
266 Material
43. Solve the following equations: Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series
1 1
(i) cot x tan 3
2
1 1 1 11 2 NOTES
(ii) tan 1 2 x tan 1 4 x tan x 2
1 1 1 1 1
1 1
(iii) tan tan tan tan x
3 5 7 4
1 x 1 1 x 1
(iv) tan x 2 tan x 2 4
44. Separate the following into real and imaginary parts.
(i) sin 1 cosec
(ii) tan 1 cos i sin
45. If cos 1 u iv i , prove that cos 2 and cosh 2 are the roots of the
equation x2 – x(1 + u2 + v2) + u2 = 0.
i
t 1 ei n log tan .
46. Prove thatTan
4 2 4 2
47. Separate tanh 1 x iy into real and imaginary parts.
48. Using Gregory’s series, prove that
1 1 1 1 1 1 ...
(i) 12 1 1
3 3
3 5
3 5
3
1 1 1
(ii) 2 2 1 ...
2 3 5 7
1 1 1
49. Show that 2 tan tan 1 and hence calculate to 3 decimal places.
3 7 4
50. When both and tan–1(sec ) lies between 0 and , prove that
2
1 1
tan–1(sec ) = tan 2 tan 6 tan10 ... .
4 2 3 2 5 2
1
51. Prove that log(1 + ix) = log 1 x 2 i tan 1 x and hence deduce the
2
expression of tan–1x in ascending powers of x.
52. Find the sum to n terms of the following series:
(i) sin sin 2 sin 3 sin 4 ...
(ii) sin x cos x sin 2 x cos 2 x sin 3 x cos 3 x ...
(iii) cos 2 cos 2 2 cos 2 3 ...
Self - Learning
Material 267
Expansion of Trigonometric (iv) sin x cos 2 x sin 3x cos 4 x sin 5 x cos 6 x ...
Functions, Hyperbolic
Functions and Series (v) sec sec sec sec 2 sec 2 sec 3 ...
NOTES (vi) tan sec tan 2
sec tan 3
sec ...
2 2 2 2 22
1 1
(vii) tan . tan 2 tan 2. tan 4 tan 2 4. tan 8 ...
2 2
2
2 2
(viii) cot 2 cot 3 cot 3 cot 4 cot 4 cot 5 ...
1 1 1 1
(ix) tan tan 1 tan 1 ...
111 2
1 2 2 2
1 3 32
53. Find the sum of the series cos3 cos 3 cos3 2 ... to n
terms. Also find the sum of the series cos3 cos 3 2 cos3 3 ... to n
terms.
3 5 7 9 1
54. Prove that cos cos cos cos cos .
11 11 11 11 11 2
55. Find the sum to infinity of the series:
(i) sin cos sin 2 cos 2 sin 3 cos3 ...
1 1.3 1.3.5
(ii) sin sin 2 sin 3 ...
2 2.4 2.4.6
56. Find the sum of
(i) 1 x cos x 2 cos 2 ... x n 1 cos n 1 , x 1.
n(n 1)
(ii) sin A n sin(A B) sin(A 2B) ...to( n 1)terms
1.2
57. Find the sum of the series:
cos 2 cos 3
(i) 1 cos cos cos 2 cos 3 ...
2! 3!
cos cos 2 cos 3
(ii) ...
cos 2!cos 2
3!cos 3
1 1
(iii) cosh cosh 2 cosh 3 ...
2 3
(iv) sinh x sinh ( x y ) sinh ( x 2 y ) ...
(v) 1 x cosh x 2 cosh 2 ... x n 1 cos(n 1)
58. Sum the following series to infinity:
1 1
(i) cos sin cos sin 2 cos sin 3 ...
2 3
2 3
3 4 5
(ii) 2cos cos cos cos ...
2 3 4
2 3 4
Self - Learning
268 Material
59. Sum the following series to infinity: Expansion of Trigonometric
Functions, Hyperbolic
e3 e5 Functions and Series
(i) e cos cos3 cos5 ...
3 5
1 1
(ii) cos cos3 cos 5 ... NOTES
3 5
5.13 FURTHER READING
Loney, S. L. 1983. Plane Trigonometry (Analytical Trigonometry), Part II.
New Delhi: S. Chand And Company Limited.
Datta, K. B. 2004. Matrix and Linear Algebra. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd.
Prasad, Chandrika. 2017. Text Book on Algebra and Theory of Equations,
11th Edition. Allahabad: Pothishala Private Ltd.
Liu, C. L. 1986. Elements of Discrete Mathematics, 2nd Edition. Noida (UP):
McGraw-Hill Education (International Edition, Computer Science Series).
Khanna, V. K. and S. K. Bhambri. 2008. A Course in Abstract Algebra, 3rd
Edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Grewal, B. S. 1998. Higher Engineering Mathematics, 34th Edition. New Delhi:
Khanna Publishers.
Narayan, Shanti. 1996. Differential Calculus, 14th Edition. New Delhi: S. Chand
And Company Limited.
Kreyszig, Erwin. 2006. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 7th Edition.
Mumbai: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Bali, N. P. 2007. A Textbook of Engineering Mathematics. New Delhi: Laxmi
Publications (P) Ltd.
Self - Learning
Material 269
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