IBDP ESS REVIEW FOR SEMESTER EXAM
CHECKING YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Topic 1
1. Justify, using examples as evidence, how historical influences have shaped the development of
the modern environmental movement.
To approach this question, use three examples; summarize the examples and comment on how
awareness of a particular environmental issue changed; describe any changes that occurred or
should have occurred because of the event.
Local Scale: John Muir raised public awareness of the need to preserve nature in USA in the
late 1800s. He helped establish Yosemite National Park.
Regional Scale: The Cuyahoga River disaster in the 1950s when the river was so polluted that
it repeatedly caught fire led to the Clean Water Act in the USA.
Global Scale: Rachel Carson helped raise awareness of the dangers of DDT and
biomagnification with the publication of her book, Silent Spring. This led to the formation of the
EPA in the USA but had global impact with the WHO banning DDT use globally.
2. Identify the core values of ecocentrism, anthropocentrism, and technocentrism.
Ecocentrism: Education, biorights and prioritisation of taking personal action.
Anthropocentrism: Using laws and regulation, taxation and subsidies to help manage the
environment.
Technocentrism: Prioritisation of technological developments to solve environmental problems.
Economic growth prioritised.
3. Discuss the view that the environment can have its own intrinsic value.
Intrinsic value is the value that nature can possess irrespective of humans. It is beautiful, it has
biorights to exist without being damaged or exploited. Some societies have ascribed this intrinsic
value to their constitution and legislation. This means that a group of people can take the state
to court over the damage done to a river which is ascribed these rights.
4. Using an example, describe the concept of system diagrams. Include the descriptors of flows,
storages, transfers, and transformations.
5. Describe open, closed, and isolated systems.
Open: Energy and matter can enter and leave the system.
Closed: Energy can enter and leave the system but all the matter stays in the system.
Isolated: Energy can matter are within the system and do not cross the system boundary.
6. Define the first and second law of thermodynamics and explain how they apply to an energy flow
diagram of a food chain. Use a flow diagram to aid in your explanation.
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy (in an isolated system) can be transformed but
cannot be created or destroyed. In a food chain this explains that at each trophic level there is a
transformation of energy. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system
increases over time. (Entropy is a measure of the amount of disorder in a system. An increase in
entropy arising from energy transformations reduces the energy available to do work. The second
law of thermodynamics explains the inefficiency and decrease in available energy along a food
chain and energy generation systems.)
In a food chain this explains why there is less energy available at each trophic level as energy is
lost in each transformation, mostly as heat (due to respiration) but also due to inefficiencies in
consumption and death.
7. Describe what is meant by steady-state equilibrium and explain how it is stabilized by negative
feedback.
In a steady-state equilibrium there is a balance between the inputs and outputs of energy and matter
so that the system is maintained in that equilibrium. Negative feedback loops maintain the stores in
the system over time although short term changes are possible.
8. Outline positive and negative feedback loops, describe and draw flow diagrams of two examples
of each negative feedback and positive feedback.
Positive feedback amplifies changes and results in a move away from an equilibrium.
Negative feedback counteracts changes and maintains the equilbrium.
Examples of negative feedback:
Examples of positive feedback:
9. Explain what is meant by resilience and discuss natural and human factors that affect resilience
in systems.
Resilience is the ability of a system to resist change and to return to the equilibrium despite inputs
that could push the system away from that stable state. High productivity and biodiversity and time
for a system to develop all contribute to the ability of a system to resist change.
Humans can reduce the resilience of a system by applying inputs (change) too quickly that do not
allow the negative feedback loops to have time to act. By reducing the productivity
and biodiversity of the system this also reduces the abiltiy of the system to resist any change.
Conversely, humans can also improve productivity and biodiversity, for example in rewiliding
projects (e.g. yellowstone national park wolf reintroduction) that help improve the resilience of a
system.
10. Define tipping point and describe what often characterizes a tipping point.
A tipping point is when a system has changed so much that it can no longer return to the equilibrium
and it enters a new alternative stable state. The bleaching of coral is an example of this when the
temperature change in the water means that the coral expels the symbiotic algae which no longer
can re-enter the coral after a while and the coral dies.
11. Explain how complexity of a system can lead to its stability. You are allowed to use examples.
Complexity means that there are more connections in a food web and this leads to stability as
consumers can switch to other food sources. High productivity from high solar radiation combined
with high precipitation will enable high levels of habitat and niche diversity which leads to greater
species diversity and more connections in the food web. Greater genetic diversity also provides
more resilience and therefore stability when change happens in a system. More complex systems
have more negative feedback loops which help return the system to the equilibrium and resist
change.
12. Define sustainability.
The use and management of resources that allows full natural replacement of the resources
exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction and use. [Note that this is
an ESS specific definition and differs from that used in Geography for example].
13. Explain the relationship between natural capital, natural income, and sustainability.
Natural capital are natural resources that can supply a natural income of goods or
services. Natural income is the yield (amount/volume) obtained from natural resources without
depleting the natural capital. Sustainability can only be achieved if the natural income allows for
full replacement of the natural capital.
14. Define environmental footprint.
An ecological footprint (EF) is the area of land and water required to sustainably provide all
resources at the rate at which they are being consumed and the assimilation of all wastes by a
given human population.
15. Explain the relationship between EFs and sustainability.
If the EF is greater than the area available to the population, this is an indication of unsustainability.
Topic 2
1. Define species and population.
A species is a group of organisms that share common characteristics and that interbreed to
produce fertile offspring.
A population is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same
time, and which are capable of interbreeding.
2. Compare the terms fundamental niche and realized niche and give examples of each
The fundamental niche describes the full range of conditions and resources in which a species
could survive and reproduce whereas the realized niche describes the actual conditions and
resources in which a species exists due to biotic interactions.
The green anole is native to Florida and the brown anole is an introduced, non-native species to
the area. The fundamental niches of these two species overlapped and through competition the
green anole developed a narrower realized niche. The Resources have been partitioned.
3. Describe how competition can affect species diversity.
Competition may lead to a loss of species diversity as species become outcompleted and locally
extinct, however, it could also increase species diversity as the competition leads to a narrowing of
niches and therefore more species able to exploit that habitat.
4. Explain how predation, herbivory, parasitism, mutualism, disease, and competition can affect
species distribution.
Predation: The predator prey feedback loop means that high numbers of predators will cause the
number of prey to decrease which leads to a fall in the predators which leads to a return to higher
number of prey species. Predators will follow the distribution of their prey species and prey
species will seek to move to avoid predation.
Herbivory: Heavy herbivory levels may reduce the distribution of a species but it may also just limit
its productivity.
Parasitism: The affect of parasitism may limit the distribution of the host if the relationship
between parasite and host is particularly harmful to the host. Otherwise it may limit its productivity.
Mutualism: When both/all species in the mutualistic relationship are present then this could
enhance the distribution of the species but also their productivity.
Disease: Disease is a density dependent limiting factor and so high levels of disease will limit the
distribution of a species.
Competition: Intraspecific competition will determine the partitioning of a niche but interspecific
competition will determine the distribution of those species with the more competitive species
potentially displacing the competitor, e.g. an invasive species.
5. Explain how predation, herbivory, parasitism, mutualism, disease, and competition can affect the
carrying capacity of a population.
All these factors are part of negative feedback loops that maintain the carrying capacity of a species,
however, if there is too much predation, herbivory, parasitism, disease or competition due to an
inbalance in the system - perhaps from the introduction of a new species, new disease etc then this
can lead to a reduction in the carrying capacity of the species. Mutualism should enhance the
carrying capacity but the loss of a mutualistic relationship could do the opposite.
6. Define the terms community and ecosystem.
A community is a group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat.
An ecosystem is a community and the physical environment with which it interacts.
7. Draw a system diagram of photosynthesis and cellular respiration, outline how they are linked.
Photosynthesis is an anabolic reaction, building glucose from the inputs of carbon dioxide and water
using solar energy in chloroplasts while cellular respiration is a catabolilc reaction, breaking down
glucose using oxygen in mitochondria and releasing carbon dioxide and water.
8. Explain what is meant by an organism losing entropy and the surrounding ecosystem gaining
entropy as cellular respiration in that organism occurs.
Entropy is energy that is no longer usable. During respiration a large amount of energy is lost from
the organism as heat. The entropy of the system surrounding the organism therefore gains entropic
energy in the form of heat.
9. Define the term trophic level, producer, consumer, and decomposer
The trophic level is the position that an organism occupies in a food chain, or the position of a
group of organisms in a community that occupy the same position in food chains.
Producers (autotrophs) are typically plants or algae that produce their own food using
photosynthesis and form the first trophic level in a food chain. Exceptions include chemosynthetic
organisms that produce food without sunlight.
Consumers take energy in the chemical energy in biomass of other organisms and convert it into
their own biomass through the processes of digestion and assimilation.
Decomposers break down organic material that is dead and gain energy through this process.
They are an important part of the recyling of nutrients in an ecosystem.
10. Give an example of each food chain and food web with named organisms that includes four
trophic levels.
11. Draw examples of three types of pyramids (number, biomass, productivity)
Pyramid of numbers - this represents the number of organisms at each trophic level in a given
period of time for a given area.
• The units are numbers of organisms per unit area per unit time.
• These pyramids can be inverted as in this example.
• These pyramids are useful for comparing ecosystems and at different times of year.
Pyramid of biomass (oak tree → insect larvae → Blue tits → Tawny owl)
• Pyramids of biomass represent the biomass at each trophic level in a given period of time for
a given area.
• The units are units of mass per unit area, e.g. gm-2
• These pyramids can be inverted but usually only do so at certain times of year when the
primary consumers still are alive but the primary producers have died, e.g in temperate lakes
during the autumn
• These pyramids are useful for comparing ecosytems and at different times of year.
Pyramid of productivity (oak tree → insect larvae → Blue tits → Tawny owl)
• refer to the flow of energy through a trophic level, indicating the rate at which that
stock/storage is being generated.
• flow of biomass/energy gm-2yr-1 or Jm-2yr-1
• Pyramids of productivity for entire ecosystems over a year always show a decrease along the
food chain.
• These are useful for comparing productivity in different ecoystems.
12. State the first and second law of thermodynamics and explain how they are applied to
ecosystems.
The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of conservation of energy, which states that
energy in an isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed. This is
illustrated in food chains with the transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next.
The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system increases over time.
Entropy is a measure of the amount of disorder in a system. An increase in entropy arising from
energy transformations reduces the energy available to do work. The second law of
thermodynamics explains the inefficiency and decrease in available energy along a food chain.
The energy lost is mostly due to heat loss as a results of respiration.
13. Provide an example and define of bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
Methylmercury is produced by the burning of fossil fuels and enters food chains by its assimilation
in small amounts in phytoplankton. As the chemical is not biodegradable it is stored in fatty tissue
and, over time, bioaccumulates in an organism. Larger, longer lived organisms accumulate more
over their life time. Once the methylmercury enters the food chain it is biomagnified through the
food chain as each as there is a difference between the transfer of biomass and chemicals.
Biomass as energy is only transferred at a 10% efficiency while the transfer of methylmercury is
much more efficient. This results in the magnification of the methylmercury through the food chain
making the trop predators most vulnerable to high levels of chemical contamination in persistent
organic pollutants.
Other examples include DDT, ivermectin, diclofenac. Species known to be affected include fish
like marlin, swordfish and tuna, polar bears and killer whales.
14. Outline different pathways of energy through an ecosystem
Light energy may be converted to chemical energy in the process of photosynthesis.
This chemical energy may then be transferred from one trophic level to another with varying
efficiencies. Solar radiation may be converted to heat energy by an ecosystem (through
respiration or the absorption by surfaces). This heat energy may be re-radiated to the
atmosphere.
15. Define productivity and state the difference between primary and secondary productivity.
Productivity is the conversion of energy into biomass for a given period of time. Primary
productivity is the rate of energy converted into biomass by producers. Secondary productivity is
the rate that consumers assimilate biomass.
16. Outline the difference between net and gross productivity
Net productivity is the energy converted into biomass after accounting for respiratory losses.
17. Draw a labelled diagram of the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle
The only flow in this diagram that is not a transformation is dissolving.
The only transfer in this diagram is "absorption".
18. Explain how human activities can affect carbon and nitrogen cycle
Carbon cycle:
Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, urbanization and agriculture all impact the carbon cycle.
Burning fossil fuels directly adds carbon dioxide to the atmospheric store. Deforestation removes
the store of carbon labelled as plants. It can also release carbon from the soil store if the trees are
burned and this adds carbon to the atmospheric store. Urbanization reduces the land cover of
plants reducing their potential to capture and store carbon. Agriculture also changes land use,
reducing the carbon stored by plants. The use of heavy machinery in intensive farming and the
appication of inorganic fertilisers adds carbon to the atmospheric store.
Nitrogen cycle:
Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, urbanization and agriculture all impact the nitrogen cycle.
Burning of fossil fuels releases nitrous oxides in the atmospheric store.
Deforestation decreases the plant stores ability to store nitrogen. It also affects the soil store as
deforestation will increase soil erosion which releases nitrates into water bodies.
Urbanization decreases the ability of plants to store nitrogen and increases the use of fossil fuels
(at the moment).
Agriculture depends heavily on fossil fuel use for fertilisers and machinery use. These all release
nitrous oxides into the atmospheric store and increase the runoff of nitrates into water bodies
leading to eutrophication.
19. Define and state relevant equations for NPP, GSP, NSP
Net Primary Productivity NPP = GPP - R
Gross Secondary Productivity NSP = GSP - R
Net Secondary Productivity GSP = food eaten - fecal loss
20. Outline how you can measure NPP, GPP, and R for the same grassy field.
Set up three plots, collect the biomass from one plot, dry in oven and measure dry mass. Cover
one plot with opaque plastic and leave the third uncovered. After seven days, collect the biomass
from plots 2 and 3, dry in oven and then measure dry mass.
NPP is equivalent to the difference between plots 1 and 3.
R is equivalent to the difference btween plots 1 and 2.
GPP is equivalent to NPP + R.
21. Outline how you can measure NSP, GSP, and R for a snail.
Keep the snail in a terrarium for 7 days. Weight the snail on day 0 and day 7. Weigh the amount of
food provided and food eaten and the amount of faeces produced.
The difference between the snail's mass of day 0 and day 7 is equivalent to its NSP.
The GSP is equivalent to the mass of the food eaten and the mass of the fecal loss.
The value of R is the difference between the GSP and NSP.
22. Outline the major characteristics of 8 biomes
The characteristics of biomes are determined by their annual mean temperature, precipitation and
insolation (solar radiation) combined with seasonal changes in these inputs. These result in
characteristic levels of productivity and biodiversity. Ecosystems in different locations around the
world but the same biomes can have organisms with similar adaptations to their environments
through parallel evolution.
23. Explain the distributions, structure, biodiversity, and relative productivity of four pairs of
contrasting biomes (e.g. temperate forest vs tropical forest; tundra vs deserts; tropical coral reefs
vs hydrothermal vents; temperate bogs vs tropical mangrove forest)
24. Explain how climate change is altering the distribution of biomes
Climate change is causing the biomes to shift north in the Northern Hemisphere and south in the
Southern Hemisphere and higher in montane environments.
An example is the desertification of the most southerly mediterranean areas and the growth of
trees in the edges of the tundra.
25. Define an give an example of succession
Succession is the process of change over time in an ecosystem involving pioneer, intermediate
and climax communities. This results in changes to the structure and species composition of the
communities present. These changes are brought about by the communities themselves. It is
temporal in nature.
Primary succession examples include the formation of sand dunes, communities forming after a
glacier retreats and communities forming following a volcanic eruption.
Secondary succession examples occur when soil is already developed, e.g. the growth of a forest
following abandonment of a farmed field, regrowth following a wildfire.
26. Describe how the patterns of energy flow, productivity, diversity and nutrient cycling change
during succession
In early stages of primary succession, gross productivity (GP) is low due to the unfavourable initial
conditions and the low density of producers. The proportion of energy lost through community
respiration is relatively low too, so net productivity is high—that is, the system is growing and
biomass is accumulating.
In later stages of succession, with an increased consumer community, gross productivity may be
high in a climax community. however, this is balanced by respiration, so net productivity
approaches 0 and the productivity–respiration (P:R) ratio approaches 1.
In a complex ecosystem, the variety of nutrient and energy pathways contributes to its stability.
This is the way that energy and minerals/nutrients cycle through a food web. The more complex
the feeding relationships, the more stable the ecosystem.
In secondary succession these changes happen faster due to availability of nutrients in the soil. In
fact, following wildfires, the soil is high in nitrates and phosphates due to the burned vegetation.
27. Discuss the link between ecosystem stability, succession, diversity, and human activity
An ecosystem’s capacity to survive change may depend on its diversity and resilience. A newly
formed pioneer community will have very simple communities with short food chains and limited
resilience to change. A more mature climax community may have more complex communities with
longer food chains and more species interactions and therefore greater resilience.
However, ancient climax communities in environments which are harsh may have simpler
communities and lower resilience.
Humans generally simplify ecosystems, shortening food chains, lowering species interactions and
biodiversity, resulting in less complexity and less resilience so the ecosytems are less stable.
28. Compare and contrast r and k strategist species including their roles in succession
r- and K- strategist species have reproductive strategies that are better adapted to pioneer and
climax communities, respectively.
r-strategist species are those that produce large numbers of offspring so they can colonize new
habitats quickly and make use of short-lived resources. They are therefore more competitive in
young, changeable habitats in the early parts of succession.
r-strategists usually lay many eggs / have many offspring, give little care to the offspring and a
large proportion of the offspring die before reaching maturity, such as this frog and it's frog spawn.
K-strategist species tend to produce a small number of offspring, which increases their survival
rate and enables them to survive in long-term climax communities.
K-strategists tend to give more parental care to the offspring, investing more energy into the
process, therefore being more competitive in stable, established environments such as an Iberian
Lynx.
29. Identify a way of estimating the population of 1 species in an ecosystem (name the species)
Snail - capture, mark, release, recapture
Water margin lily - quadrats - count number of plants in quadrat and scale up to whole area
(extrapoliation)
30. What is the difference between species richness and species abundance in an area? Evaluate
the use of “Simpsons Diversity Index” in the measurement of biodiversity
Species richness is the number of species in a community and is a useful comparative measure. It
is also a useful quick measure to estimate the number of samples needed in a diversity study.
Species diversity is a function of the number of species and their relative abundance and can be
compared using an index.
