The College of Engineering
[IE 386] Work Analysis and Design I
IE386
Lecture 10 Work Measurement and Time Study Chapter 5
Dr. Takeaki Toma
Primary reference textbooks:
Stephan Konz & Steven Johnson, “Work Design” (7th edition)
Mikell P. Groover, “Work Systems & Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work”
Learning Objectives
1. Understand Standard Time
2. Understand Job, Task, Work Element
and Basic Motions
3. Understand Time Allowance
4. Be able to conduct Time Study
5. Be able to conduct Work Sampling
1. Standard Time
Why Time Study?
• The employee should give a full day’s work for the time that he or she gets
paid with reasonable allowances for personal delays, unavoidable delays, and
fatigue.
• Standard pace can be defined as the effective rate of performance of a
conscientious, self-paced, qualified employee when working neither fast nor
slow and giving due consideration to the physical, mental, or visual
requirements of the specific job.
• Time study determines such a fair days’ work.
• Standard data can be used for determining wages and production schedules.
Standard Time
• Standard time is data made for the later usages.
Table source: Gozali, L., Halim, M. A., & Jap, L. Analysis of Designing Job Shop Scheduling at PT. Harmoni Empat Selaras with Heuristic Classic Method, Tabu Search Algorithm Method and Active Scheduling Method to
Minimize Production Makespan.
Methods to Determine Standard Time
Methods to set
time standards
Work
Historical
Measurement
Records
techniques
②Predetermined
Historical ①Direct Time ③Standard ④Work
Time Motion Time
Study Data Systems Sampling
Systems
Engineered Standard
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2. Job, Task, Work Element and
Basic Motions
Task Hierarchy & Work Measurement
Cleaning Job Job Level
Garbage Task Level time is estimated by
Sweeping Task Mopping Task
cleaning Task
work sampling
Collect Garbage Dump Garbage Work element level time is
Work Element Work Element estimated by direct time study,
standard data system
Move hand Grasp garbage Move garbage
Release Basic motion element level
garbage time is estimated by
Basic Motion Basic Motion Basic Motion
Basic Motion predetermined motion time
system
Reasons for Breaking a Job into Elements
• Makes it possible to reuse the data.
• Permits different ratings for different
elements.
• Permits consistency checks.
• Improves methods descriptions.
• Makes incomplete data useful.
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Divide Task into Work Elements
Work element:
• Series of motion activities that are grouped logically together
• Has a unified purpose in the task
Guidelines:
• Each work element should consist of a logical group of motion elements
• Beginning point of one element should be the endpoint of the preceding
element
• Each element should have a readily identifiable endpoint
• Work elements should not be too long nor too short
• Separate irregular elements, machine elements, internal elements
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Classification of Work Elements
• Setup versus production elements
• Setup elements - associated with activities required to change
over from one batch to the next. Performed once per batch
• Production elements - associated with the processing of work
units within a given batch. Performed once per work unit
• Worker-paced versus machine elements
• Operator-paced elements - manual elements. Can be setup or
production cycle elements, Can be constant or variable
• Machine-controlled elements - machine time depends on
machine operating parameters. Great accuracy, Characterized
by little or no random variations
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Classification of Work Elements
• Regular versus irregular elements
• Regular elements - performed once every cycle
• Irregular elements - performed less frequently than once
per cycle. Must be prorated in a regular cycle
• Internal versus external elements
• External elements - manual elements performed in series
with machine elements
• Internal elements - manual elements performed at the
same time the machine is running
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3. Time Allowance
“Allowances”
• Allowance is the lost time due to work
interruptions and other reasons
• We should include the allowance in our
standard time.
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Reasons for Lost Time at Work
Work-related interruptions Non-work-related interruptions
• Machine breakdowns • Personal needs (e.g.,
• Waiting for materials or parts restroom breaks)
• Receiving instructions from • Talking to co-workers about
foreman matters unrelated to work
• Talking to co-workers about • Lunch break
work-related matters • Smoke break
• Rest breaks for fatigue • Beverage break
• Cleaning up at end of shift • Personal telephone call
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How to Allow for Lost Time
Two approaches used by companies:
1. Scheduled rest break during the shift
• Typical - one 15-minute break in mid-
morning and another in mid-afternoon
2. A PFD allowance is added to the normal time
◼ This allows the worker to take a break on
his/her own time
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PFD Allowance
• Personal time
▪Rest room breaks, phone calls, water fountain
stops, cigarette breaks (5% typical)
• Fatigue
▪Rest allowance to overcome fatigue due to work-
related stresses and conditions (5% or more)
• Delays
▪Machine breakdowns, foreman instructions (5%
typical)
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Personal Allowances
• Do not vary with the task.
• Include attending to personal needs, smoking, etc.
• Most firms have standardized break periods.
• Lunch is not usually considered part of allowances.
• Additional allowances may be given for cleanup,
putting on and taking off protective clothing, and
travel.
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Fatigue Allowances
• Compensate person for time lost due to
fatigue.
• Fatigue allowances are given only for fatigue.
• Generally, give fatigue allowance only for work
cycle time outside machine time.
• Fatigue factors include physical, mental, and
environmental.
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Delay Allowances
• Vary with the task, not the operator.
• Compensate for machine breakdown, interrupting
the material flow, conversations with supervisors,
etc.
• Delays also serve as personal allowances and
fatigue allowances.
• To set delay allowances, observe delays in a
sampling study or time study.
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4. Direct Time Study
Direct Time Study
• Direct and continuous observation of a task
using a stopwatch or other timekeeping device
to record the time taken to accomplish the task
• While observing and recording the time, an
appraisal of the worker’s performance level is
made to obtain the normal time for the task
• The data are then used to compute a standard
time for the task
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Direct Time Study
1. Define the task to be studied
2. Divide the task into precise elements
3. Decide how many times to measure the task
4. Time and record element times and rating of
performance
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Direct Time Study
5. Compute average observed time
Sum of the times recorded to
Average perform each element
observed =
time Number of observations
6. Determine performance rating and
normal time
Normal time = Average observed time * Performance Rating
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Performance Rating(PR)
• Ensures that the standard is based on the method, not
the operator.
• To improve rating accuracy, study an average operator.
• Standard performance is commonly defined to be a pace
that can be readily attained by the majority (70-80%) of
workers
• Standard performance: PR = 100%
▪ Slower pace than standard: PR < 100%
▪ Faster pace than standard: PR > 100%
• Normal time: 𝑻𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 = 𝑻𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 ∗ 𝑷𝑹
(Average time: 𝑻𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 , Performance Rate: 𝑷𝑹) 25
Direct Time Study
7. Add the normal times for each element to
develop the total normal time for the task
8. Compute the standard time
Standard time = Total normal time*(1+Allowance factor)
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Standard Performance
• Standard performance is defined to be a pace that can be readily
attained by the majority of workers
• An average worker is allowed to finish the work at a pace that is 130%
of that standard time. (For example, if an average worker takes 50
minutes to finish a standard work, the standard time is 50*1.3=65
minutes)
• Thus, most workers are able to easily achieve standard performance
• Standard time is such a pace that an average worker could achieve
throughout an entire work shift without harmful effects on the
worker’s health or physical well-being.
• Benchmarks of standard performance:
▪ Walking at 3 miles (4.8km) / hour on level flat ground 27
Time the Work Elements
• Each element over several work cycles to obtain a
reliable average
• Stopwatch timing methods:
▪ Snapback timing method – stopwatch is reset to
zero at the start of each work element. Prefer
this one.
▪ Continuous timing method – stopwatch is
allowed to run continuously throughout the
duration of the work cycle.
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Time Study Example
Allowance factor = 15%
OBSERVATIONS (MIN) PERFORMANCE
JOB ELEMENT 1 2 3 4 5 RATING
(A) Compose and type letter 8 10 9 21* 11 120%
(B) Type envelope address 2 3 2 1 3 105%
(C) Stuff, stamp, and sea 2 1 5* 2 1 110%
envelopes
1. Delete unusual or nonrecurring observations (marked with *)
2. Compute average times for each element
Average time for A = (8 + 10 + 9 + 11)/4 = 9.5 minutes
Average time for B = (2 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 3)/5 = 2.2 minutes
Average time for C = (2 + 1 + 2 + 1)/4 = 1.5 minutes 29
Time Study Example
3. Compute the normal time for each element
Normal time = (Average observed time) x (Rating)
Normal time for A = (9.5)(1.2) = 11.4 minutes
Normal time for B = (2.2)(1.05) = 2.31 minutes
Normal time for C = (1.5)(1.10) = 1.65 minutes
4. Add the normal times to find the total normal time
Total normal time = 11.40 + 2.31 + 1.65
= 15.36 minutes
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Time Study Example
5.Compute the standard time for the job
Standard time = Total normal time*(1+Apfd)
=15.36*(1+0.15)=17.66 minutes
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Machine Cycle in the Task
• If the work cycle includes machine-paced elements, then
standard time may include a machine allowance applied to
the machine time
If operator is external
𝑇𝑆𝑇𝐷 = 𝑇𝑆𝑇𝐷 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 𝑇𝑆𝑇𝐷 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒
If operator is internal
𝑇𝑆𝑇𝐷 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥{𝑇𝑆𝑇𝐷 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟, 𝑇𝑆𝑇𝐷 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 }
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5. Work Sampling
Work Sampling
Visit the workplace and record activities.
No need to record time.
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Work Sampling
Statistical technique for determining the proportions of
time spent by subjects in various defined categories of
activity
• Subjects = workers, machines
• Categories of activity = setting up a machine, producing
parts, idle, etc.
• For statistical accuracy
▪ Observations must be taken at random times
▪ Period of the study must be representative of the
types of activities performed by the subjects
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Work Sampling Applications
• Machine utilization - how much time is spent by
machines in various categories of activity
• Worker utilization - how workers spend their time
• Allowances for time standards - assessment of delay
components in PFD allowance factor
• Average unit time - determining the average time on
each work unit
• Time standards - limited statistical accuracy when
standards set by work sampling
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Work Sampling Formula
• During a sampling, you would check only “Yes” or “No” for
each activity, and count the total number of “Yes”.
• The probability of 𝑥 occurrence of such an event in 𝑛
observations follow the binominal distribution.
𝑛!
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑝 𝑥 𝑞 𝑛−𝑥
𝑥! 𝑛 − 𝑥 !
• 𝑝 = probability of a single occurrence
• 𝑞 = 1 − 𝑝 = probability of an absence of occurrence
• 𝑛 = number of observations
• As 𝑛 becomes large the binomial distribution approaches
the normal distribution with mean=𝑛𝑝, variance=𝑛𝑝𝑞. 37
Work Sampling Formula
• The estimated proportion of a category 𝐴 based on a work
sampling experiment is,
σ𝑘𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑝Ƹ =
𝑛
• This normal distribution of a proportion has a mean=𝑝,
𝑝𝑞
and a standard deviation equal to , a 95 percent
𝑛
confidence interval is,
𝑝ො 1 − 𝑝ො 𝑝ො 1 − 𝑝ො
𝑝ො − 𝑧𝛼 < 𝑝 < 𝑝ො + 𝑧𝛼
2 𝑛 2 𝑛
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Work Sampling Formula
• If an acceptable limit of error is 𝒍, the sample size 𝒏 is,
2
𝑧𝛼 × 𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
2
𝑛=
𝑙2
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Example: How Work Sampling Works
• A total of 500 observations were taken at random times during a one-week
period (40 hours) on 10 machines with results shown below.
Category Counts
(1) Set up 75
(2) Running production 300
(3) Machine idle 125
Total 500
a) How many hours per week did an average machine sped in each category?
b) What is the 95% confidence interval of machine idle time?
c) Suppose that you want to estimate the machine idle time with an
acceptable limit of error 𝑙 = 10% with α=0.05 level. How many samples are
40
needed in the next experiment?
Example: Solution
a) How many hours per week did an average machine spend in each
category?
Category Proportion Hrs per category
(1) Set up 75/500 = 0.15 0.15 x 40 = 6 hours
(2) Running production 300/500 = 0.60 0.60 x 40 = 24 hours
(3) Machine idle 125/500 = 0.25 0.25 x 40 = 10 hours
Total 1.00 Total 40 hours
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Example: Solution
b) What is the 95% confidence interval of machine idle time?
Category Proportion Hrs per category
(1) Set up 75/500 = 0.15 0.15 x 40 = 6 hours
(2) Running production 300/500 = 0.60 0.60 x 40 = 24 hours
(3) Machine idle 125/500 = 0.25 0.25 x 40 = 10 hours
Total 1.00 Total 40 hours
𝑝Ƹ 1 − 𝑝Ƹ 𝑝Ƹ 1 − 𝑝Ƹ
𝑝Ƹ − 𝑧𝛼 < 𝑝 < 𝑝Ƹ + 𝑧𝛼
2 𝑛 2 𝑛 0.21 × 40ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 8.2 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
0.29 × 40ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 11.6 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
0.25 1 − 0.25 (0.25) 1 − 0.25
0.25 − 1.96 < 𝑝 < 0.25 + 1.96 95% confidence interval of machine idle
500 500
is between 8.2 hours and 11.6 hours.
0.21 < 𝑝 < 0.29 42
Example: Solution
c) Suppose that you want to estimate the machine idle time with an
acceptable limit of error 𝒍 = 𝟏𝟎% with α=0.05 level. How many samples
are needed in the next experiment?
Category Proportion Hrs per category
(3) Machine idle 125/500 = 0.25 0.25 x 40 = 10 hours
0.25 1 − 0.25
𝑧𝛼 2
× 𝑝(1 − 𝑝) 𝑛= 1.962 ×
2 0.12
𝑛=
𝑙2 𝑛 = 72.03
We need 𝑛 = 73 samples.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) Why is a Time-Study needed?
2) What is the Time Standard?
3) Draw a task hierarchy (task + elements for a cleaner's job)
4) In the cleaner’s job, identify which level in the hierarchy for
work sampling, direct time study, and predetermined motion
time system?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
5) In the following Data, Allowance factor = 10%.
Calculate (1) Normal Time and (2) Standard Time.
OBSERVATIONS (MIN) PERFORMANCE
JOB ELEMENT Average RATING
(A) Compose and type letter 3.2 min 80%
(B) Type envelope address 1.1 min 110%
(C) Stuff, stamp, and sea 2.3 min 120%
envelopes
REVIEW QUESTIONS
6) Suppose you randomly collected the activities of your
cleaning person for total 8 hours. A) How many hours are
spent for each category activity? B) What is the 95%
confidence interval for rest hours? C) In the next sampling,
how many samples are needed to monitor the rest time with
an acceptable limit of error 𝒍=5% with α=0.05 level ?
Categories Counts Proportions Hours
Sweep 301
Mop 433
Dump Garbage 451
Rest 437
Thank you for your attention ...
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