CCTV TECHNOLOGY: A PRE-PREPARATORY STUDY TO AID IN THE

DEVELOPMENT OF A MINIMUM TECHNOLOGY STANDARD FOR

CCTV DEPLOYMENT AS PART OF THE OVERALL FACILITY RISK
MANAGEMENT STRATEGY

Dr Genis J Pieterse
(PhD, MBA, MA, Dip.EE, Dip.LAN, Dip.EDP, PgCert.IT Sec,PgCert.PM)

JANUARY 2017
1
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 2
ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 5
TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................... 8
CCTV COMPONENTS ........................................................................................................................... 8
CCTV CAMERA FAMILY OVERVIEW ................................................................................................... 10
BULLET CAMERA ........................................................................................................................... 11
DOME CAMERA ............................................................................................................................. 11
COVERT CAMERA .......................................................................................................................... 12
C-MOUNT CAMERA ....................................................................................................................... 13
NIGHT VISION CAMERA................................................................................................................. 13
DAY/NIGHT CAMERA..................................................................................................................... 14
CCTV CAMERA IMAGE RESOLUTION OVERVIEW .............................................................................. 15
Analog Technology ........................................................................................................................ 15
Digital Technology......................................................................................................................... 15
CCTV CAMERA TECHNOLOGY EVOLUTION OVERVIEW ..................................................................... 16
CCTV CAMERA ................................................................................................................................... 17
POWER SUPPLY (PSU) ................................................................................................................... 18
OPTICS ........................................................................................................................................... 20
IMAGING COMPONENTS............................................................................................................... 23
INTERFACE..................................................................................................................................... 25
CCTV Transmission Media................................................................................................................. 26
IP CCTV Camera Security Protocol ................................................................................................ 26
IP CCTV Camera Bandwidth .......................................................................................................... 27
IP CCTV Camera Secondary Infrastructure ................................................................................... 28
IP CCTV System Capacity Management ........................................................................................ 29
CCTV Recording Technology ............................................................................................................. 29
CCTV Viewing Technology ................................................................................................................. 30
CONCLUSION......................................................................................................................................... 31
Annexure A: Analog Standards ............................................................................................................. 32
Analog Video Resolutions in Pixels (from least to greatest) ............................................................ 32
Annexure B: Power Supply.................................................................................................................... 33
Annexure C: PSU Protocols and Standards ........................................................................................... 33

2
References ............................................................................................................................................ 35
IMAGES ................................................................................................................................................. 37

3
ABBREVIATIONS

CCTV : Closed-Circuit Television

CPU : Central Processing Unit
DVR : Digital Video Recorder
DSP : Digital Signal Processing / Processor
GPU : Graphic Processing Unit
GSM : Global System for Mobile Communications
IC : Integrated Circuit
IoT : Internet of Things
IP : Internet Protocol
IR : Infra-Red
LAN : Local Area Network
LED : Light Emitting Diode
NVR : Network Video Recorder
POE : Power Over Ethernet
PSU : Power Supply Unit
RFID : Radio Frequency
SD : Radio Frequency Identification
SSD : Solid State Device
TV : Television
URL : Uniform Resource Locator
USB : Universal Serial Bus
VCR : Video Cassette Recorder

4
INTRODUCTION
A study by Dr Jerry Ratcliffe from the Department of Criminal Justice at Temple University in
Philadelphia, entitled CCTV Camera Evaluation1, investigated the crime reduction effect for the CCTV
cameras deployed in Philadelphia during 2006. Ratcliffe concluded, that the deployment of cameras
resulted in a 13 per cent reduction in crime where CCTV cameras were deployed, and that this was
significant when compared to trends at each of the camera sites2. What was noted by Ratcliffe is
that the crime did not disappear but was, for the most part displaced, migrating to areas that were
not under CCTV surveillance3, he also noted that there were sites where CCTV cameras had no
significant deterrent effect4. Ratcliffe made a key recommendation, and that is to optimise the effect
of CCTV camera deployment, it is critical that crime hotspots, or high risk areas, be identified5. This
demonstrates the necessity for the development of a site specific site risk assessment (SRA) to be
completed prior to making CCTV system deployment decisions.

Christopher Müller and Daniel Boos, conducted a study at the Zurich main railway station; their aim
was to identify the typical uses for CCTV cameras, and to group these into typologies6. They
concluded that, CCTV technology can be grouped into four primary uses, and at times there is even
some overlap resulting in a hybrid type deployment7. The four primary types identified by them
consist of the following: (a) Access Control, (b) Conduct Control, (c) Evidence Collection, and (d)
Intervention Planning8. From the research, they identified future trends pertaining to the four
typologies. For the most part, we have seen the trend development since their trend proposal,
becoming a reality. In summary, they proposed that the future of CCTV camera deployment would
be along the general lines9 of:

 Individualisation: - with functionality such as automated facial recognition, licence plate

recognition, mobile phone tracking and even RFID tracking etc,

1
Ratcliffe, J. CCTV Camera Evaluation: The crime reduction effects of public CCTV cameras in the City of
Philadelphia, PA installed during 2006. Temple University, 7 February 2008.
2
Ratcliffe, page 12.
3
Ratcliffe, page 12.
4
Ratcliffe, page 13.
5
Ratcliffe, page 13.
6
Müller, C., Boos, D. Zurich Main Railway Station: A Typology of Public CCTV Systems. Surveillance & Society,
Volume 2, Issue 2, page 161-176, 2004.
7
Müller and Boos, page 172.
8
Müller and Boos, page 172.
9
Müller and Boos, page 173.

5
  Automation: - which would see the merging of flow control and access control. This will
have an emergency response application, such as not allowing access that leads to a high
threat area, and
 Commodification: - according to the authors this includes selling CCTV footage to TV
stations10, maybe as part of news footage etc. The morality, as well as, the legality of this,
will need to be carefully considered.

In essence, Ratcliffe, Müller and Boos agree that understanding the problem, or identifying the risk,
is critical in deciding what CCTV technology to deploy and how this should be deployed. Müller and
Boos, highlighted two additional components that, in my view, has the potential to have a significant
impact on the efficiency of a deployed CCTV system. The first is the collective value of CCTV camera
isi ilit that d i es i di idual eha iou . Due to the fa t that i di iduals a t diffe e tiate et ee
times that they are physically watched, and times when they are not watched, this has seen a type
of self-regulation and behaviour adaptation11. This, obviously, resulted in a positive and desirable
behavioural trait. The second is the fact that CCTV cameras are only as efficient as the perception
that they enforce12. There is, therefore, a public relations element that needs to support the
deployment of CCTV camera technology. By responding to problem areas with security personnel, or
by communicating successful prosecutions to the general population which are under CCTV
surveillance, the efficiency of CCTV cameras is improved.

Figure 1 represents my adaptation from the typology proposed by Müller and Boos13.
The primary aims of CCTV system deployment can, therefore, be summarised as to:
 Create a Safe Atmosphere (Perceptual),
 Remind People of Social and/or Legal Rules (Behavioural),
 Act as a Criminal Deterrent Control (Operational),
 Improve Flow Efficiency by directing movement (Functional),
 Provide a Command and Control Function during an emergency (Functional), and
 Serve as Evidence during prosecution (Operational).

10
Müller and Boos, page 172.
11
Müller and Boos, page 168.
12
Müller and Boos, page 167.
13
Müller and Boos, page 176.

6
 CCTV TYPOLOGY
Müller and Boos

1.
Access Control

Allowed Not Allowed

2. Security
Conduct Control Intervention

Appropriate Not Appropriate

2(b).
3.
Self-Discipline
Evidence Collection
A a e ess

Public Perception 4.
Feeli g “afe Command and Control

Figure 1: CCTV System Typology

It has been successfully argued, that there are a great number of benefits associated with the
deployment of CCTV Camera Systems, and that, if deployed strategically; the benefits can be
justified in terms of the financial and other resource investments. There are, however, a number of
issues that need to be considered when deploying a CCTV Camera System, as it has the potential to
imbed some vulnerability. In a recent study, Jung-oh Park and Sanggeun Kim, from Dongyang Mirae
University, highlighted some of the vulnerabilities of an IP based CCTV camera system14. The
researches highlighted the first vulnerability, by pointing out that by implementing an IP based CCTV
solution, individual CCTV Cameras can be managed and controlled, for as long as an internet (or if
limited to a local network, a network) connection is available15. The second vulnerability they
highlight is that of regulatory compliance, and this relates to liability imposed on the owner of the
CCTV Camera system. They argue, that governmental guidelines have not been keeping track with
the advancement in technology, which has resulted in the reckless introduction of standards16. They
furthermore identified the following vulnerabilities associated with IP based CCTV systems17:

14
Park, J., Kim, S. Study on Strengthening Plan of Safety Network CCTV Monitoring by Steganography and User
Authentication. Advances in Multimedia, Volume 2016, Article ID 960416, 9 pages. 4 December 2014.
15
Park and Kim, page 1.
16
Park and Kim, page 2.
17
Park and Kim, page 2-3.

7
  IP Address exposure may provide Hackers with a starting point from which to attack the
larger network,
 Sniffing and Spoofing18 of sections with security vulnerabilities,
 Data Exposure on unencrypted servers, and
 CCTV Control centre vulnerabilities due to monitoring technology vulnerabilities, such as
u se u ed PC s.

These vulnerabilities are no justification for abandoning CCTV Camera Systems as a means of
monitoring and managing risk, but place a demand to address these as part of the system design,
implementation, maintenance and operation. CCTV Camera System deployment has to follow a
highly structured and formal approach, as to ensure that the correct equipment is deployed at the
right localities to address an appropriate and related problem. This will be the only way that an
optimal value in terms of return on investment can be achieved.

TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW
In this overview both old and new CCTV technology is briefly discussed, as well as, the underlying
technical operation of the specific technology type. The aim is to provide a brief, but clear
understanding, of CCTV technology currently in operation, and specific to CCTV deployment within a
safety and security environment. The intention is not to provide a comprehensive historical timeline
of technology development, but rather to focus on present day security application, and to identify
possible future trends.

CCTV COMPONENTS
CCTV Technology comprises more than simply the camera component. The CCTV camera forms part
of a complete monitoring and recording system, and is simply one component, the other
components are; Transmission Media (such as cable, Wi-Fi etc.), Recording Technology (such as DVR,
NVR etc.), and Viewing Technology (such as monitors).

18
Sniffing and spoofing, refers to the practice of listening to a network conversation (sniffing). If a CCTV
a e a ould log i to the la ge et o k a d its e ptio is ot ade uate its use a e a d pass o d
rd
may be sniffed, or obtained by a 3 pa t ho is liste i g o the a tual li e et ee the CCTV Ca e a de i e
rd
and the server. This will provide the 3 party with a means to access the overall network, by pretending to be
the actual CCTV camera (spoofing).

8
Each component within the overall CCTV system, as represented in Figure 2, must be correctly
matched, for the CCTV system to provide a fully functional and adequate output. CCTV system
output is driven by owner expectation, which places a demand to carefully match owner expectation
to technology capability. This implies that CCTV technology must be deployed to resolve a specific
security problem. This also implies that CCTV technology deployment is not a static deployment but
an active deployment, which has to evolve with the owners need in relation to the changing security
landscape. As the problem changes, so must the technology deployed to address the problem, also
changes over time. To balance the technology deployment changes, with capital investment and
recovery, requires a strategic approach. This also means that technology costing, has to consider all
components across the entire life cycle of the technology, and must include a contingency budget
that is directly linked to the changing security landscape.

CCTV
CCTV
TRANSMISSION
CAMERA
MEDIA

CCTV SYSTEM
COMPONENTS

VIEWING RECORDING
TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGY

Figure 2: CCTV System Components

Figure 3 provides a simplistic overview of a CCTV technology life cycle that starts with the
identification of the risk to be mitigated. It provides for a close loop system, whereby the efficiency
of the deployed CCTV solution is continuously assessed to ensure that the technology provides an
adequate response to the threat and/or risk it is intended to mitigate. By viewing CCTV security

9
technology, not merely as security equipment, but rather, in terms of ISO3100019 terminology, as a
risk control, creates a cognitive shift that migrates CCTV equipment towards a more dynamic
application. By linking the risk and/or threat to the control intended to mitigate the risk and/or
threat, an environment is created that drives technology deployment efficiency, and at the same
time, optimises the return on investment.

RISK CONTROL CONTROL CONTROL

IDENTIFICATION PHASE IDENTIFICATION PHASE DEPLOYMENT PHASE OPERATION PHASE

Consider
Other Controls

NO

Is the CCTV Technology

Installation Maintenance
Technology an YES Requirement
Validation & Repair
Appropriate Control Specification

Track
Site Risk Assessment Technology Technology
Deployment
(Problem Statement) Selection Installation
Efficiency

Figure 3: CCTV Technology Deployment Life Cycle

In aid of providing a relatively comprehensive overview of the various components of a CCTV system,
each individual component will now be discussed.

CCTV CAMERA FAMILY OVERVIEW

The description of each of the main family types listed in Figure 4 follows, and is intended to provide
a high-level overview of each sub-type.

19
ISO 31000:2009, Risk Management is the principles, guidelines, framework and formal process for managing
risk as published by the International Organization for Standardization.

10
 CCTV
FAMILY

INDOOR OUTDOOR
USE USE

BULLET DOME COVERT C-MOUNT BULLET NIGHT VISION DAY/NIGHT C-MOUNT

CAMERA CAMERA CAMERA CAMERA CAMERA CAMERA CAMERA CAMERA

FIXED DOME SPEED DOMES FLIR IR IR ILLUMINATION

CAMERA (PTZ) CAMERA CAMERA

Figure 4: CCTV Camera Family Overview

BULLET CAMERA
Bullet cameras are multi-functional security cameras, suitable for both indoor and outdoor usage.
When deployed outdoors, the housing design is critical and must be selected for its ability to keep
dust, water and insects out of the housing. Generally, bullet cameras are low-cost and offer some
adaptability to a changing security environment. Figure 5 represents a typical bullet camera in look
and feel.

Figure 5: Bullet Camera

DOME CAMERA
Dome Cameras consist of a camera housed in a dome like shape, they are fashionable and easily
integrate into most environments. This aesthetic adaptability, makes them well suited for
deployment in both residential and commercial environments. Although dome cameras are mostly
deployed indoors, there are outdoor versions available. These are mostly of the PTZ camera types.
One of the key advantages of dome cameras, is the dome which obscures the actual camera, making
it difficult for people to ascertain the direction of camera view. Figure 6 represents a typical dome
camera available on the market.

11
 Figure 6: Dome Camera

The PTZ (Pan, Tilt, Zoom) cameras have the ability to be manually controlled, with the aim of the
operator to direct the camera view to a specific location. This provides flexibility by allowing the
operator in the control room to focus in on the threat. For both indoor and outdoor use, these
cameras are more costly, but provide great flexibility. Figure 7 is a representation of a typical PTZ
camera.

Figure 7: PTZ Camera

COVERT CAMERA
Covert cameras come in all shapes and sizes and are intended to be imbedded in other objects to aid
in their covert intention. We, therefore, find these cameras imbedded in clocks, PI‘ s, al ulato s
etc. For the most part covert cameras are extremely limited in application, and primarily serve a
purpose during investigations, due to its covert nature; it has very limited deterrent application.

12
C-MOUNT CAMERA
C-Mount cameras are bullet cameras with the added advantage of adding a specialised lens. This
provides the additional benefit, whereby the camera application can be changed over time by simply
changing the lens.

Figure 8: C-Mount Camera

Figure 8 is an image of a C-Mount Camera and Figure 9 the lens that can be attached to the bullet
camera. C-Mount lenses are screw-in lenses with a wide range of options.

Figure 9: C-Mount Camera Lens

NIGHT VISION CAMERA

Night vision camera technology ranges from active IR (infra-red) technology, where a series of IR
LED s p o ides illu i atio of a a ea that is ot isi le to the hu a e e. The I‘ illu i atio is
moderately successful in illumination but much detail is lost. It is no replacement for adequate
lighting in an area. By providing secondary lighting that may be triggered by a PIR, the image quality
may be far better than solely relying on IR. The intention of the camera will dictate what is
acceptable. IR may be adequate if the intention is to simply see what is going on, however, for
evidence purposes additional lighting will be required.

13
 Figure 10: LED Based IR Lighting

Alternatively, FLIR (Forward Looking Infra-Red) may be used in very specific security and emergency
situations. The advantage of FLIR, is that it provides a visual of an area based upon the various heat
signatures within that area. Where emergency response is trying to determine the location of
individuals in a smoke filled area, or where an intruder might be hiding behind an object to try and
obscure his/her presence, FLIR technology provides the best possible solution. Cost, however, is
somewhat prohibitive making the deployment somewhat limited.

20
Figure 11: FLIR Security Camera Image

DAY/NIGHT CAMERA
Although there are some cameras that are manufactured without IR illumination, most cameras
have this as sta da d. The efe e e to da / ight a e as efe s to a si gle a e a ith I‘ LED s
that a e used du i g oth da ti e a d due to the I‘ LED s also at ight.

There are also a number of hybrid cameras available, such as, 360 degree dome cameras, which
have multiple cameras housed in the same dome housing. It is static but provides a 360 degree view
of an area.

20
This image was obtained from the Infrared1 website, http://www.infrared1.com/ANIR.html

14
Please note that all camera images were taken from the Security Camera Warehouse website which
can be accessed at www.security-camera-warehouse.com.

CCTV CAMERA IMAGE RESOLUTION OVERVIEW

To date, we have had two CCTV technology types, the first is the older analog CCTV cameras and the
second, the newer and still evolving digital cameras. As analog cameras are being phased out, I will
provide only a very brief overview of the technology and for knowledge purposes only

Analog Technology
Analog technology camera resolution is measured in vertical and horizontal television lines (TVL).
Within this environment, there are two primary format standards, NTSC (National Television System
Committee) and PAL (Phase Alternating Line). A truly D1 classification within the NTSC standard
would be 720 x 480 pixels. This means that the digitised analog sig al has a ho izo tal idth of 20
pixels21 and that the image is composed of 480 vertical lines. This is an, over simplistic, description
of image composition22. However, within this overall resolution standard a number of sub-
resolutions exist, these are listed in Annexure A: Analog Standards

Digital Technology
What is more important for this study, is to have some understanding of digital resolution, as this is
where the industry has evolved, and where future development will be taking place. Digital
resolution is measured in pixels, and the number of vertical pixels multiplied by the number of
horizontal pixels provides the total image resolution size23. Therefore, an image which is 2048 pixels
wide (horizontal) and 1536 pixels in height (vertical) will have a resolution of 3,145,728 pixels, or in
simpler terms will be a 3.1 mega pixel image. The ratio between the vertical number of pixels and
horizontal number of pixels is the aspect ratio and is usually 4:3 or 9:16 (wide)24.

Resolution is not the only indicator of image quality; additional elements to consider are that of
compression. The compression ration varies from one video codec25 to the next; however, the
principle of operation has some similarities. In essence, compression will analyse a group of pixels,

21
Here the term pixel does not have the same meaning as in digital format, where a pixel is a square block. The
term pixel, here, is simply a reference indicating the horizontal width of the image.
22
Kuchuk, A. Differences Between DVR and NVR Resolutions. Security Camera King, online at:
http://www.securitycameraking.com/difference-in-dvr-resolutions.html
23
Rouse, M. 2015. Pixel. TechTarget, Online at: http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/pixel
24
Rouse, M. 2015.
25
Video Codec is the component that encodes and decodes (or compress and decompress) video images.

15
such as a block of 8 x 8 pixels and will then reduce the information of those 64 pixels to a lower
number of pixels such as 4 x 4 pixels. This means, that the information that was previously contained
within 64 pixels is now present in 16 pixels. The result is that we have reduced the number of pixels
to 25 per cent of its original, but with this some information may have been lost, which will reduce
the overall image quality26.

Another element associated with digital video technology, is that of frame rate. Human vision
perceives 150 to 240 images per second as realistic27. This has led to the development of extremely
high frame rates, such as 240 frames per second (FPS) for the iPhone 6s and action cameras such as
the GoPro. However, frame rates as low as 50 to 60 frames per second are used in television
broadcasting with no noticeable adverse effect in image quality. Here it is critical to match the frame
rate to the specific threat and area. In areas where there is low movement, such as a warehouse, a
frame rate of 10 to 15 FPS would be sufficient, however, deploying CCTV cameras in a busy mall or
office reception area would require a much smoother video and as such would require a higher
frame rate, most likely around 25 FPS28. What needs to be considered is the amount of data that is
captured given the frame rate.

At present, CCTV IP cameras have a resolution as high as 4K and a frame rate of 60 FPS; this is
commonly referred to as Ultra-High Definition. The term 4K, refers to the number of horizontal
pixels, with an aspect ratio of 16:9, this translates into an 8 megapixel camera (typically 3840 x
2160)29. Future development is already pointing towards 8K technology that will have a horizontal
pixel count of 7680 and a vertical count of 4230 pixels, resulting in a 33 megapixel image. Depending
on the compression ratio actual file size will greatly vary.

CCTV CAMERA TECHNOLOGY EVOLUTION OVERVIEW

The evolution from analog to digital has been driven by the need for better resolution, and greater
accessibility of the raw data (footage). CCTV camera systems came into being in the 1970, at the

26
Rane, S., Baccichet, P., Girod, B. Systematic Lossy Error Protection based on H.264/AVC Redundant Slices and
Flexible Macroblock Ordering", Document No. JVT-S025, 19th JVT meeting, Geneva, March 2006.
27
Read, P., Meyer, M. Gamma Group (2000). Restoration of motion picture film. Conservation and Museology.
Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 24–26.
28
Anton, J. Learn CCTV Installation in Days. Cube Training, online at: http://cctvdvrsystem.co.uk/frames-per-
second-crappy-smooth-footages/
29
Michael, A. The Ultimate Guide to 4K and 8K Ultra HD. May 21, 2015 online at:
http://www.ultrahdtv.net/articles/the-ultimate-guide-to-4k-and-8k-ultra-hd/

16
time video footage was recorded onto magnetic tape by using a VCR 30. Ho e e VC‘ s had its
shortcomings, among these its low storage capacity, and the effort required to retrieve the relevant
data. The VCR was eventually replaced by the DVR (Digital Video Recorder) in 1998, with
development having been begun in 199631. This meant that image data was now stored on a hard
drive, but even this had its limitations. Every location needed their own DVR and a lack of direct
connectivity to a central storage point, or control room limited CCTV application. By 2004, Axis
released the first network camera which could be powered by the network equipment; this is
referred to POE (Power-over-Ethernet), and made expansion simpler and more efficient by simply
adding Network Cameras, also known as IP cameras, to the existing computer network32.

With the ever increasing connectivity through the internet, IP cameras have now direct access to the
internet and can, therefore, be accessed remotely, and transfer all the data recorded to either an
off-site, remote or cloud based storage environment. This is where the future development of CCTV
technology will remain for the foreseeable future. As internet and cloud based technology develops
so will the CCTV connectivity technology adapt, to remain connected. We have already witnessed
the integration of CCTV technology with mobile communication devices, which means that the
technology has already evolved to adapt to the most current trend, that of interconnecting various
devices, also known as the IoT, or Internet of Things.

From this point forward a more detailed explanation of the various components of an IP CCTV
Camera system will be provided.

CCTV CAMERA
Figure 12 provides an overview of the various sub-components contained within a highly generic
CCTV camera33. Certain components, such as the Lens and Optical filter, might be upgradable in
certain cameras, by replacing the physical components with improved components. It might also be
possible to enhance a camera by upgrading its imbedded software, which might add additional
functionality and/or features to a camera. Not all cameras have the capability to be hardware or
software upgradable. From an application evolution point of view, on open type, technology that is
upgradable has greater value then non-upgradable technology. This, however, will be dictated to by
owner expectation, requirement and ultimately budget.

30
Matthews, V. O., Olowononi, F. O., and Ike, D. On the Implementation of IP Video Surveillance Systems.
Journal of Information and Communication Technologies, Volume 3, Issue 5, May 2013, page 11.
31
Ibid, page 12.
32
Ibid, page 12.
33
Ibid, page 12.

17
 Optical Image Image Central Processing Unit
LENS

Image
Interface
Filter Sensor Processor Compresson (CPU)

Optional

Low Light Flash

DRAM
Illumination Memory

Power
Supply

Hardware Hardware & Software

Figure 12: Typical CCTV Camera Composition

POWER SUPPLY (PSU)

At its most fundamental, the CCTV camera operation requires a stable and adequately matched
power supply (PSU). Careful consideration should be given to its overall power output, which means
that both voltage and current should be considered. The potential loss of power over distance due
to cable length, must be provided for, and isolation of the powers supply should be considered to
ensure that the power supply does t i je t i te fe e e o oise i to the o e all s ste . The means
of selecting the correct PSU that will provide for an adequate and stable source of power to the
CCTV camera is provided in Annexure B: Power Supply

It is i po ta t to ote, that fo the ost pa t, P“U s a e ot situated inside the actual CCTV camera
but are externally housed, with power delivered to the camera via a power cord. A single PSU, may
also be utilised to power a number of CCTV cameras. The relationship between camera volumes
powered by a single PSU, is discussed in Annexure A. Although individual cameras may not have
thei o P“U s, the ofte ha e a oltage egulati g i uit th ough hi h po e distribution is
stabilised.

The future development trend, pe tai i g to P“U s, primarily focuses on improving power output
efficiency, as well as power output density. The output efficiency has an environmental and financial
implication. The higher the output efficiency, the less heat is generated, which has a cost saving in
terms of cooling. Higher efficiency also means that less of the electric power purchased from the
grid is lost, as a higher percentage is transferred from supply agent to consumption agent. On the

18
other hand, output density speaks to physical real-estate, and the cost associated with housing
po e i ks . I a stud o du ted Mila M. Jo a o ić34 back in 2006, he tracked historical
trends, and proposed the following power density and efficiency for the future. In his trend analysis,
he pointed out that PSU efficiency was around 75% ±10% in the year 2000, by 2006 efficiency had
increased to 82% ±10% and it was predicted to reach 88% ±8% by 2010. By 2013 we had already
developed P“U s ith a effi ie of 92% ±4%35. This would imply, that on average, we have an
efficiency increase of 1.31% per year, with a narrowing range of tolerance and must, therefore, take
care when selecting PSU technology, as older, and moderately outdated technology could have a
substantial economic implication. If we consider a PSU that was manufactured in 2013, with an
efficiency of 92%, versus a PSU manufactured in 2016, with a possible efficiency of 96%, it is clear
that there is a substantial energy saving that can be translated into a real cost saving.

A si ila t e d is p osed Jo a o ić36, in terms of power density, which is measured in watts per
cubic inch (W/in3). Back in 2000, the power density was around 5 W/in3, by 2006 this had increased
to 14 W/in3, and by 2010 it had reached 25W/in3. At present we are nearing the 45 W/in3 mark. For
the most part, this has been made possible through power management integrated i uits IC s
with the capability to handle an ever increasing output current. Present technology provides an
output current of 130A ±5A, compared to 30A ±18A back in the year 2000.

The increased rate of development is driven by legislation across the globe, economic
considerations, and acquisition directives such as the Ecodesign Directive 2009/125/EC37, and others.

Besides the demand for efficiency, there is also a demand for conformance towards specific quality
and safety protocols and standards. Amongst these, there are standards that relate, not only to the
overall quality and safety of the equipment, but specifically in relation to the application and
placement of the PSU. A comprehensive list of these protocols and standards are attached as
Annexure C: PSU Protocols and Standards.

34
Jo a o ić, M. M., Power Supply Technology – Past, Present, and Future. Power Electronics Laboratory
Delta Products Corporation, 2006, page 1 to 13.
35
Skinner, A., Power Electronic Special: Future visions of the power supply market, 8 October 2013.
http://www.newelectronics.co.uk/electronics-technology/future-visions-of-the-power-supply-market/56798/
36
Jo a o ić, M. M, page 2.
37 st
The Ecodesign Directive 2009/125/EC is a directive issued by the European Parliament on the 21 of October
2009 and established a framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements for energy-related products.

19
OPTICS
The optic components of a CCTV camera, comprises the lens and optical filter. For the most part,
CCTV cameras will be provided with a fixed lens, which is matched to the camera, and is designed for
a specific purpose. There are, however, cameras that are upgradable in terms of lens configurations.
These cameras are referred to as C-Mount cameras. The array of lenses that are available allows
optimal use of a camera, by adapting its use to the changing risk landscape, by simply upgrading the
lens to one that is best suited to the specific situation. The primary requirement for any lens is that it
has to create a clear, and accurate, image of the area under observation38. The C-Mount, or in some
cases CS-Mount, refers to the threat used to attach the lens to the camera body. It is best to match
the lens type accurately to the body, as interchanging C and CS-types may create a host of problems,
and the most obvious of these, the inability of the camera to accurately focus39.

The lens is nothing more than a formed and polished opaque component, made of either glass (high
quality and durability), or plastic. Its aim is to focus the light from outside the camera, as to allow it
to reach the image sensor. The lens is focused using the focus ring, which must be turned until the
image is clear40. This implies, that a correct setup and regular maintenance are critical factors in the
efficient management of CCTV Camera equipment. However, together with focus, the amount of
light that is allowed to pass through the lens is important. In a low light environment, the aim is to
allow as much light into the lens and onto the image sensor as possible the opposite is true in very
ight e i o e ts. Fo the ost pa t, a d fo le ses ith a fi ed i is the lens has to be carefully
selected for its operating environment, taking into consideration, how lighting conditions change
over time. The solution to a highly variable environment in terms of its lighting conditions would be
to deplo a a ia le i is le s41. This would allow the lens to automatically adjust the amount of light
that passes through to the image sensor, thereby ensuring that the lens performs at an optimal level
at all ti es. Va ia le i is le ses a e o e e pe si e, ut have a much wider range of application.

When a telephoto lens is deployed to zoom into a specific area, the obvious aim is to collect light,
with which to compose an image from that very specific area. In this case, the i is has little effe t.
The lighting conditions at the distant object might not the same as at the camera, which will result in
a camera adjustment that will render the value of the zoom function greatly impaired, if it was to

38
Lambert, S. 2014. CCTV Camera Lenses Explained. IFSEC, 29 January 2014. Online at:
http://www.ifsecglobal.com/cctv-camera-lenses-explained/
39
Ibid.
40
Ibid.
41
Ibid.

20
 el o the i is o l . The solution, is to deploy a lens with a single, or fixed range, f-stop42. The f-
stop on wide-angle lenses, commonly range from F0.8 to F1.8, while zoom lenses often range from
F3.5 upwards. This means much less light gets into the camera43. The result is that the image sensor
will not be flooded with light, which will impair the intended image quality of the distance object,
but will rather allow highly focused light, from the object, to fall onto the image sensor44.

Figure 13 provides a graphical representation of how the field of view of a lens changes given
application. As can be seen, a telephoto lens will have a very narrow field of view, whereas, a lens
with a much shorter reach will have a much wider field of view45.

Polaris USA, provides a highly visual demonstration platform, whereby the effect of the various
lenses within various application areas can be simulated. This is an excellent resource through which
to gain an understanding of how the field of view changes given specific applications. The resource
can be found at: http://polarisusa.com/lens-calculator

Figure 13: Field of View (FoV) Changes

42
F-Stop: A lens with an f-stop of F1.0 can pass four times as much light than an F2.0 lens.
43
Be aware that cheaper general purpose zoom lenses might make use of a technique called ramping to
achieve a wide f-stop range, ranging from f-3.5 to f-8. This might greatly impact negatively on image quality
and needs careful consideration during product selection.
44
Lambert, S. 2014. CCTV Camera Lenses Explained.
45
The image was taken from the Surpedia website. http://www.surpedia.com/qa_detail.asp?cat=8

21
 Figure 14: Field of View Example

Figure 14 provides an example of the simulator output that can be obtained using the Polaris USA
website. On the left, a 3.4mm lens is used, and provides a very general view of the area, on the right;
a 100mm lens is used. The image corresponds to the paper highlighted with the red arrow. It is clear
that zoo i g i to a dista e o je t, u h of the su ou di g i fo atio is lost, hi h ea s
that the field of view is highly narrowed. Matching lens requirement to mitigate a specific risk, to
address a specific problem, is critical to ensure a successful CCTV Camera deployment.

Figure 15: Elements to Consider when Selecting a Lens

22
Figure 15 provides a consolidated view of the elements to consider, when selecting a lens. Amongst
these, the key elements are (a) Focal Length, (b) Working Distance, (c) Horizontal and Vertical Angle
of View and (d) Horizontal and Vertical Object Dimensions.

An addition to improving image quality is the deployment of optical filters; they are intended to
produce accurate colour images, by either absorbing or reflecting infra-red light without, altering
normal visible light. Absorptive filters absorb only near infrared, while reflective filters reject
infrared light from passing through the filter. Generally, absorptive filters are used for CCD46 cameras
and reflective filters for CMOS cameras. Filter use within a CCTV security environment places an
additional requirement, in that infra-red is to be filtered out, or rejected, during day time, but must
be allowed to pass through at night, when infra-red lighting is used to illuminate surveillance areas.

IMAGING COMPONENTS
For the most part, further lens technology evolution is limited, with innovation having matured over
time. The only CCTV Camera area where innovation can still be expected, and where it is developing
at present, is around its imaging components. Amongst the imaging components that will be
discussed here, are the following:
 Image Sensor,
 Image Processor,
 Image Compression,
 Image Central Processing Unit, and
 Memory Components.

Image Sensor
Image sensors consist of a light sensitive material that, when exposed to light, produces a current
which is then used to formulate a ele t o i , o digital, i age of hat is see . Different
components are used, but within the CCTV Camera environment the most prominent light sensitive
components used as image detectors, are CCD and CMOS sensors. Unfortunately, there is no one
technology that is suited for all applications, and again, as with lens technology, the user
requirement and the risk environment will dictate the most appropriate technology to deploy. Table

46
CCD – Charge Coupled Device, these sensors allows changes that happen on its surface to pass through to
the analog to digital converter. CCD technology is more expensive and there is less control over individual
pixels.

23
147 provides a very brief and simplistic overview of the strengths and weaknesses of each
technology, however, this is a high-level and generalised summary and it must be noted that
exceptions to this general overview do exist. It is, therefore, very important to rather make
technology selections based upon proof of concept results, than simply reviewing specification
sheets. Matching need to technology should remain the primary focus in deciding what technology
to deploy.

Elements Considered CCD CMOS

Image Processing Speed (Image Detection Speed) No Yes
Image Noise (Image Quality) No Yes
Near Infrared Sensitivity (Low Light Sensitivity - Surveillance) Yes No
Ultra Violet Sensitivity (Low Light Sensitivity - Investigation) No Yes
Time Delay and Integration Imaging (Image Composition Time) Yes No
Electron Multiplication (Sensitivity) Yes No
Component Cost No Yes
Table 1: CCD vs CMOS Imaging Components

It must be noted, that CMOS technology is being developed at a much higher pace than CCD
technology. This is simply due to the adoption of CMOS technology for the mobile communication
industry. It is, therefore, reasonable to speculate that CMOS technology will be the primary area
within which innovation is to be expected in the near to medium term.

Image Processing
Once the variation in light that falls upon the image sensor is converted into a current, the subtle
voltage differences must be converted into a digital reproduction image. There are four components
that come into play in converting these electric variations into a reproducible image file. These are
the image processor, the central processing unit, the image compression engine and the memory
available. These four units will, therefore, be discussed as a single unit. For the most part the image
processor and image compression is handled by the GPU (Graphic Processing Unit) which serves as
the CPU (Central Processing Unit) of the camera. Memory is managed by the GPU, to write data to
during processing. This combination of components is often called a SoC (System on a Chip) and in
graphic technology terminology is referred to as a DSP (Digital Signal Processing) chip. The focus,

47
Knowledge Centre. CCD vs. CMOS. Teledyne DALSA is a Teledyne Technologies company. Online at:
https://www.teledynedalsa.com/imaging/knowledge-center/appnotes/ccd-vs-cmos/

24
therefore, will be to provide an overview of the DSP with limited referencing to the other
components. From an innovation and future development perspective the growth and development
is expected to be limited to (a) further DSP (SoC) development and (b) enhancements in image
compression algorithms that are imbedded in the SoC. It is also within this SoC environment where
artificial intelligence embedment is expected to further develop.

DSP

Figure 16: DSP Chip on a CCTV Camera

The digital signal processor (DSP), is a microprocessor optimized for the operational needs of digital
signal processing48. The DSP continuously measures the incoming data and filters out visual noise
thereby improving the signal to noise ratio49. This is achieved through the use of complex algorithms.
The final stage in the DSP operation is to compress the signal data into a manageable and easily
transferable packet of data.

As the DSP chip uses algorithms in processing the digital image, much of its operation is software
based. It is, therefore, possible to deploy CCTV cameras that are upgradable by running software
upgrades. The main areas of benefit where such upgrades would apply are in noise filtering,
compression and image sensitivity.

INTERFACE
The final component within the CCTV Camera is the interface. It is through this interface that the
camera is able to share the detected, compiled and processed signal. The detail of which is discussed
under the heading CCTV Transmission Media.

48
Dyer, S., Harms, B. 1993. Digital Signal Processing. Advances in Computers. Academic Press. Page 104–107.
49
Liptak, B., 2006. Process Control and Optimization. Instrument Engineers' Handbook, 4th edition. CRC Press,
page 11–12.

25
CCTV Transmission Media
There are a number of technologies available through which a CCTV Camera can share the digital
image. IP cameras can share the data directly over the network infrastructure, whether this is cable,
fibre optic or Wi-Fi, and even across a combination of infrastructure. Additional to using the network
infrastructure, is the use of the GSM mobile network50. Each of these has its own benefits, risks, and
cost implications that need to be considered. In essence, once the CCTV camera is connected to the
larger Local Area Network (LAN) it becomes just another peripheral network device which must
conform, in terms of, configuration, security, operation and privacy protocol, to the larger LAN policy
and standard. This means that when selecting an IP camera, there should be a close working
elatio ship et ee a o ga isatio s IT depa t e t, and the eventual owner of the IP camera
network.

Key elements to consider, includes:

 Imbedded Camera Security Protocols and Technology,
 Bandwidth Consumption,
 Overall Cost of Secondary Infrastructure, and
 Capacity Management.

IP CCTV Camera Security Protocol

There are two primary IP security protocol standards in operation for CCTV Cameras. The first, is the
standard developed by Sony, Bosch, and Axis back in 2008 and named ONVIF. ONVIF has
standardized the digital interface of IP surveillance products, standardised compression,
transmission, IP device discovery, Pan/Tilt/Zoom (PTZ) control, alarm trigger configuration, and all
other CCTV camera interface options. The current ONVIF version is 2.5 and includes standardisation
of (a) communications and (b) operations51.

The second protocol standard, was developed by the Physical Security Interoperability Alliance
(PSIA) with the aim of creating a plug-and-play environment, irrespective of manufacturer. PSIA is

50
GSM Technology is not a priority communication channel and deploying GSM as part of a security
environment must be carefully considered. In a recent study Patrick Traynor, Characterizing the Security
Implications of Third-Party Emergency Alert Systems Over Cellular Text Messaging Services, Georgia Institute
of Technology, [email protected]
51
Uniform Technology News. 2015. IP Camera Standard/Protocol – ONVIF, 19 July 2015. Online at:
http://www.hkvstar.com/technology-news/ip-camera-standard-protocol-onvif.html

26
currently supported by Cisco, GE, Hikvision, IBM, NICE, Pelco, Milestone, Genetec and others. It
deals with much the same issues, of security, connectivity, and compression52.

There are manufacturers that claim to be compliant with one of these, and sometimes, both of these
standards. This claim, however, should be confirmed prior to purchasing any equipment, as a simple
of compliance or conformance statement does not imply that the product is compliant with all the
various standards.

ONVIF, for instance, consists of four different sub standards, these are53:

 Profile Q (ONVIF Q): which addresses device discovery and configuration, as well as the
management of TLS certificates and keys,
 Profile G (ONVIF G): addresses configuration of recording and searching, playing back the
video on the IP-based security device. It supports operations on video, audio and metadata,
 Profile C (ONVIF C): supports integration with physical access control system, addressing
interoperability between these systems and network video systems. Profile C conformant
devices, within the access control system, provide door and access point information and
functionality related to basic door control activities, such as locking and unlocking doors,
when a door has been accessed, and other door monitoring tasks, and
 Profile S (ONVIF S): focuses on common functionalities of IP video systems, i.e. specification
of audio and video streaming between the device (e.g. camera) and client (software app,
NVR). The client can configure the audio, video, and data streams, select PTZ protocols,
make use of metadata, alarm inputs and relay outputs.

It is clear, that once the security operational requirement for a CCTV Camera deployment has been
drafted, that a clear IT/network security requirement should be provided by the IT Infrastructure
owner. The combination must be used in selecting the correct and compliant equipment from the
start.

IP CCTV Camera Bandwidth

The amount of bandwidth used by an IP CCTV camera is dependent upon the compression protocol
deployed, the frame rate and the camera resolution. Super Circuits provide an online bandwidth

52
Ibid.
53
Uniform Technology News. 2015.

27
calculator that can be used for planning purposes. It can be found at the following URL.
https://www.supercircuits.com/resources/tools/network-ip-security-camera-system-bandwidth-
calculator

Camera Resolution Image Quality Frame Rate H.264 MPEG-4 MJPEG

1 Megapixel High 30 fps 6.4Mbps 9.9Mbps 89.1Mbps
2 Megapixel High 30 fps 9.4Mbps 14.6Mbps 131.6Mbps
3 Megapixel High 30 fps 15.4Mbps 23.9Mbps 215.7Mbps
5 Megapixel High 30 fps 24.1Mbps 37.4Mbps 336.8Mbps
10 Megapixel High 30 fps 49.1Mbps 76.5Mbps 688.3Mbps
Figure 17: Bandwidth Usage per Camera

Using Figure 17, the bandwidth requirement for a 3 megapixel camera operating at 30 frames per
second with a H.264 compression and a high image quality, comes to 15.4Mbps. This means, that if a
CCTV system is in operation which conforms to this camera specification setup, that each camera
will consume 15.4Mbps, therefore, a 10 camera setup will consume 154Mbps and a 100 cameras will
consume 1540Mbps (1.54Gbps).

It is essential, that a bandwidth capacity calculation be made before implementation, to ensure that
the existing infrastructure is capable of supporting the additional security equipment load that will
be superimposed upon the standard network infrastructure.

IP CCTV Camera Secondary Infrastructure

It might not be possible to simply inject the IP CCTV equipment directly into the existing network
infrastructure. As part of the planning, an architecture design will produce an equipment list that will
be required for the CCTV System to be integrated with the existing computer network.

Figure 18 shows some of the core elements that will be required to get the CCTV system operational
and interfaced, with the existing computer network. It is essential, that when an IP CCTV system is
considered, there should be established a close working relationship between the CCTV owner and
Network Architecture.

28
 Figure 18: CCTV Network Infrastructure

IP CCTV System Capacity Management

Besides bandwidth capacity that needs to be carefully planned so should data storage. Data server
capacity must be able to handle the volume of data that will be written to the storage medium, as
well as the storage requirement growth over time.

Super Circuits provides an online storage calculator that can be used for planning purposes. It can be
found at the following URL, https://www.supercircuits.com/resources/tools/security-nvr-storage-
calculator

Using the online calculator with a 3 megapixel camera, operating at 30 frames per second, with a
H.264 compression and a high image quality, operating over a 24 hour period, the total storage
requirement comes to 262.16 GB per camera per day. However, in most cases, a frame rate of 5 fps
would be sufficient and would reduce both bandwidth requirement and storage. Storage will be
reduced to 43.69 GB per 24-hour period.

CCTV Recording Technology

There are a number of recording options available, each best suited to a specific environment. The
following is a brief explanation of each:

 DVR – The digital video recorder (DVR) is an electronic device that records video in a digital
format to a variety of media, such as disk drives, USB flash drives, SD memory cards, SSD or
other local or networked mass storage devices54. Many DVRs are classified as consumer
electronic devices; such devices are sometimes referred to as personal video recorders

54
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/digital-video-recorder-DVR.html

29
 (PVRs). This device is suitable for recording all IP camera types. Cameras are directly
connected to the DVR.
 PVR – See DVR above.
 NVR – The network video recorder (NVR) is a software program that records video in a
digital format to a variety of media, such as disk drives, USB flash drives, SD memory cards,
SSD or other local or networked mass storage devices. The NVR contains no dedicated video
capture hardware. However, the software is typically run on a dedicated device, usually with
an embedded operating system. Network video recorders are distinct from digital video
recorders (DVR) as their input is from a network, rather than a direct connection to the
camera or video capture card55.
 NAS - Network-attached storage (NAS) devices are a type of dedicated file storage devices
that provide storage capability to local-area networks56. With IP cameras attached to the
existing computer network, the NAS drive storage option presents a dedicated and cost
effective solution.

Besides recording technology, there are also considerations to be given to recording technology
locations, the options are, storing the data on-site, where the cameras are, or off-site, where the
cameras are connected to a remote monitoring centre, or even in the cloud. Each of these storage
locations will have their own restrictions and limitations, and careful consideration should be given
to ensure alignment between the CCTV IP operation and the IT policies, procedures and standards
that governs it.

Other legal considerations need to be given attention, such as; who owns the footage, ownership
liability, retention periods and regulatory compliance. To ensure that a comprehensive liability is
identified it is advised that the CCTV owner engages with both the legal and information risk
departments.

CCTV Viewing Technology

The final technology element to review is the viewing technology. Typically CCTV Camera data will
be viewed on an LCD Screen. Screen technology continues to evolve, with higher pixel rates, higher
refresh rates and the ability to match camera and screen resolution. The key to viewing high quality

55
Ridgeon, P., 2009. DVR vs NV: CCTV, Surveillance & Remote Monitoring. March 2009. Vigilant Technology.
56
Kranz, G., 2016. Network Attached Storage (NAS). TechTarget, online at:
http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/network-attached-storage

30
images on a LCD screen is not as much directed by the screen resolution, but rather by the pixel
density of the screen57.

CONCLUSION
There are a number of highly innovative trends taking place within the CCTV Camera System
environment. Critical to this are the advances being made in terms of power supply technology
which provides the ability for larger systems to be deployed, while at the same time, maintaining
image quality and transmission integrity.

It is clear, that analog technology is redundant, and that no innovation is directed towards its further
development. IP Camera technology forms the current backbone of the CCTV system topology, and
to remain current, and capitalise on present innovation taking place, IP adoption is critical. Adoption,
however is not a simple acquisition process, but has to follow a well-defined problem statement,
against which the appropriate technology is matched. This is the only way to ensure that the risk is
adequately mitigated.

There is also a requirement to review existing deployment on a continuous bases, to ensure that the
current risk is identified, and that the appropriate mitigating control is deployed. This may mean that
the CCTV system is continuously changing by evolving alongside emerging risks.

57
Raghavendar, T., 2013. Resolution vs Pixel Density in Displays. Online at: http://teknosrc.com/resolution-vs-
pixel-density-in-displays-all-you-need-to-know/

31
Annexure A: Analog Standards

Analog Video Resolutions in Pixels

(from least to greatest)

Format NTSC PAL

QCIF
QCIF (Quarter Common Intermediate Format) - 1/4 of CIF video 176x120 176x144
resolution
CIF
CIF (Common Intermediate Format) - CIF is also known as Full 352x240 352x288
CIF (FCIF) to distinguish it from Quarter CIF (QCIF)
HD1
Half of a D1 resolution is 704 ÷ 2= 352 still retains the vertical 352x480 352x576
line format
DCIF
DCIF (Double Common Intermediate Format). Specifically, DCIF
528x320 528x384
is the same number of pixels (168,960) as 2CIF, but DCIF is
stretched horizontally.
2CIF
704x240 704x288
2CIF (2 Common Intermediate Format)
D1/4CIF
D1 can also represent the following video resolutions:
720x480 (TV/DVD-Video NTSC) 704x480 704x576
720x576 (TV/DVD-Video PAL)
4CIF (4 Common Intermediate Format);
960H
A unique, uncommon format only obtainable from a capable
960x480 720x576
DVR and compatible camera. Our Federal DVR series and most
of our cameras can capture and produce this rare analog image.

32
Annexure B: Power Supply

Voltage Loss
����
���� =
���

Power Loss
��� = ���� × ����

Wire Resistance
��� = ���� × �� �� ��

Annexure C: PSU Protocols and Standards

33
34
References

Anton, J. 2015. Learn CCTV Installation in Days. Cube Training, online at:
http://cctvdvrsystem.co.uk/frames-per-second-crappy-smooth-footages/
Dyer, S., Harms, B. 1993. Digital Signal Processing. Advances in Computers. Academic Press. Page
104–107.
Jo a o ić, M. M. 200 . Po e “uppl Te h olog – Past, Present, and Future. Power Electronics
Laboratory, Delta Products Corporation.
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.474.7414&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Knowledge Centre. 2015. CCD vs. CMOS. Teledyne DALSA is a Teledyne Technologies company.
Online at: https://www.teledynedalsa.com/imaging/knowledge-center/appnotes/ccd-vs-
cmos/
Kranz, G., 2016. Network Attached Storage (NAS). TechTarget, online at:
http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/network-attached-storage
Kuchuk, A. 2016. Differences Between DVR and NVR Resolutions. Security Camera King, online at:
http://www.securitycameraking.com/difference-in-dvr-resolutions.html
Lambert, S. 2014. CCTV Camera Lenses Explained. IFSEC, 29 January 2014. Online at:
http://www.ifsecglobal.com/cctv-camera-lenses-explained/
Liptak, B., 2006. Process Control and Optimization. Instrument Engineers' Handbook, 4th edition.
CRC Press, page 11–12.
Matthews, V. O., Olowononi, F. O., and Ike, D. On the Implementation of IP Video Surveillance
Systems. Journal of Information and Communication Technologies, Volume 3, Issue 5, May
2013, page 12.
Michael, A. The Ultimate Guide to 4K and 8K Ultra HD. May 21, 2015 online at:
http://www.ultrahdtv.net/articles/the-ultimate-guide-to-4k-and-8k-ultra-hd/
Müller, C., Boos, D. Zurich Main Railway Station: A Typology of Public CCTV Systems. Surveillance &
Society, Volume 2, Issue 2, page 161-176, 2004.
Park, J., Kim, S. 2014. Study on Strengthening Plan of Safety Network CCTV Monitoring by
Steganography and User Authentication. Advances in Multimedia, Volume 2016, Article ID
960416, 9 pages. 4 December 2014.
Raghavendar, T., 2013. Resolution vs Pixel Density in Displays. Online at:
http://teknosrc.com/resolution-vs-pixel-density-in-displays-all-you-need-to-know/

35
Rane, S., Baccichet, P., Girod, B. Systematic Lossy Error Protection based on H.264/AVC Redundant
Slices and Flexible Macroblock Ordering", Document No. JVT-S025, 19th JVT meeting, Geneva,
March 2006.
Ratcliffe, J. 2008. CCTV Camera Evaluation: The crime reduction effects of public CCTV cameras in
the City of Philadelphia, PA installed during 2006. Temple University, 7 February 2008.
Read, P., Meyer, M. Gamma Group (2000). Restoration of motion picture film. Conservation and
Museology. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 24–26.
Ridgeon, P., 2009. DVR vs NV: CCTV, Surveillance & Remote Monitoring. March 2009. Vigilant
Technology.
Rouse, M. 2015. Pixel. TechTarget, Online at: http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/pixel
Skinner, A., Power Electronic Special: Future visions of the power supply market, 8 October 2013.
http://www.newelectronics.co.uk/electronics-technology/future-visions-of-the-power-supply-
market/56798/
Traynor, Patrick. 2015. Characterizing the Security Implications of Third-Party Emergency Alert
Systems Over Cellular Text Messaging Services, Georgia Institute of Technology,
[email protected]
Uniform Technology News. 2015. IP Camera Standard/Protocol – ONVIF, 19 July 2015. Online at:
http://www.hkvstar.com/technology-news/ip-camera-standard-protocol-onvif.html

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
https://www.supercircuits.com
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/digital-video-recorder-DVR.html

36
IMAGES
The specific URL is provided as an indication of the source from where the particular image was
extracted. Figures not specifically listed here were drafted by the author.

Figure 5: http://www.security-camera-warehouse.com
Figure 6: http://www.security-camera-warehouse.com
Figure 7: http://www.security-camera-warehouse.com
Figure 8: http://www.security-camera-warehouse.com
Figure 9: http://www.security-camera-warehouse.com
Figure 10: http://www.security-camera-warehouse.com
Figure 11: http://www.infrared1.com/ANIR.html
Figure 13: http://www.surpedia.com/qa_detail.asp?cat=8
Figure 14: http://polarisusa.com/lens-calculator
Figure 15: http://www.baslerweb.com/en/support/tools/lens-selector
Figure 16: https://es.aliexpress.com/item/CVI-1312-x-740-1-0MP-720P-1-3-CMOS-PO3100K-board-
DH9801-DSP-CCTV-camera/32310179908.html
Figure 18: http://www.axis.com/za/en/learning/web-articles/technical-guide-to-network-
video/bandwidth-considerations

37