EVOLUTION OF DPWH

As Spain expanded the scale of its public

1867 Chief of Public Works
assisted by “Junta
works projects, it resorted to a policy of attraction
through public works projects. In order to pursue
Consultiva” through this objective, the King of Spain by decree
a Royal Degree designated the Spanish Governor-General as
the Chief of Public Works.

Bureau of Public Works and Highways (Obras

Publicas) and Bureau of Communications and
1868 Transportation (Communicationes y Meteologia)
were organized under a civil engineer known as
“Director General”.
Department of War and Public Works

In 1896, after four (4) centuries of Spanish

colonization, our Filipino forebears started the
revolutionary movement and the struggle to gain
The Organic Decree freedom began. On June 12, 1898, Gen. Emilio
issued by Gen. Aguinaldo declared the Philippine Independence in
Emilio Aguinaldo Kawit, Cavite. The Organic Decree of the Philippine
establishing the Revolutionary Government on June 23, 1898 issued
1898 Philippine by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo provided for the creation of
four (4) Departments in the government, one of which
Revolutionary was the DEPARTMENT OF WAR AND PUBLIC
Government created WORKS.
four (4) government Though once included in the Department of War,
departments among now Department of National Defense, its functions as
which was the builder and maintenance of roads, bridges and other
public works structures are inherent in the present
Department. The inclusion of public works in the War
and Department can be explained by the exigencies of
the revolutionary period. The construction of
fortifications and trenches was needed in the cause for
freedom which our heroes had fought for.
The Department of Commerce and Police
When Spain ceded the Philippines to the United
States in 1898, the public works and activities were
placed under the U.S. Army engineers. By virtue of
Bureau of Act No. 83 passed by the Philippine Commission on
Engineering and February 6, 1901, public works and projects were
1902 Construction of placed under the “Provincial Supervisions”. In 1902,
Public Works and the Philippine Commission passed Act Nos. 222 and
Bureau of 268 creating the Department of Commerce and Police
Architecture and which gave birth to the Bureau of Engineering and
Construction of Construction of public works and the Bureau of
Public Buildings - Architecture and Construction of public buildings.
were created by Act. Act No. 1401 of the Philippine Commission
passed on October 4, 1905, abolished engineering
No’s 222 and 268 of
districts and positions of district engineers. On
the Philippine October 26 of the same year, however, by virtue of a
Commission and Reorganization Act, the Bureau of Public Works was
placed under the created and placed under the Department of
Commerce and Police. Along with the economic

1
 growth of the country was the need for a more
extensive road network that would penetrate the rural
areas. In order to achieve that end, provincial boards
were created in 1907 with authority to collect double
cedula taxes to finance the construction of provincial
roads and bridges. In addition, the national
government appropriated P1, 700,000 as aid to such
constructions.
Bureau of Public
October Works was created
26, and placed under
1905 Department of
Commerce and
Police
The Department of Commerce and
Communications
A significant headway in the growth of the
1916 Department of
DPWH was the first appearance of motor vehicles in
the Philippine highways in 1910. Roads and bridges
Commerce and had to be kept in good condition at all times. Naturally,
Police transformed to there was a need for funds to keep the roads passable
the whole year round. To raise such needed funds,
motor vehicles and drivers plying the highways were
required to register with fee in 1921. To keep pace
with further development in transportation and
communications, the Department of Commerce and
Police was transformed into the Department of
Commerce and Communications under
Reorganization Act No. 2666 of 1916.

The Department of Public Works and

Communications
More development for the Department took
place in 1931 when the Philippine Legislature passed
on May 1 of that year Act No. 4007, renaming the
Department of Commerce and Communications as
Department of Public Works and Communications.
This Act, however, did not state the proper
composition and functions of the DPWC.
During the inauguration of the Commonwealth
May 1, Government on November 15, 1935, a reorganization
1931 Department of of the DPWC was undertaken. Under the set up, it
Commerce and was composed of the Bureau of Public Works, Ports,
Communications Aeronautics, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Metropolitan
renamed as Water District Division of Marine, Railway and Repair
Shop, National Radio Broadcasting, Irrigation Council
and Board of Examiners for Civil, Mechanical,
Chemical and Mining Engineers.
In 1941, outbreak of World War II, the DPWC
and other government offices were practically
abolished due to dislocation of manpower, lack of
funds, materials and equipment, installation of enemy
administration and the setting up of resistance
movement.
Resuming its operation in 1946, the DPWC
started with limited human resources, funds, materials
and equipment. An office of the U.S. Bureau of
Public Roads was set up to cooperate with the
Philippine Bureau of Public Works in implementing

2
 the highway program as authorized by the Philippine
Rehabilitation Act of 1946.

The Department of Public Works, Transportation

and Communications
The authority of the Department was further expanded
when, in 1947, the Motor Vehicles Office was placed
under its direct supervision.
Under Executive Order No. 392 in 1951, the DPWC
1951 was again reconstituted to Department of Public
Works, Transportation and Communications (DPWTC)
to include the Bureaus of Public Works, Posts,
Department of Public Telecommunications, Motor Vehicles Office, Irrigation
Works and Council, Flood Control Commission, Radio Control
Communications Board, National Transportation Board and Government
(DPWC) was Quarters Committee.
reconstituted as Taking cognizance of the social impact of the road
network to national growth, the Philippine Highway Act
of 1953 or Republic Act No. 917 providing for an
effective highway administration modified
apportionment of highway funds and gave aid to
provinces and cities for the improvement and
maintenance of roads and bridges.
In relation to road and bridge construction and
maintenance, the Bureau of Public Highways was
created in 1954 by virtue of the Republic Act No. 1192
and placed under the Department of Public Works,
Transportation and Communications. This Act
provided for a more effective management of the
Philippine Highways under a Commissioner. Active
plans & programs were formulated & implemented.
Upon the declaration of Martial Law on September 21,
1972, the Administration implemented the Integrated
Reorganization Plan No. 1 on September 24, placing
all the infrastructure functions of Bureaus and Offices
under the DPWTC for simplicity and economy of
operations.
Bureau of Public
1954 Highways (BPH) was
created and placed
under DPWTC
The Department of Public Highways

1974 BPH was expanded The former Bureau of Public Highways was
as expanded and restructured into the Department of
Public Highways (DPH) for a more effective
administration of the country’s highway system through
Administrative Order No. 2, dated July 1, 1974.
The Ministries

1976 DPWTC renamed as With the shift in the form of government,

national agencies were renamed from Departments to
DPH renamed as Ministries. In 1976, DPWTC became Ministry of Public
Works, Transportation and Communications (MPWTC)
& DPH as Ministry of Public Highways (MPH).
MPWTC was
The Ministry of Public Works
July 23, restructured into two
1979 (2) separate On July 23, 1979 under Executive Order No. 546,

3
 MPWTC was again restructured into two (2) Ministries
– the Ministry of Public Works (MPW) and the Ministry
Ministries - one, the of Transportation and Communications (MOTC),
Ministry of integrating all bureaus and offices concerned with
Transportation and public works functions and activities under the Ministry
Communication and of Public Works. The same went true with all offices
two, the involved in transportation and communications which
were placed under the supervision and administration
of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications.
The Ministry of Public Works and Highways
Under Executive Order No. 710 dated July 27,
1981, the Ministries of Public Works and Public
July 27, Highways were merged for a more effective and
1981 MPW and MPH were sustained implementation of infrastructure projects.
merged to become Under the restructured set-up, the agency was known
as the Ministry of Public Works and Highways (MPWH)
with 14 regional offices, 94 districts and 60 city
engineering offices, five (5) bureaus and six (6) service
offices, in addition to corporations and councils
attached to the Ministry for administrative supervision.
The Department of Public Works and Highways

Finally, by virtue of Executive Order No. 124,

dated January 30, 1987, the agency is now known as
the Department of Public Works and Highways
Jan 30, (DPWH) with five (5) bureaus, six (6) services, 16
regional offices, 24 project management offices, 16
1987 regional equipment services and 118 district
MPWH was renamed engineering offices.
as
As the primary engineering and construction
arm of the government, the DPWH is responsible for
the planning, design, construction and maintenance of
infrastructures such as roads and bridges, flood control
systems, water resource development projects and
other public works in accordance with national
objectives.

4
 CHAPTER 2 – THE HIGHWAY AND ITS
DEVELOPMENT

2-1. BRIEF HISTORY OF ROADS

Early roads with hard surfaces were found in the land of Mesopotamia. These roads
were constructed as early as 3500 B.C. Another stone surface were found in the
Mediterranean islands of Crete, similarly constructed as those in the Western
Hemisphere by the Mayans, Aztecs and Incas of Central South America.
The early road system were constructed primarily for the following purposes:
1. For movement of armies in their conquest and for defense against invasion.
2. For transport of food and trade of goods between neighboring towns and
cities.
The Romans, who discovered cement, expanded their vast empire through extensive
road networks radiating in many directions from the capital City of Rome. Many of the
roads built by the Romans still exist even after 2000 years.
CHARATERISTICALLY, ROMAN ROADS WERE LAID ON THREE COURSES
1. A layer if small broken stones.
2. Followed by the layer of small stones mixed with mortar and then compacted
firmly.
3. Wearing courses of massive stone blocks properly set and bedded with
cement mortar.
During the 17th century, under the reign of Napoleon the Great, France made a
great stride on road buildings. Jerome Tresaguet (1716-1796) the famous French
Engineer introduced new methods of construction and maintenance of roads. Tresaguet
made it possible for Napoleon to build massive highways of France. He was accredited
the title “Father of Modern Road Building”.
Thirty years later, a Scottish Engineer born in Westminster Abbey, Thomas
Telford (1757-1834), president and founder of the Institute if Civil Engineer improved
the works and construction methods of Jerome Tresaguet. And lastly, England followed
the ongoing development of highway started by France. The Macadam concept road
named after John Louden Mac Adam (1755-1836) was developed and widely accepted.
The invention of road building equipment enhances the development of roads in
Europe. In 1858, Eli Blake invented the first stone crusher and at the same period, a
steam road roller weighing 30 tons was introduced in France by its inventor, Aveling and
Porter.

2-2. HIGHWAYS IN THE PHILIPPINES

In the early part of 1900, transportation in this country depended largely on trails,
waterways, railroad, earth roads and partially graveled roads. Highway in the
Philippines in that time is nothing more than a dream to most Filipinos. The American
government initiated the development of roadways in the Philippines, connecting towns,

5
cities and provinces. The popular Macadam road type was introduced. It gained wide
acceptance because of the abundant supply of stones and gravel.
Fifty years later, major highways and expressways were constructed through the
financial assistance and loans from foreign banks. Alongside with the industrialization
program of the government vehicles of various types and sizes started flooding the
roadways. Traffic problems are expected to worsen year after year. The year 1960 to
early part of 1980 as considered an automobile age. Cars were no longer regarded as
luxury item but a necessity in transporting people and goods. A necessity for survival.
Government new concept of development is to get the farmers out of the mud. It was
during this decade that road construction becomes matter of priority of the government
under the slogan. “This is on Wheels”.

2-3. PLANNING DIFFICULTIES

Engineers are conscious of the need for roadways to be safe, useful, and
attractive. This need include improvement of the road side, erosion control, and noise
abatement. They are aware of the fact that highways are vital to the country’s
development. Unfortunately, highways planners are confronted with problems
categorized as follows:
1. Financial
2. Political and
3. Technical
The present economic condition is related to the government budgetary
expenditures for payment of foreign debt amortization amounting to billions of pesos a
month. Appropriations of funds for road constructions and maintenance, meet severe
difficulties that sometimes, highway development plans are shelves temporarily for lack
of funds.

2-4. HIGHWAY PROGRAMMING

There are three inseparable sets of inputs involved in highway programming, they are:
1. Economic – deals with the questions of resources.
2. Financial – the question of who pays and who spends, how much, and where?
3. Political and Administration – this involves decision making.
HIGHWAY PRORAMMING APPROACHES
1. Financial resources are either short or long ranged implementation, or
maintenance.
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire and constraint.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical situations, present future
expected level of traffic, and claims based on political subdivisions.
4. Providing continuity of route system and coordination with other transportation
mode.
5. Selection of project based on availability of labor and materials, including climatic
conditions.
6. Scheduling the project implementation in coordination with other agencies,
acquiring right of way and making final plan and specifications.
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and other natural disasters.

6
Direct Effects of Highway Construction And Its Use
A. Quantifiable market value

1. Cost of highways as to:

a. Planning cost
b. Right of way appropriations
c. Constructions cost
d. Maintenance cost
e. Operating cost

2. Cost benefits to highways users

a. Vehicles operating cost (including congestion cost) net income or
decrease on cost of vehicle operation per year.
b. Travel savings time (commercial). Net increase or decrease in travel
time multiplied by the peso value of commercial time.
c. Motorist’s safety (economic cost accident) Net change in expected
number of accidents times the average cost per accident per year.

B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market value

1. Cost benefits to highway user:

a. Motorist’s safety – accident cost of pain suffering and deprivation.
b. Comfort and conversion – Discomfort, inconvenience and strain
driving.
c. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint – Benefit of pleasing views and
scenery from road.

C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value

1. Cost benefits to highway users – travelling savings time. (non-

commercial) Minutes save per vehicle trip.

2-5. THE PLANNER

Before the project comes to reality, it has to undergo rigorous and careful studies
with participation of several line agencies involved. The planner appoints coordinators
or catalysts, to work out in exchanging information as to the needs, goals, and
alternative solutions of those who are affected, and to incorporate them into the
planning and decision making.
Where planners act as coordinators, catalyst or to work as community advocates,
should not be either partisan or advocate to a particular solution. Their role is:

1. To provide technical and organizational support.

2. To receive input or information on the needs and goals of affected persons
group or agencies.
3. Incorporate the above for planning and making decision.

7
 The planner’s role must be of a clarifier, expenditures, conciliators and impartial
negotiators. They must accept that their personal values and goals are different from
other participants
-The Functions of the Planners are:
1. To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study and the initial work program. Know
the basic needs, plan and objectives of affected persons.
2. Exploration of alternatives. Data gathering by contacting the representatives of
other agencies involved.
3. Detailed analysis. Prepare detailed plan for appropriate community interaction.
4. Secure formal ratification from the local officials and have the results
documented. If nothing goes wrong, this step is considered final.

2-6. COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

In democratic government, the public has the right to hear and be heard. Much
more to participate in public hearing where planning and decision making will be
conducted before major decisions are made.
Public hearing is no more than information forum for the public to know what the
administration wants for them, rather than, what the people wants from them. Public
hearing should involve the public from the start of the planning to give them a chance to
participate in the discussions and involved them in:
1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials, non-government
organizations, influential persons and conservative group of community.
2. Create special staff to carry out this function.
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the planning
stage.
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group meeting, workshops,
and other related activities.

2-7. HIGHWAY ECONOMY

According to W. Gillespe, professor of Civil Engineering at the Union college:
“A minimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable; but the road which is truly
the cheapest is not the one which has cost the least money, but the one which makes
the most profitable returns in proportion to the amount expended upon it”
There are many designs and administrative decisions that does not involve public
policy, but these should be made by selecting the alternative that is cheapest in the long
run. Meaning: the result from an economic study that is reasonably interpreted must
prevail.
The intent of expenditures for highways and public transportation are
enumerated as follows:
1. To augment the country’s level of economy.
2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of related basic services.

8
-The Highways and its Development
Legally, the appropriation and expenditures of taxes being the people’s
contribution to the government must be prorated proportionally to the different
provinces municipalities and cities in terms of infrastructures projects and not just be
concentrated in specific place.
-Arguments of those who Favors Borrowings are:
1. The need is immediate to have instant infrastructures.
2. No impact project will be seen because the “pay as you go” fund is scattered
throughout the entire road system where the situation is most critical.
3. Borrowings encourage investors because of fast progress.
-Counter arguments of those against financing infrastructures through
Borrowing:
1. Borrowing may impair the credit rating of government agencies obstructing other
more important improvements.
2. If future income is committed to pay past improvements, no more funds available
to maintain the existing system.
3. With much amount available temptation is there to over build and recklessly
spend extravagantly.
4. Interest of the loan is a big waste of public funds.

2-8. REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is otherwise called Photogrammetry. It is the science and art of
obtaining measurements by means of photography. Photogrammetry is based on aerial
photographs for engineers working data on:
1. Locations
2. Planning
3. Geometric design
4. Right of ways
5. Traffic studies
6. Drainage
7. Soil classification and identifications
8. Earthwork measurements
9. Material location
10. Pavement condition survey

2-9. PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING

The input to photogrammetry is photographs, and the output is typically a map, a
drawing, a measurement, or a 3D model of some real-world object or scene. Many of
the maps we use today are created with photogrammetry and photographs taken from
aircraft.

9
-Types of Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry can be classified several ways but one standard method is to

split the field based on camera location during photography. On this basis we have
Aerial Photogrammetry, and Terrestrial (or Close-Range) Photogrammetry.

In Aerial Photogrammetry, the camera is mounted in an aircraft and is usually

pointed vertically towards the ground. Multiple overlapping photos of the ground are
taken as the aircraft flies along a flight path. The aircraft traditionally have been fixed
wing manned craft but many projects now are done with drones and UAVs.

In Terrestrial and Close-range Photogrammetry, the camera is located on the

ground, and hand held, tripod or pole mounted.

The information is recalled mad the computer is programmed to develop showing

the following:
1. Profiles
2. Cross sections
3. Cut and fill earthwork quantities
4. The motorist view of the road
With photographs and computer data, a separate map could be plotted easily like:
1. The highways
2. The drainage
3. Housing
4. Land use and zoning
5. Property assessment
-Orthophotographs

Digital Orthophotos (DOQQs) combine the image characteristics of a photograph

with the geometric qualities of a map. Unlike a standard aerial photograph, relief
displacement in orthophotos has been removed so that ground features are displayed in
their true ground position. This allows for the direct measurement of distance, areas,
angles, and positions. Also, an orthophoto displays features that may be omitted or
generalized on maps.

-Colored Photographs

Aerial colored photograph presents more detailed and precise information on

traffic and parking studies. It gives clear information of the geological conditions, land
use, source of materials, surfaces and sub-surface drainage. An oblique photograph is
use for special studies particularly, where the ground condition is almost flat or where
cliffs are so steep that a black and white photograph could not give sufficient details.

2-10. LOCATION OF THE PROPOSED HIGHWAY

To improve the highways, there should be tentative plan as to the control, and
minimum design speed, roadway cross sections, and maximum slope with the following
considerations:
1. Reliable cost estimate.
2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic.

10
 3. Economic and community benefit factor.
4. Availability of funds.
Location surveys in the rural areas are divided into 4 stages.
1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between the terminal points.
2. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.
3. Preliminary survey of the best route.
4. Location survey, staking of the right of way, the highway and the structure for
construction.
-Activities
Under stage 1 Reconnaissance survey of the entire area
1. Stereoscopic examination of small scaled aerial photographs of the area
supplemented by available maps.
2. Determination control of photography and land use.
3. Location of feasible routes based on photograph and maps.
Under stage 2 Reconnaissance survey of feasible route
1. Stereoscopic examination of small scaled aerial photographs of the area
supplemented by available maps.
2. Determination control of photography and land use.
3. Preparation of route maps by Photogrammetric methods.
4. Location and comparison of feasible routes on photographs and maps.
5. Selection of best route.
Stage 3 Preliminary Survey of the best route.
1. Preparation and of large scale topographic maps using the route photographic
and photogrammetric methods or preparation of large scale topographic maps by
ground survey guided by best route location made in photographs in the second
stage.
2. Design of the preliminary location.
Stage 4 Location Survey
Staking of the right of way and the highway and structures for construction.

2-11. LOCATIONS AND BRIDGES

Highways and bridges have but one purpose – To convey traffic. The location and
position of a bridge is a subordinate to general alignment and grade. However, the
general policy for minor roads is to determine the proper highway location, then provide
the structures.
When the location of the bridge is approximately determined, the following
requirements must be considered:

1. A complete data report and special survey of the site.

2. Prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles.
3. The survey report must contain accurate data of the waterway for all behavior of
water.
4. There must be a complete report on the foundation condition and the stream
characteristics.
5. A complete data of adjacent structures particularly the waterway opening.

11
 6. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided.

2-12. HIGHWAY PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS

Are the documentation prepared to convey physical information so that
designers, reviewers, and the public can understand both the existing conditions and
the project? Plans also allow a contractor to construct the project and define the right-of-
way available or to be acquired. 
-Plans

a. General. Plans are, in effect, instructions using drawings containing engineering

data or details pertaining to geometrics, drainage, structures, soils and
pavements and other appurtenances.
b. Standard Plans. Standard plans are used to reduce the number of drawings
required to be supplied for each project and provide uniformity of design and
construction where the details are the same from project to project for items such
as pipe culverts, guardrails, curbs, gutters, sidewalks, retaining walls, noise
walls, prestressed bridge girders, pedestrian bridges, drainage structures, slope
protection, bus stop shelters, bridge railing, bridge bearings, deck joints, sign
supports, light standards, fencing, and other appurtenances.
c. Contract Plans. Contract plans show the details that are necessary to construct
a specific project and should be tailored to provide all information necessary to
accomplish the work in an orderly manner.

-Specifications
Specifications contains the written instructions for constructing highway projects,
outlining in detail a description of the work, materials, construction methods, method of
measurement, basis of payment, and the pay item for each item of work involved in the
contract.

a. Standard Specifications
b. Supplemental Specifications
c. Developmental Specifications
d. Special Provisions
e. Reference Specifications

12
 CHAPTER 3 – DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

3-1. CONSISTENCY
It is the most important single rule in highway design. That is, by making every
element of the roadway conforms to the expectation of every driver.

Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:

1. Clear information & guidance through a variety of road signs.

2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road standards.

3-2. DEFINITION OF TERMS

-AASHTO- is the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
Its publications include:

1. Transportation materials Specifications & Tests

2. Specifications for Highway Bridges
3. Geometric Design Standards
4. Numerous Policy Statements & Guides

-Roads & Highways- defined as strips of land that have been cleared & further
improved for the movement of people & goods.

-Road- has somewhat broader application in usage while generally used to describe a
public thoroughfare.

-Highway- the term was first used in England to describe a public road by digging
ditches on both sides & heaping up the earth in the middle creating a way higher than
the adjacent land.

-Expressway- a divided arterial highway for through traffic with full or partial control or
access & generally provided with grade separation at major intersections.

-Freeway- an expressway with full control of access.

-Control of Access- a condition where the rights of owners or occupants of adjoining

land or other person’s access to light, air or view in connection with a highway is fully or
partially controlled by public authority.

-Full Control of Access- the authority to control access is exercised to give preference
to through traffic by providing access connections to selected public roads only.

-Partial Control of Access- the authority to control access is exercised to give

preference to through traffic. Although, in addition to access connections with selected
public roads, there may be some crossings at grade & some private driveway
connections allowed.

-Through Street of through Highway- Every highway or portion thereof on which

vehicular traffic is given preferential right of way, & at the entrance to which vehicular

13
traffic from intersecting highways is required by law to yield right of way to vehicles on
such through highway in obedience to either stop sign or yield signs erected thereon.

-Parkway- an arterial highway for non-commercial traffic, with full or partial control of
access usually located within a park or ribbon park-like development.

-Arterial Street- an arterial route that carries traffic to the nearest access point or
through traffic. There are basic consideration in planning Arterial Roadways:

1. Selection of the routes.

2. Studies of the traffic volume.
3. Origin & destination
4. Accident experienced
5. Width should not less than 15 minutes.
6. Must carry at least one lane of traffic in each direction.
7. Should be at least 1 km in length,
8. Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than penetrate them.
9. On grid design system streets, arterials are spaced at about 600-900 m apart.
10. Where accident hazard is not a factor, the minimum volume to justify arterial
road is 300 vehicles per average hour during the day, & 450 vehicles hourly
during peak periods.

Sometimes, peak hour traffic volume on designated arterial roads exceeds the
capacity of two-way streets, & to increase the arterial capacity, the following solutions
are enforced:
1. During peak hours, parking is prohibited on one or both sides of the street.
2. Parking is prohibited several meters way from each side of the road
intersections or corners.
3. Right turn is allowed on red signals anytime with care.
4. Left turns are eliminated on congested intersections.
5. The direction of traffic is reversed in the center lane to provide more lanes in
the direction of heavier traffic flow.

-Collector Street- form smaller mesh grid pattern where passengers are pick up from
service streets & carried to the arterials.

-Local Road- defined as street or road primarily for access to residence, business or
other adjoining properties. It is also defined as a road constructed by the local
government.

-Highway Capacity- defined as the maximum number of vehicles that are reasonably
expected to pass a given point over a given period of time usually expressed as
vehicles per hour.

-AADT or ADT- refers to the traffic volume or flow in a highway as measured by the
number of vehicles passing a partial station during a given interval of time. It is also
known as “Average Annual Daily Traffic”.

3-3. THE DESIGN SPEED

AASHTO defined Design Speed as “The speed determined for design & correlation
of the physical feature of a highway that influence vehicles operation. It is the maximum

14
speed that can be maintained over a specified section of the highway when weather &
traffic conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern.”

It is basically higher than the anticipated average speed. AASHTO recommend that:
“The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to satisfy the needs of nearly
all drivers both today & throughout the road anticipated life.”

Selection of the proper road design speed is one of the most important decisions to
make, because it sets the limit to curvature, sight distance & other geometric figures.

Although, the design speed of most highways is governed by construction costs, the
concept of the relatively high speed design for freeways is Regardless of Cost.

3-4. CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL HIGHWAY

The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of variables to consider such
as:

1. The Volume of traffic

2. Character of the traffic
3. Speed of the traffic
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles & of the driver

A cross section design generally offers the expected level of service for safety &
a recent study showed that:

1. A 7.2 m wide pavement has 18% less accident compared with pavement
narrower than 5.5 m wide.
2. A 7.2 m wide pavement has 4% fewer accidents than the 6 m wide roadway.
3. Accident records showed no difference between the 6.6 m & the 7.2 m wide
pavement.
4. For the 6 m, 6.6 m & 7.2 m wide pavement with 2.7 to 3 m wide shoulder,
recorded accident decreases by 30% compared to 0 to 60 m wide shoulder, &
20% compared with a 0.9 to 1.2 m wide shoulder.

For Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.2 m wide surface is required for safe clearance
between commercial vehicles & is recommended for main highways.

For Collector Roadway, 6 m wide surface is acceptable only for low volume traffic
including few trucks travelling thereon.

For Local Rural Roadway, the minimum surface width is 4.8 m for a 30 km/hr
design speed.

For Urban Roadway, the minimum design width is 3.6 m although 3 m is allowed
where space is limited.

3-5. ROAD SHOULDER

It is defined as that portion of the roadway between the edge of traffic lane & the
edge of the ditch, gutters, curb or side slope.

15
 AASHTO requires that its usable pavement width shall be strong enough to support
vehicles.

-Importance of Road Shoulder:

1. It serves as a place for vehicles to stop when disabled of for some other
purposes. It considerably reduces road accidents.
2. The road capacity is decreased & accident opportunity increases if the
shoulder is too narrow or omitted in the design.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full length of the roadway. It also
adds structural strength to the road pavement.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight distance on curves. It reduces
accident potential when vehicle stop during emergencies.

Policy on Geometric Design Recommended that:

1. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3 or 3.6 m wide if truck volume
is more than 250 in the design hour (ADT).
2. The recommended width of left (median) shoulder is 1.2 to 2.4 m with at least
1.2 m paved.
3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should be 3 m wide or 3.6
m if the truck volume in the design hour exceeds 250.
4. For arterials with ADT less than 400 the usable shoulder width is fixed at 1.2
m minimum, although 2.4 m wide is much preferred.
5. When the design hour volume ADT exceeds 400, the usable minimum
shoulder width is 2.4 m, although 3.6 m is recommended.
6. For Urban Arterial Road, similar shoulder without curb is suggested unless
needed for proposed drainage.
7. The width of median shoulder on 4 lanes divided arterials is fixed at 90 cm as
minimum.
8. For 6 or more lanes, 2.4 to 3 m shoulder width is recommended.
9. For Rural Collectors Roadway, 60 cm wide graded shoulder is required for
ADT’s less than 400.
10. For ADT’s over 2000, 2.4 m wide shoulder is recommended.

Width is defined as “extending from the edge of the surfacing to the point where
shoulder slope intersect the side slope.”

3-6. THE CROSS SLOPE

It is provided in all tangent sections of the roadway. Slope usually falls in both
directions from the center-line of the two lane highway except where super elevation of
curves directs all water towards the inside.

3-7. CUT OR FILL SLOPE

Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope of 1:2 ratios. Meaning, the first number
represents the horizontal distance while the second number is the vertical distance.

16
-Advantages of Flat Side or Back Slope:

1. With the back slope of 3:1 or even flatter, cars could be directed to back into
the road & will come to stop or continue down the slope with no risk of
overturning.
2. Flat fill slopes are visible from the vehicles at full extent giving the roadway
safer appearance.
3. With visible slope for being low & flat, vehicles could be positioned or parked
closer to the edge, & on 2 lane roadway facilities parking would be farther
from the opposing traffic.

-Recommended Policy on Geometric Design:

1. The 6:1 slope ratio could be adopted on embankment less than 1.2 m high, &
4:1 ratio on a higher fill.
2. The 2:1 slope is allowed to heights greater than 6 m.
3. Cut slope should not be steeper than 2:1 ratio except on solid rock or special
kind of soil.
- The AASHTO policy stipulated that where cut or fill slopes intersect the original
ground surface, cross section must be rounded to blend the slope with the
natural ground surface.

3-8. NUMBER OF LANES:

The number of lanes in a segment of a highways is determined from the
estimated traffic volume for the design year (AADT) & highway lane capacity at
expected level of service.

3-9. HIGHWAY MEDIAN:

Median in various forms, becomes absolute requirement for highways because it
offers the following advantages:

1. It is an effective means of reducing headlight glares, conflicts & accident

between opposing streams of traffic.
2. The Median offers refuge between opposing traffic stream of cross traffic, &
pedestrian could traverse each stream at separate maneuvers.
3. Median provides available space for left turn lanes.
4. It makes turning of vehicles smooth & safe operation.
5. When space & cost permit, wide median is highly recommended. For rural
sections of freeway, the 18 to 27 m wide median is being adopted.
6. The Policy on Geometric Design states that; 3 to 9 m median width is
appropriate in suburban or mountainous situations.
7. For rural & urban arterials, 18 m median or wider is preferred because it
allows the use of independent profiles & at the same time minimizes cross
over accident.

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 8. Medians with 6 to 18 meters wide allow drivers to cross each roadway
separately. A 4.2 to 6.6 m median width provides protection for turning
vehicles.
9. Curved median with 1.2 to 1.8 m width serves as partition – separation of
opposite traffic control devices.
10. The width of a traversable median should be wide enough to prevent vehicles
running out of control from reaching the opposite traffic.
11. The 15 to 24 m distance between landed edges is favored, but specific value
is not stipulated.
12. Cross slope of the median should not be greater than 6:1 but preferably 10:1.
13. Dense planting of rose hedges serves as a safety crash barriers.

-For Narrow Median, there are 4 means of reducing cross median accidents:

1. Provide deterring devices.

2. Provide non-traversable energy absorbing barriers.
3. Provide non-traversable rigid barriers.
4. Provide GM barriers.

3-10. THE GRADE LINE:

It is defined as the longitudinal profile of the highway as a measure how the
centerline of the highway rises & fall.

It appears on a profile taken along the road centerline. It is a series of straight lines
connected by parabolic vertical curves to which straight grades are tangent.

-In laying the grade line, the designer must consider the following:

1. Where earthwork is minimal & consistently meeting sight distances in relation

to grade line, economy is one main consideration.
2. In mountainous areas, the grade line must be considered balanced
excavation against embankments to get the minimum overall cost.
3. In flat area, the grade line is set almost parallel to the ground surface but
sufficiently above the ground for drainage purposes.
4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with sufficient covering.
5. Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is governed by the expected
level of water flood.

3-11. VERTICAL CURVE OVER CREST:

All vertical curves should not be shorter than the established minimum over crests.
This is governed by the sight distance requirements but sometimes a case of riding,
may demand longer curves than the sight distance.

The vertical distance from the intersection of the straight grade line to the curve is
equal to 1/8 of the product of the algebraic difference in grades & the length of the curve
in stations. This is called the maximum correction.

-The correction at any intermediate point is obtained by:

18
 1. Multiplying the maximum correction by the square of the horizontal distance
between the near end of the curve & the point.
2. Divide this product by the square of ½ the length of the curve.

3-12. RIGHT OF WAY:

Acquisition of land for the right of way is very costly. Based on the experience from
the past, highway agency now consider it a good practice to acquire right of way wide
enough to sufficiently provide for the ultimate expected development.

A successful freeway & expressway operations, closes the roadway from direct
access to adjoining property & some local roads or streets.

3-13. STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE:

The stopping right distance is defined as the longest distance that a driver could see
the top of an object 15 cm (6”) above the road surface where the design height of the
driver’s eye above the pavement is 105 cm.

-It is made up if 2 elements:

1. The distance traveled after the obstruction or object is seen & before the
driver applies the brakes.
2. The second distance is consumed while the driver applies brakes for the
vehicle to stop.

3-14. THE PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE:

It is the longest distance that a driver can see the top of an oncoming vehicle where
the driver’s eye level is 1.05 m above the pavement surface.

The design of two lane highway of passing over crests is generally practical only on
flat grades because the longer vertical curves are required to provide passing sight than
stopping sight distance.

The maximum coefficient of side friction on dry pavement as determined by curve

tests ranges between 0.4 & 0.5 value with normal pavement & smooth tires is about
0.35 at 75 km/hr.

3-15. ROAD ALIGNMENT:

Road alignment should be consistent. An abrupt change from flat sharp curve &
long tangents followed by sharp curve should be avoided because it will only create
hazard & invite accident.

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3-16. CIRCULAR CURVES:
A vehicle traveling in curved road is subject to centrifugal force. This force is
balanced by equal & opposite forces developed through the super elevation & side
frictions.

-The degree of curve is expressed either of the two:

1. Arc Definitions- the degree of curve is the central angle subtended by a 30

m arc of the curve.
2. Chord Definitions- the degree of curve is the central angle subtended by 50
m chord.

The maximum allowed super elevation rate before was 0.12 but now it is 0.10
except on low volume gravel roads. The Policy on Geometric Design recommend that:

1. For design speed of 50 km/hr., the normal cross slope is 1°-21’ or even flatter
curves.
2. For a 120 km/hr. design speed road, the normal cross slope is 0°-15’ or flatter
curves without super elevation.

3-17. SUPER ELEVATION-RUNOFF:

Curved sections of roadways are usually super elevated. Provisions for gradual
changes from one point to the other should be considered.

The centerline of each individual roadway at profile grade is maintained while rising
the outer edge & lowering the inner edge to attain the desired super elevation. It is done
by raising-up the outside edge of the pavement with the relation to the centerline until
the outer half of the cross section is half.

Then, the outer edge is raised until the cross section is straight. Finally, the entire
cross section is rotated as a whole until full super elevation is reached.

AASHTO recommended the runoff length to vary both with the super elevation rate
& the design speed, but with minimum set for appearance & comfort to riders.

It is advisable to make the super elevation by raising the outer edge elevated twice
the usual distance.

-For wider roadway, the length of runoff should be increased as follows:

1. Four lanes, individual value increased by 50%

2. Six lanes, individual value increased by 100%

3-18. WIDENING OF CURVES:

A provision for a wider roadway is necessary on sharp curve for two lanes
pavement under the following reasons:

1. To force the drivers to shy away from the pavement edge.

20
 2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle width for non-tracking of front &
rear wheels.
3. To give additional width due to the slanted position of front wheel to the
roadway center line.
4. For a 7.2 m wide roadway, an additional width of 30 cm is necessary on an
open curve highway.

3-19. ISLAND:
It is a defined area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle movement & for
pedestrian refuge. Within an intersection, median is considered an island. This definition
makes evident that an island is no single physical type.

It is included in the design of intersection for the following purposes:

1. Separation of vehicular flows

2. Separation of conflicts
3. Reduction in excessive pavement areas
4. Reduction of traffic & indications of proper use of intersections
5. Arrangement to favor a prominent turning movement
6. Location of traffic control devices

3-20. TYPES OF INTERCHANGE:

The types & form of freeway interchange requires selection of the conformation
that is best suited to a particular situation & demand. The functions of freeway
interchanges are:

1. To provide separation between 2 or more traffic arteries.

2. To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from 1 entry to the other or between
local roadway & the freeway.

-There are objections to the Cloverleaf Interchange Design:

1. It requires large area of land.

2. At high design speed, more time is consumed just to traverse the longer
loops.
3. Vehicles making left turn execute 270° right turn & travel greater distance
becoming very unpleasant & hazardous due to the sharp curves & steep
grades.
4. Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one quadrant weave those entering the
adjacent loop from the through roadway.

3-21. HIGHWAY INTERSECTION AT GRADE:

All highways except freeways have intersections at grade. Intersection area is
considered part of every connecting road. In this area all crossing & turning movements
occur.

1. For right angle intersections with little traffic, the use of street sigh is more
than sufficient.

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 2. For Y intersection or other related conformation where vehicles meet at
unfavorable angles may require channelization.
3. The flared design will involve the following:
a. Widening the entering traffic lane to allow deceleration of the car & clear of
through traffic.
b. Widening the leaving lanes to provide acceleration & merging from the
traffic streams.
4. Intersections must accommodate large trucks, & the radius of all curves must
be sufficient enough to accommodate them.

3-22. FREEWAY ENTRANCE & EXIT:

The overall effectiveness of the individual freeway systems is governed by the flow
characteristics of vehicles, & the driver’s behavior near on & off the channel.

A single lane on ramp vehicle flows into the outer continuing freeway lane. The
design is either a taper blending into the through lane or an auxiliary lane parallel to the
through lane.

Vehicles leaving the freeway need distance to accelerate & clear of the flow of
ongoing traffic.

3-23. RAILROAD-HIGHWAY SEPARATION:

The main question asked on a railroad & highway separation is: “Where one is to
go over- the railroad or the highway?”

1. If the highway is to go over the railroad, the structure itself is lighter and the
highway load is much smaller than the railroad loads.
2. If the highway goes under the railroad, special provision is required for the
removal of rainwater that falls within the opposing area

3-24. BICYCLE LANE:

Bicycle use is now becoming popular due to energy crises and traffic problems. It
requires separate road for the rider that is entirely separate from the vehicular traffic.

22
 CHAPTER 4 – ROAD MATERIALS

4-1. AGGREGATES
Aggregates intended for either Bituminous (asphalt) or Portland Cement concrete
pavement, should be of good quality in accordance with the requirements of AASTHO
standard or Item-703
“The aggregates shall consist of hard durable particles or fragments of crushed
stone, crushed slag or crushed rock or natural gravel”
It is classified as good quality, must undergo various test enumerated as follows
- Test for Strength
- Test for Soundness
- Test for Affinity and Swell
- Test for Shape and Texture
- Test for Resistance Polishing
- Degradation Test

-Test for Strength

The criterion for aggregate strength test is the Los Angeles Rattler Test
(AASTHO T-96) briefly conducted as follows
1. Rattler Test is done in a hollow cylinder closed at both ends. The cylinder
measures 70 cm inside diameter by 50 cm long provided with steel shelf
projecting radically inward 3 ½ inch mounted with its axis horizontally on stub
stuff shaft and fastened at the ends.
2. The cylinder is rotated 500 rev at speed of 30 to 33 rounds per minute.
3. After testing, the sample is passed on to No. 12 sieve. Those that pass
through it are set aside, the amount of loss is the difference between the
original and final weight expressed in percent.
4. The FHWA recommended that aggregates for a dense graded mixture shall
have 50 or less coefficient of wear.
5. For open graded mixture, the requirement is 40 or less. However, percentage
may be set in cases where excellent aggregates are abundantly available.
-Test for Soundness
Soundness refers to the resistance of materials of deterioration from the effect of
action like freezing and thawing.
1. A sample of fine or coarse aggregate is dried, and then, immersed in a
saturated solution of sodium or magnesium sulphate, followed by draining,
and oven drying
2. The application of liquid solutions will cause splitting, crumbling, cracking or
flacking of the particles surface.
3. After washing and drying, aggregate samples are examined carefully and
sieve to determine, the charges in the particles sizes. The result as recorded
by percentage loss.
4. Some road agencies do not require soundness test for aggregates intended
for asphalt pavement particularly in areas where temperature of the pavement
does not fall below freezing point.

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-Test of Affinity and Swell
Strong and durable pavement must have binder that adhere or stick firmly to the
aggregate particles.
1. Hydrophilic is term used when the aggregate has greater affinity for water
than asphalt.
2. If an aggregate is hydrophilic, the chemical bond between the aggregates and
water is much stronger than those between aggregates and asphalt.
3. Such water aggregate interferences may develop at the sharp edge of
crushed particles and in due time, water will destroy the aggregate and
asphalt bond.
4. Sometimes, the stripped asphalt flushes to the surface of the pavement
making it sticky, and after stripping, fine aggregates that are susceptible to
swelling will expand when moistened, that are disrupt the pavement structure.
5. The immersion compression test (AASTHO T-165) indirectly measures the
tendency of aggregate to strip or swell under the effects of water.
-Shape and Texture of Aggregates
A relatively rounded smooth aggregate particles like natural gravel is
recommended for Portland cement concrete pavement because the mixture is workable
1. The angular or cubical shape and rough surface texture aggregate has been
proven excellent material for asphalt pavement because it has stronger
interlocking action and well adherence of asphalt binder to the particles.
2. A thin or elongated piece of dirt is considered undesirable material for either
asphalt or concrete pavement.
3. The AASTHO Standard Specifications for asphalt pavement aggregate has
no specific stipulation as to the control of the shape or surface texture.
-Test for Resistance and Polishing
One goof criterion for pavement design is the high coefficient of friction between
tire and the road surface.
1. If in so short time, the aggregate surface of the road becomes polished and
sticky, the coefficient of friction between the road surface and the tire will be
dangerously low.
2. The skid resistance has bearing relation with the polishing of the aggregate,
prompting the road agency to consider the skid resistance measurement on
existing road agency to consider being included and parting of the road
inventory.
3. Aggregates produced from limestone are practically susceptible to polishing.
4. Limestone coarse aggregate containing lager amount of sand that are
insoluble in diluted hydrochloric acid, are found to be resistance to polishing.
-Degradation Test
Some aggregates degrade in the presence of water.
1. About 2.5 kg of coarse aggregate of coarse aggregate that is retained on No.
4 sieve are washed thoroughly and agitated for 10 minutes.
2. Sedimentation test like the sand equivalent test for soil is done on the sample
passing the 0.75 mm (No. 200) particles generated. The durability index result
ranges from 0 to 100, but the FHWA specifications set a minimum valve of
35.

24
 3. For fine aggregate that passes the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, test the same as
the above procedures except that the sample size is only ½ kg.
4. The sand equivalent test is performed after 10 minutes to established
durability index of 35.
-Particle Size
1. For dense graded pavement - The particle size of aggregate ranges from
coarse to dust.
2. For open graded pavement – One or more layer of the coarse rock of
uniform of uniform size used.
3. For sheet asphalt – The mineral aggregate is a carefully graded sand and
mineral dust.

4-2. AGGREGATE FOR BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT

SIEVE DESIGNATION MASS PERCENTAGE PASSING

Standard Alternate Grading Grading Grading Grading
Mm U.S. Std. A B C D
25 1” 100 100 100 100
10 3/8 50-85 60-100
5 No. 4 35-65 50-85 55-100 70-100
2 No. 10 25-50 40-70 40-100 55-100
0.5 No. 40 15-30 25-45 20-50 30-70
0.075 No. 200 5-20 5-20 6-20 8-25

4-3. AGGREGATE FOR PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT

Range Size Percentage by weight passing Laboratory Sieves
In Number 2-1/2 2 1-1/2 1 ¾ ½ 3/8 No. 4
Size
1-1/2 to 7 - - - - 100 90- 40-70 0-15#
No. 4 100
3/4” to 67 - - - 100 90- - 20-55 0-10#
No. 4 100
1” to 57 - - 100 95- - 25-60 - 0-10#
No. 4 100
1-1/2” 467 - 100 95- - 35-70 - 10-30 0-5
to No. 4 100
2” to 357 100 95- - 35-70 - 10-30 - 0-5
No. 4 100
1-1/4” – 4 - 100 90- 20-55 0-15 - 0-5 -
¾” 100
2 – 1” 3 100 90- 35-70 0-15 - 0-5 - -
100

25
4-4. MINERAL FILLER
The strength of road pavement will be increased if the dust additives which
dense the graded added. It is called mineral filler that reduces the void contents in the
mixture. This dust addictive is not the ordinary dust that is being found in our floor or
tables.
Dust additive is classified into;
1. Finely powdered limestone
2. Slag
3. Hydraulic Lime
4. Portland Cement
5. Trap Rock Dust
6. Fly ash

4-5. BITUMINOUS MATERIAL

Bituminous material or Asphalt in short, is a viscous liquid used as binder for
aggregates in road construction. At normal temperature, asphalt is either slightly thicker
than water or hard but brittle material that breaks under a hammer blow when cold.
1. Bituminous material is in liquid form, when mixed or combined with
aggregates. This liquid form may be produced either by heating the hard
asphalt, by dissolving in solvent or by emulsifying in water. However, there
are bituminous liquid materials available and ready to use.
2. The action of asphalt binder depends on its type and the aggregate it is
combined with. The purpose of the asphalt binder is to resist the abrasive
force brought about by heavy traffic.
3. If road pavement is the open type, consisting entirely of coarse particles and
asphalt, heavy binder is needed requiring more asphalts. On the other hand,
if the aggregates in the pavement contain fine particles, cohesion will be
developed by surface tension in the thin asphalt firm surrounding the fine
particles. Hence, less viscous asphalt is required.

4-6. BITUMINOUS BINDERS

Asphalt cement is used as binder for almost all high types of bituminous
pavement. Asphalt cement is a semi solid hydro carbon retained after fuel and
lubricating oils are removed from petroleum. The softest grade used for pavement is the
200-300 penetration. The 60-70 penetrations are the hardest type.
-Cutback or Liquid Asphalt
1. Liquid asphalt is a petroleum product consisting of asphalt cement liquid
distillate (diesel, kerosene, or gasoline). The less viscous asphalt contains
diluents as little as 15%.
2. The use of cutback is being frowned for two reasons;
a. It is a usable fuel
b. It is an air pollutant
3. Cutback or Liquid Asphalt is classified into;
a. Slow curing (SC) road soil
b. Medium curing (MC) cutback asphalt
c. Rapid curing (RC) cutback asphalt

26
-Emulsified Asphalt
Emulsified asphalt is a kind of mixture wherein the minute globules of asphalt
disperses in water.
1. Emulsified asphalt is an excellent with wet aggregate because the water
medium carries the asphalt into superior contact with the particle surfaces
2. Emulsified asphalt is an alternate to cutback asphalt for energy and
environmental objectives. It is an effective material in coating electropositive
aggregate such as limestone but tend to strip from aggregates with high
content of silica for having strong electro negative surface charges.
3. The Cationic Emulsion is very effective on high siliceous aggregates but may
strip from high alkaline that carry strong positive surfaces damages.
4. Rejuvenating Agent is an emulsified petroleum resin sprayed over the surface
of an old asphalt road that changes to asphaltenes causing the binder to
harden and cracks.
-Oxidized Road Tar
Oxidized asphalt is suitable only for roofing and similar applications. Highway
used of oxidation asphalt is limited to water proofing of structures and filling joints of
concrete pavement.
-Epoxy Resin as Binders
Epoxy binders are produced in a clear, dark, rigid and flexible form for application
to either concrete or asphalt pavement. Hardening can be attained by mixing the resin
and the catalyst hardened prior to application. The result is called thermosetting.
Meaning, it will not soften under the influence of heat or the action of solvent like water
or petroleum products. The high cost of resin has restricted its used to bridge surfacing
and other special non-skid seal coating surface only.

4-7. BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT

The bituminous pavement is a combination of mineral aggregate and binders.
The mixture of rock material particles with asphalt has created so many names to with
1. Asphalt Macadam
2. Asphaltic Concrete
3. Mastic
4. National Paving
5. Plant mix
6. Asphalt Sheet
7. Road mix
8. Armor Coat
9. Oil mat etc.
-Qualities of Asphalt Road
To consider an asphalt road in good service, it must process in its full life the
following qualities:
1. The surface must be free from cracks or raveling due to shrinkage and fatigue
failure.

27
 2. It must withstand weather condition, including the effect of surface water,
heat, cold and oxidation.
3. It must be resistant to internal moisture such as water vapour.
4. It must possess tight or porous impermeable surfaces as the case may be
suitable to underling base on sub base.
5. It must be smooth riding and skid free surface.

4-8. ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT

The term Asphalt Concrete refers to a dense graded road surface made of hot
mineral aggregates, mixed with hot asphalt and laid at high temperature of about 275 F
to 300 F. asphalt concrete is the highest type of dense bituminous pavement suitable for
the most heavily treated roads.

4-9. BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT FAILURE

Bituminous pavement failures are caused by excessive load. Heavy load creates
deflection on the road surface, with insufficient underlying strength. Repetitious
application of excessive load will roughen and crack the road pavement that ultimately
results to complete failure of the roadway. Deflection on the road surface may be the
effect of elastic deformation from the consolidation of the base and sub soil or from the
combination of elastic and plastic and plastic deformation. Repeated heavy wheel load
on highly resilient soil causes deflection leading to fatigue failure of the asphalt surface.
Alligator or map cracking of the surface will be substantially evident. Elastic
deformations in the sub grade penetrate to the depth of 6 meters although mostly to a
depth from the surface.
1. Surface Failure
2. Base Failure
3. Basement Failure

4-10. MACADAM ASPHALT MAT

Bituminous macadam road has large amount of voids in the lower part of the
aggregate layers. The Bituminous Macadam base surface is composed of two or three
layers of progressively smaller, clean, sharp angular stones bonded by asphalt. The
binder at the time of spraying is fluid enough to penetrate and coat the aggregate
particles.
-Constructing the Macadam Asphalt Road
1. Spread the coarsest aggregate to the roadway. Compact with either smooth
wheeled roller or vibratory devices.
2. Smoothness of the surface is checked after compaction, re-compacting the
stones until smooth surface is attained.
3. Apply asphalt by spreading the right amount of bitumen at coated if the
asphalt binder is too thick. On the other hand, too fluid mixture will cause
running of the binder down the underlying layers.
4. In placing the keystone base coarse, sufficient amount of smaller stone is
mixed and spread on the top to fill the interlocking voids, followed by
compaction then spraying with asphalt binder.

28
 5. Sealing of the surface is applied to seal the pavement against moisture.
These involve spreading of selected binder, spraying and rolling of the cover
aggregates.
6. During construction, the weather must be dry and warm. If not, it is better to
used emulsified asphalt as binder.
7. Before the application of asphalt binder, coarse aggregate is first checked
with the smaller stone to seal the remaining top voids, followed by spraying
emulsified asphalt binder.

4-11. SURFACE TREATMENT

Road surface treatment method is applied to upgrade untreated surface to
rejuvenate and existing pavement. This procedure is in contrast with the penetration
method wherein the spraying of asphalt binder is done after the placement of the
aggregates.
1. Dust palliatives to control dust
2. Prime coat or tack coat treating the surface to provide new wearing coarse.
3. Armor coats to provide protection for untreated surfaces.
4. Seal coats and rethreads
5. Sheet asphalt
6. Tack coats
7. Slurry seals
8. Asphalt overlay
-Dust Palliative
Dust Palliative is a surface treatment or application of asphalt to control dust and
fine sand along the highway
1. The road surface is treated with the application of about 0.2 gallon per square
meter of light slow curing oil. The material commonly used is the MC-70 but
occasionally the MC-30 or the MC-70. The oil penetrates the surface to about
½ inch and provides film that surrounds the particles and bind together.
2. Slow curing oil is usually selected because it remains soft and last for quit
longer period of time. Satisfactory result was also noticed when slow setting
emulsions diluted in a mixture of 4 to 9 parts of water was used.
3. Cutback or emulsion asphalt is unsatisfactory material for surface treatment
as dust palliative. It becomes harder asphalts producing brittle surface that
easily cracks in a short time followed by fast disintegration.
4. Used crankcase motor oil is also considered as an effective dust palliative
-Purpose of the Prime Coat or Tack Coat
1. To plug the capillary voids in the pavement in order to stop the upward
movement of moisture
2. To improve adhesion between the base and surface coarse.
-Armor Coat
Armor coat is a surface treatment using a thin bituminous binder covered by
mineral aggregate applied to an earth, gravel or water bound macadam surface or to
stabilized the base.
When fund is limited, armor coat is used as temporary pavement protection of
the base materials.

29
 1. For two-course treatment, the maximum size of cover materials for the first lift
is ¾ to 1 inch.
2. For three treatments, the maximum size of aggregate cover is 1” to 1 – ¼
inch.
3. The maximum size of the aggregate for each subsequent lift should be
reduced.
-Seal Coat and Retread
Seal coat is the application of asphalt binder to a pavement surface covered with
aggregate. Seal coat is also intended to:
1. Provide an abrasion and water resistant surface
2. To improve the skid resistance of bleeding bituminous surface which had been
polished under traffic?
3. To improve light reflection and no glare characteristics of pavement surface.
4. To provide lane shoulder or other demarcations
5. To alert drivers that unusual dangerous condition is near ahead
6. Sometimes the surface is sprayed with light coating of SS-1h Emulsified asphalt
or Petroleum resin to rejuvenate or improve its appearance. This treatment is
sometimes called, Black Seal or Color Coat.
-Sheet asphalt
Sheet asphalt is a mixture of sand fillers and asphalt cement. It is about 1 ½ thick
cover asphalt concrete or slab or Portland Cement Concrete having a characteristic of
noiseless, easily cleaned surface extensively used as surface course on urban streets.
-Cold Laid Asphalt
Cold laid asphalt is a mixture of coarse and fine aggregates and liquid asphalt or
emulsion. The mixture can be prepared in a central plant or field mixture. A content of
5% to 10% liquid asphalt is required to permit coating.
-Slurry Seal
Slurry seal is a combination of sand, crushed stone, emulsified asphalt and
water. It is an effective solution in filling cracks and rejuvenating the surface of badly
deteriorated surface. The mixture contains the proportion of 1350 kg fine sand, 1350 kg
rock dust and 140 gallons of SS-1 or SS-1h emulsified asphalt diluted with about 80
gallons of water on heavy or light mixer.
-Asphalt Overlay
Asphalt overlay is the layer of asphalt bound aggregate laid to and existing
pavement. The purpose is to level out distorted surface or to cover cracks and joints of
the pavement. If the purpose is to strengthen the existing pavement, the choice is not
overlay but Asphalt Concrete tightly bonded to the old pavement with Tack Coat.

4-12. AGGREGATE OF BITUMINOUS CONCRETE

Coarse aggregate retained on a 2.36 (No.8) sieve should be either crushed
stone, crushed slag, crushed or normal gravel. Only one kind of aggregate shall be
used on the project except by director of Supervising Engineer.

30
-Fine Aggregates
Fine aggregates passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8) sieve shall consist of natural sand,
stone screening or slag screenings or the combination thereof. The resultant mixture of
fine aggregates when combined with other required aggregate should meet the
gradation requirements under the composition of mixture for the specific type as
specified.
-Lightweight Aggregate
Lightweight aggregate, (except slag) could be manufactured by the rotary kiln
process if permitted by the special provisions of the specifications.
-Aggregates for Hot Plant-Mix Bituminous Pavement
Various aggregates fraction for the mixture should be sized graded, and
combined in such properties that the resulting composite blend meets one of the
grading requirements as prescribe.

SIEVE GRADING
DESIGNATION
Mm inch A B C D E F G
37 (1 ½”) 100 - - - - - -
25 (1”) 95- 100 100 - - - -
100
20 ( ¾”) 75-95 95-100 95-100 100 - 100 -
12 ( ½“) - 68-86 68-86 95-100 100 - 100
10 (3/8”) 54-75 56-78 56-78 74.92 95-100 - 95-100
4.75 (No. 4) 36-58 36-60 38-60 48-70 75-90 45-65 30-50
2.36 (No. 8) 25-45 27-47 27-47 33-53 62-82 33-53 5-15
1.18 (No. 16) - 18-37 18-37 22-40 38-58 - -
.600 (No. 30) 11-28 11-28 13-28 15-30 22-42 - -
.300 (No. 50) - 6-20 9-20 11-28 11-28 10-20 -
.075 (No. 200) 0-8 0-8 4-8 4-9 2-10 3-8 2-5
GRADATION RANGES – HOT PLANT MIX BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT
(Mass percent passing square sieves, AASTHO 11 and T-27)

4-13. DPWH STANDARD SPECIFICATION ON PRIME COAT, TACK

COAT AND SEAL COAT
-Item 301 Bituminous Pavement Coat
*Materials
Bituminous material is either Rapid Curing (RC) or Medium Curing (MC) Cutback
Asphalt, whichever specified. Prime coat is applied only to dry or slightly moist surface.
No prime coat will be applied during foggy or rainy days.
*Equipment
1. The liquid bituminous material sprayed by a pressure distributor with no less than
1000 litters capacity mounted on pneumatic tires of width and load produced on
the road surface not to exceed 1000 kg per cm width of the tire.

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 2. The tank must have heating devices able to heat complete charge of bituminous
liquid up to 180 degrees Celsius. The heating device has the automatic control
that overheating will not occur.
3. The flame should not touch the casing of the tank directly containing the
bituminous liquid. The liquid should be in containing the bituminous liquid. The
liquid should be insulated that when the tank is filled with bituminous liquid at 180
C, the temperature will not drop to less than 20 C per hour when the tank is not
being heated.
4. The thermometer is fixed to the tank to measure the liquid temperature
continuously. The tank is furnished with calibrated dipstick to indicate its content.
The pipes for filling the tank shall be furnished an easily changeable filter.
5. The distributor has the capacity to vary the spray width of the bituminous liquid in
maximum steps of 100 mm to a total width of 4 meters. The spraying bar must
have nozzles from which the liquid is sprayed in fan shaped over the road
surface equally distributed over the total spraying width.
6. The pump is furnished with an indicator showing the rate of liquid flow. A
thermometer is fixed to indicate the temperature to the liquid immediately before
it leaves the spraying bar.
7. The distributor is furnished with a Tachometer indicator its forward speed visible
from the driver’s seat.
8. The distributor shall be designed where the deviation from the prescribe rate of
application does not exceed 10 % equipped with the device for hand spraying of
the bituminous liquid.
-Item 302 Bituminous Tack Coats
The standard specification for Tack coat is the same as that for the prime coat.
The difference will be enumerated as follows
1. The manner of application is either by the Rapid Curing Cutback or Emulsified
Asphalt within the range of 0.2 to 0.7 litters per square meter.
2. Tack coat is sprayed in advance on the surface coarse to permit it to dry it to
“tacky” condition. The tack coat is maintained until the next coarse is applied.
-Item 303 Bituminous Seal Coat
This item consist of an application of bituminous materials with or without the
application of aggregate to a bituminous surface coarse.
*Materials required
1. The approximate amount of materials required for seal coat per square meter.
2. Bituminous material is the asphalt cement penetration Grade 120-150 rapid
curing or medium curing cutback asphalt.
3. Cover aggregates for type-2 seal coat consist of sand or fine screening free from
dirt or other inorganic matter.
4. The aggregates for type-3 seal coat is crushed stone, crushed slag, or crushed
gravel. Only one type of aggregates shall be used in a project unless other
alternative type is approved.
5. The aggregate shall have a mass percent of wear not exceeding 40 when tested
by AASTHO T-96
6. When crushed slag is used, it should be uniformed in density and quality. A
density of not less than 960 kg per square meter as determined by AASTHO T-
96

32
-Item 304 Bituminous Treatments
This item consist of either single application of bituminous material followed by a
single spreading of aggregate or two application of bituminous material each followed
by spreading of aggregate.
*Material Requirements
1. The approximate amount of materials per square meter and sequence of
operation for single and double surface treatment is provided in table
2. The quantities given in the table are those aggregates having a bulk specific
gravity of 2.65 as determined by AASTHO T-84 and T-85
3. The supervising engineer may adjust the amount of asphalts material per square
meter if necessary, to fit into the prevailing condition. But the total amount of
aggregate per square meter after adjusting for specific gravity will not be change.
-Item 305 Bituminous Penetration Macadam Pavements
This item consist of furnishing and placing one or more courses of graded
aggregate and one or more application of bituminous materials, followed by seal coat
cover aggregate constructed on a prepared base.
-Item 306 Bituminous Surface Course
Bituminous material is Rapid Curing (RC) cutback, Medium Curing (MC) cutback
or emulsified asphalt whichever specified. The proportion of bituminous material on the
basis of total dry aggregate is from 4.5 to 7.0 mass percent when cut back asphalt is
used and from 6.0 to 10.0 mass percent when emulsified asphalt is used.
1. The equipment includes bituminous distributor and heating equipment,
scarifier, mixer, spreader, and finishing compacting equipment.
2. Road roller should be Self Propelled Steel Wheel tandem of 3 wheel rollers
weighting not less than 8 tons each and a Pneumatic Tire Rollers having a
total compacting width of not less than 1.52mm (60inch) and the gross mass
adjustable within the range of 3540 to 6360 kg/m of compaction width.
3. All tires of Pneumatic Roller is equally inflated exerting equal unit pressure
with the mass of varying contact pressure to suit project condition.

4-14. GEOPLASTIC FABRICS

The geoplastic fabrics were introduced and experiment in Europe in the year
1970. They were used to reinforce soil of pavement and to provide drainage and
erosion control for highways and railroads.
-Functions of Geoplastic Fabrics
1. As Filter. It holds the soil in place while allowing water to flow easily away by
some form drainage.
2. As Drainage. Heavy geoplastic fabrics provide channels for carrying water away
from the soil to the drain.
3. As Separator. The fabrics prevent different strength to the soil of pavement
structure.
4. As Reinforcement. It adds mechanical strength to the soil of pavement structure.
5. As Armor. It protects the soil from surface erosion or attractive forces.

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-Differences in properties Includes
1. Specific Gravity
2. Strength
3. Future Stain
4. Modulus of elasticity
5. Creep resistance
6. Resistance to ultra-violet light and biological effect

34
 CHAPTER 5 – DRAINAGE AND SLOPE PROTECTION

5-1. DRAINAGE
Drainage is defined as the means of collecting, transporting and disposing of
surface water originating in or near the right of way, or flowing in stream crossings of
bordering the right of the way.
Approximately, about 25% of roadway funds are spent for culverts, bridges and
other drainage structures. Bigger approximations are also allotted for ditches, dikes,
channels and erosion control structures of rural roads. Likewise, major capital
investments are channeled to urban areas for storm drains and other appurtenances
plus the routine clearing of drainage facilities.
Surface drainage is only one among the many problems to be considered in
establishing the location and construction of roads. The most favourable location of
roadway as far as drainage is concerned, is the division between large drainage areas.
All streams must flow away from the right of way to reduce the drainage problem.
Roadway location parallel with the large streams should be avoided because it will
cross every tributary canal leading to the streams. Steep grades, and heavy cuts and
fill, should likewise be avoided for it will contribute to the problems of erosion.
-Surface drainage problems follow three basic considerations:
1. Hydraulic Design that deals with the estimating the highest rate of run-off to be
handled.
2. Hydraulic Design deals with the selection of the kinds and sizes of the drainage
facilities that is most economical to accommodate the estimated water flow.
3. Erosion Control is to ascertain the design will not create erosion or other
unacceptable environmental conditions.

5-2. HYDROLOGY
Hydrology is that branch of physical geography that deals with water of the earth.
The branch of hydrology that concern highway engineers are:
1. The frequency and intensity of precipitation.
2. The frequencies that this precipitation brings the highest run-off which are equal
or exceeded critical values.
3. The distribution of precipitation throughout the season that influences water
behaviour affecting the highway surfaces.
4. The prediction regarding the future rainfalls or run-off from gathered statistical
approaches, formula, or simulated methods based on the laws of probability.

Concomitant thereof, any methods of predicting maybe subject to substantial error.

Therefore, design should make the best possible use of existing methods, with full
expectations of high probability error.
-Run off is Predicted Based pm the Following Methods:
1. By the Rational Methods.
2. By the Empirical Formula.
3. By the Unit Hydrograph.

35
 4. By Statistical Approach.
5. By Simulation.
-Relationship and Effect of Hydraulic and Construction.
1. Usually, highway construction disrupt existing natural drainage pattern. Water
passing the natural right of ways is often intercepted by road cuts. The flow of
several streams are collected, to pass under the highway through single channel,
diverting streams to canal or culverts that differ in sizes and length including the
flow characteristics from the previous one.
2. Construction operations may disturb the ground cover, and loosed the soil
creating muddy stream as a result of erosion.
3. Erosions create debris that are carried downstream, and deposited at points
where the velocity slackens. Record shows that, almost every drainage
installations disturbed the ecological balance of nature.
4. Any changes in the land use may alter the historical run-off or un-gauged rural
water shed that could be disastrous on wide scale basis.
-Cardinal Rules on Drainage Design
1. As much as possible, any existing drainage system patterns and soil
cover should not be disturbed.
2. Necessary changed in the drainage patterns should not in any manner
bring velocities that may create new erosion problems.
Non-observance of these simple rules have created many serious problems in
the past, and worse, the people put their blame on those who were not involve in
making the highways very unsightly.
-Drainage Economic Considerations.
The term economy in drainage system, simply mean: finding the solution to a
problem that is cheapest in the long run under the following conditions:
1. Determine the estimated initial investment cost.
2. Consider the maintenance cost or outlay.
3. Consider anticipated loss and damage for each solution.
Under the forgoing considerations, annual appropriation for possible drainage or
economic loss is equal to the estimated losses from floods of various magnitudes,
multiplied by the probability that these floods will occur any time of the year.
For instance, if the drainage loss from any flood exceeding the design flow is
200,000 pesos divided by 5 years or 40,000 pesos per year.
Drainage problem is varied, and there is no single set of assumption or rule to
economic problem in drainage, considering the uncertainty of flood frequency where the
design is based. To major highways with large volume of traffic, losses to motorists and
to the economy, is tremendously high, if the road will be closed frequently, due to flood
and washout.
For major highways, projections might probed that drainage facilities should
accommodate a 50 year flood, whereas, the design based on a 5 year flood is
reasonable for a low volume rural roads.
Where drainage problem of any magnitude has alternative solution, economic
studies based on reasonable estimated costs and possible damages, represent the best
approach. Flood frequencies and some of the costs, must be thoroughly approximated
and let catastrophic occurrences pervert our perspective on cost risks.

36
5-3. DRAINING THE HIGHWAY
Rain water flows laterally or oblique on the surface of the road pavement under
the influence of the cross section slope or super elevation in the pavement and
shoulders. If the water flow is controlled, then, the shoulder in in danger of erosion.
However, the shoulder will have minimal erosion damage if it is already covered or
protected by turf or grass.
1. Water flowing across the roadway down the road slope must be thin enough in a
sheet form like so that the erosion on the shoulder will be minimized.
2. Unprotected slope could be badly washed out if irregularity in the pavement or
shoulder accumulates water into small streams. Another point of water
accumulation that endangers the shoulder is the low portion of sagged vertical
curves.
3. One way of preventing washout of the side slope is to retain the water at the
outer edge of the shoulder.
4. A crown ditch or intercepting channel may be employed at the top of the cut
slope. This will prevent erosion of the cut slope by surface runoff from the hillside
above.
5. The surface should not be disturbed in any manner where the natural ground is
already covered with grass or other ground cover
6. The channel or canal should be formed making the original ground as its bed and
a small dike of topsoil or imported materials to serve as its bank.
7. Scouring must be controlled. If possible, the water flow must be limited to a safer
amount diverting the flow at intervals. Water should be dropped drown to the
roadside ditch by means of specially designed conduit or channels.
-Draining the Urban Street
1. On city streets, rain waters are guided by the road slope to the gutters and
along with them the curb and inlets designed to limit the spread of water over
the traffic lanes.
2. AASHTO recommended that for a grade materials water should not encroach
on the outer lane by more than 1.8 meters for a 10 years flood. A 50 years
return period is proposed for depressed facilities.
3. The decision of water storm inlets and connections for gutters and depressed
median should be based on the same periods. Main storm drain for freeways
has to accommodate 50 to 100 years storm.
4. For arterials, the return interval is 20 to 50 years. The water flow estimate was
based on the Rational Formula using the value of runoff coefficient between
0.8 and 0.9 for pavements: 0.4 and 0.6 for gravel, and 1.0 and 0.7 for grass.

Rational Formula: Q = cIAd

Where:
Q = quantity of runoff in cubic foot per second
C = runoff coefficient expressing the ratio or rate of runoff to the
rate of rainfall
I = intensity of rainfall in inches per hour for a duration equal to the
time of concentration
Ad = drainage area in hectares
On freeways and urban streets, the inlets for gutters and median should pass the
designed flood without clogging with debris.

37
5-4. MANHOLE, INLETS AND CATCH BASIN
Manhole, inlets and catch basins are classified under Item 502 of the DPWH
standard specifications which includes construction, reconstruction or adjustment of
manholes inlets and catch basin.
Materials Requirements:
1. Corrugated Metal Units. When bituminous coating is specified, it shall conform to
ASTM D-1187, Asphalt Base Emulsion as protective coating for metal.
2. Sewer and manhole made of bricks from clay or shale must conform to AASHTO
M-91 standard specifications. Building bricks of solid masonry units made from
clay or shale must conform to AASHTO M-114.
3. Joint mortar mixture should be one part Portland cement and two parts fine
aggregate (gravel) plus hydrated lime equal to 1% of the cement by weight.
4. Frames, gratings, covers and ladder rungs, should be assembled before
shipment and may be re-assembled readily in the same position when installed.
Inaccuracy of bearings must be corrected by machine. The frame, grating or
cover to be used must constitute one pair.
All casting should be uniformly coated with asphalt emulsion meeting the
requirements of ASTM D-1187.
Structural concrete for the purpose must attain a minimum 28 days compressive
strength to 20.68 MPa (3,000 psi). Precast unit must be cured and the water absorption
of individual cores must not exceed 7 percent.
Sufficient number of cylinders shall be cast from the concrete for each unit that will
permit compression tests for 7, 14, and 28 days. And to allow at least 3 cylinders for
each tests. If the strength requirement is met at 7 or 14 day, the units will be certified for
use at 14 days from the date of casting. If the strength is not met at 28 days, all units
made from that batch will be rejected. Crack units, honeycomb or patched areas in
excess of 2,000 square millimetres, excessive water absorption and failure to meet
strength requirements will be rejected.
-Construction Requirements
1. Concrete construction must conform to the requirements for Item 405-
Structural Concrete. Metal frames should be set in full mortal bed and pipe
sections flushed on the inside of the structure wall projected outside
sufficiently for proper connection with the next pipe section.
2. Masonry shall fit neatly and tightly around the pipe.
3. When grade adjustment or existing structure is specified, the frames, covers
and gratings are removed and then reset to the specified elevation.
4. Upon completion, each structure should be cleaned of any accumulation of
silts, debris, or foreign matters of any kind until final acceptance of the work.
-Methods of Measurement
Standard manhole inlets and catch basins be it new, or reconstructed will be
measured in unit. Any authorized additional concrete, reinforcing bars, masonry or labor
required, will be measured and paid for under Item 404 and 405. Junction Box structure
is measured for payment as a manhole.
The number of concrete covers, pairs of metal frames and gratings, pairs of
metal frames and covers, will be measured as acceptably completed. Likewise, the
number of existing manholes, inlets, and catch basins will be measured as acceptably
completed.

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5-5. CHANNEL
The purpose in designing a channel is to determine the cross section of the canal
that will accommodate water flow smoothly and cheapest to construct and maintain.
1. Side slope with a ratio of 2:1 or even flatter is most acceptable, except on rock or
other hard materials where channels are lined. For unlined or unfinished channel
surface, the best cross section requires the least total excavations.
2. The design of crown ditches, gutters, stream channels, and culverts flowing
partially or fully, are based on the principles of flow in an open canal. For uniform
flow, the relationship is expressed in the Manning Formula.
Q = VA
= (AR 2 S^1/2)/n x 3
Where:
Q = quantity of discharge in meter per second
R = hydraulic radius in meter. This is the area of the flow across section divided
by the wetted perimeter.
A = area of the flow cross section in square meter
S = slope of the channel
N = manning roughness coefficient

The condition to various channel problems rest on the following distinctions:

a. Water flowing down a mild slope in an open canal is in Sub-critical flow.
b. Water flowing on steep slope is in Super-critical flow.
Sub-critical flow exists when the depth of the water in the channel is greater
than the critical depth.
Super-critical flow exists when the depth is less than the critical level.
The critical depth occurs when the velocity head is one half the average depth.
The Average depth or Mean depth is the cross sectional area of the flow divided
by its width at the liquid surface.

Unless the possibility of erosion is eliminated within a reasonable limit, channel

design is considered not a complete unit.
1. The actual velocity must be checked against the maximum values for
unprotected earth.
2. Where channel scouring is indicated, reduction of water velocity should be
adopted to a safe level.
3. To reduce the velocity is to reduce the flow of water by diversion.
4. Where diversion is not possible, the channel widened, or lengthened. As an
alternative, the slope of the channel is decreased.
5. Baffles, checks or drops are introduced to reduce slope in the channel.

39
5-6. CULVERT
With the exception of storm drain, culvert includes all closed conduits with
standard designs repeatedly used.
1. Culvert is loaded vertically by the wheel load of vehicles: the earth fill covering
the culvert: and the horizontal passive or active earth pressure. The magnitude of
these loads are uncertain as they are influenced by:
a. Depth of the cover.
b. Nature and density of the overlapping and adjacent soils.
c. Trench width and depth.
d. Deformation of the pipe under load.
e. Field construction procedures.
2. The stress calculation for pipe culverts are based on the assumptions regarding
the methods of under pipe support, soil support at its sides and loading
distribution over it.
3. Corrugated metal pipes are more flexible that could tolerate greater
deformations. The sides of the corrugated metal pipe deform laterally against the
adjacent backfill under vertical load and the horizontal earth pressure increases
the load carrying ability of the pipe.
4. Highway engineers rarely make structural design for pipes and culvert because
of the difficulties and uncertainties involved. Instead, they used past experience
and records as guide, then develop standard plans to fit all normal situations.
5. For concrete, vitrified clay and cast iron pipe, what is specified is the strength or
class of pipe to be used in each condition. For corrugated metal pipe, highway
engineers prescribe plate thickness for the different pipe size and the heights of
fill.
6. It is now the practice of relying much on the recommendations of various
manufacturers who prepared all the design date and computations etc.
7. Highway agency has standard drawing of various culvert design appropriate for
the more common heights and widths of openings, heights of fill, including skew
angles.
-Installation of Culvert
In order to safeguard the culvert and to prevent subsequent settlement in the
roadway surface, standard procedures for culvert installations are given special
attention particularly the bedding (footing) and backfilling.
1. Culvert are installed in the original bed of stream with their slope and flow line
conforming to the natural channel or canal. The stream flow should not be
disturbed to minimize the tendency of erosion.
2. In mountainous or rolling terrain, departure from channel alignment, either
upstream or downstream, may divert the current flow to one side of the channel.
This is dangerous to create erosion and deposition on the opposite side.
3. Culverts on skewed channel are relatively longer and costly. But channel
changes and erosion protections are provided with structures at one or both ends
to reduce the skews.
4. Inverted siphons should be avoided whenever the water carries sediments of
debris.
5. Stagnant water trapped inside the culverts sag is highly objectionable that must
be avoided.
6. Most culverts start upstream with headwalls and terminate downstream with end
wall. The headwalls direct the flow into the culvert proper, while the end walls
provide transition from the culvert back to the regular channel.

40
 7. Hydraulically, the headwalls and end walls functions separately but both retain
the embankment and protect it from washout.
8. In most cases, cut-off wall is extended to the level of expected scour. Sometimes
a paved apron or energy dissipater is extended beyond the cut-off wall.
9. The use of small pipe as end wall and sometimes headwall is being discourage
because they are hydraulically inefficient as entrances. Instead, the pipe is
extended beyond the toe of the embankment.
10. The L type headwall create serious accident hazard, thus, gutter inlet with grate
cover is recommended.
11. A wing type wall is recommended for large culverts. The flared U and warped
walls are used on special applications.
Under Item 500 of the DPWH standard specifications, the construction or
reconstruction of pipe culverts and storm drains are classified as Conduits.
-Conduits
Conduits are laid on bedding or footing that conform to the following standard
specifications.
1. Conduit Bedding is classified into Class A, B, and C.
2. In laying culvert pipes, the requirement of class C bedding is applied if no
bedding class is specified.
3. Class A bedding shall consist of a continuous concrete cradle conforming to the
plan details.
4. Class B bedding is extended to a depth not less than 30% of the vertical outside
diameter of the conduit pipe.
5. The minimum thickness of the bedding materials beneath the pipe is 10
centimeters composed of sand passing a 9.5 mm sieve but nor more than 10%
passes 0.075 mm sieve.
6. The layer of bedding material is arranged and shaped to fit in the conduit for at
least 15% of its total height.
7. When a bell and spigot type is used, the recesses in the bottom trench are
shaped to accommodate the bell.
8. Class C bedding should be extended to a depth not less than 10% of its total
height.
9. For flexible pipes, the bed is roughly shaped and a bedding blanket of sand is
specified.
For larger diameter structural plate pipes, the shaped bed need not exceed the width
of the bottom plate.
-Laying the Conduit Pipe
1. Installation of conduit pipes should start at the downstream end of the conduit
line.
2. The lower segment of the conduit pipe should be in contrast with the shape
throughout its full length.
3. The bell or groove ends of rigid conduits and outside circumferential laps of
flexible conduits are placed with longitudinal laps or seams at the side.
4. Paved or partially lined conduits pipes are laid with the longitudinal centreline
of the paved segment coincides with the flow line of water.
5. Elliptical and elliptically reinforced conduits are placed with the major axis
within 5 degrees of a vertical plan through the longitudinal axis of the conduit.

41
-Joining the Conduit Pipes
Rigid conduit pipes are bell and spigot type, tongue and groove, or other types
that may be specified.
1. In joining conduit pipes, the ends are fully entered into the inner surface evenly
flushed. Joints are connected by:
a.) Portland cement mortar or grout.
b.) Rubber gaskets.
c.) Oakum and mortar or joint compound.
d.) Plastic sealing compound.
e.) A combination of these types or any other as may specified.
2. Joint mortar for concrete pipes consists of 1 part by volume of Portland cement
and 2 parts of approved sand with water necessary to obtain a refined
consistency. Mortar should be used immediately within 30 minutes after its
preparations.
3. Mortar joint is made with excess mortar to form a continuous bead around the
outside joint of the pipe and smoothly finished on the side.
4. Rubber gaskets are installed to form a flexible watertight seal. When Portland
cement mixture is used, the completed joints are protected against rapid drying
be any suitable covering materials.
5. Flexible conduits are firmly joined by coupling bands.
-Backfilling
Backfilling follows after the laying installation of conduit pipes under the following
specifications:
1. Materials for backfill should be fine, readily compacted soil or granular material
selected from approved sources. It should be placed on each side of the conduit
for the full trench width up to elevation of 30 cm. above the top of the pipe.
2. Backfill materials should be free from stones that would be retained on 50 mm
sieve, nor chunks of highly plastic clay and other objectionable materials.
3. At least 95% of the granular backfill materials passes the 12.5 mm sieve and not
less than 95% of it are retained on a 4.75 mm sieve
4. Oversized materials if present should be removed.
5. On top of the trench, backfill materials are placed at or near optimum moisture
content and compacted in layers not exceeding 15 cm. (compacted) on both
sides up to 30 centimeters above the top of the conduit. Care should be
exercised to compact thoroughly the backfill under the haunches of the conduit.
6. For that portion above the trench on each side of the conduit pipe, the width of
backfill is equal to twice the diameter of the conduit or 3.5 meters whichever is
smaller.
7. After being bedded and backfilled, all conduits are protected by cover fill 1.00
meter high, before any heavy equipment is permitted to cross during the
construction of the roadway.
-Field Strutting
Whenever required by the plan and specifications, vertical diameter of rounded
flexible conduits is increased by 5 percent through shop elongation or by means of jacks
applied after the entire line of conduit installed on the bedding but before backfilling. The
vertical elongation should be maintained by means of sills and struts, or by horizontal
ties used on paved invert pipe.

42
 Pipes and struts should be 30 centimeters in place until the embankment is
completed and compacted.
-Methods of Measurement
Conduit pipe of different types and sizes whether new or reinstalled will be
measured by linear meter installed. Conduit with sloped or skewed ends will be
measured along the invert. Every section will be measured according to the number of
units installed. Class B bedding (footing) materials placed and approved will be
measured in place by cubic meter.
When the Bid Schedule contains an estimated quantity for furnishing and placing
backfill materials and pipe culverts, the quantity to be paid will be the number of cubic
meter completed in place and accepted, measured in final position between the limits as
follows:
1. Measurement include backfill materials up to the top of the original ground line
but will not include any materials placed outside of vertical place 45 cm. up
outside and parallel with the inside wall of the pipe at its widest horizontal
dimension.
2. The measurement will also include all backfill materials above the original ground
line adjacent to the pipe for a height of 30 cm. above the top of the pipe and for a
distance on each side of the pipe not greater than the widest horizontal
dimension of the pipe if the original ground line is less than 30 centimeters.
3. The measurement includes the placing of backfill materials in all trenches.

5-7. DESIGN OF UNDERDRAIN

Underdrain is categorized under Item 501 of DPWH Standard Specifications,
which provides that:
“This item shall consist of constructing underdrain, using pipes and granular filter
material underdrain pipe outlets and blind drains using granular material in accordance
with the specifications and in reasonably close conformity with the lines and grades
shown on the plans or as established by the engineer.”
1. The pipe used to carry away collected water. The size and number of pipes
and its locations of opening should be studied carefully to prevent excessive
entrance velocity that will cause silting to the pipe.
2. Filter materials with which the trench is backfilled or the opening in the filter,
should be fine enough so that the adjacent soil will be washed-out into the
drain.
3. The top of underdrain should be sealed with impervious soil to prevent the
entrance of surface water.
4. Intercepting drains must extend into the impervious zone.
5. The pipes are laid with the flow into the impervious zone. The pipes are laid
with the flow line at least 1.2 meters below the finished grade and carefully
bedded with gravel or filer materials.
-Materials
Materials should conform with the requirements specified as follows:
1. Zinc coated (galvanized) corrugated iron or steel for culverts and underdrain
(AASHTO M-36).

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 2. Extra strength and standard strength clay pipe and perforated clay pipe
(AASHTO M-165).
3. Porous concrete (AASHTO M-176).
4. Perforated concrete (AASHTO M-175).
5. Bituminous fiber non-pressure sewer drain and under drainage pipe system
(AASHTO M-177).
6. Asbestos cement perforated underdrain pipes (AASHTO M-189).
-Granular Backfill Filter Materials
Granular backfill filter materials shall be permeable meeting the requirements of
AASHTO M-6 specifications except that soundness test will not be required and minor
variations in grading and content of deleterious substances may be approved by the
engineer. All materials are subject to inspection before acceptance.
-Construction Requirements
1. Pipe installation. Trenches are excavated to the dimensions and grades required
by the plan. A minimum of 15 cm. bedding layer of granular backfill materials are
placed and compacted at the bottom of the trench. Sub-drainage pipe are
embedded firmly on the bedding.
2. Perforated pipes are placed with the perforations downward securely joined with
appropriate fittings or bands.
3. Non-perforated pipes are laid with the bell end upgrade with open joints wrapped
with suitable materials to permit entry of water, or unwrapped as may be
specified.
4. Upgrade end sections of all sub-drainage pipe installations are closed with
suitable plugs to prevent entry of soil materials.
5. After the pipe installation, granular backfill materials are placed 30 cm. above the
top of the pipe and should be displaced by the covering of open joints.
6. The remainder of granular backfill are placed and compacted at every after 15
cm. layers up to the required height. Any remaining portion of the trench above
the granular backfill shall be filled with either granular of impervious materials
and thoroughly compacted.
-Underdrain Outlet
Trench for underdrain outlets are excavated to the depth and width as planned.
Pipes are laid in the trench with all ends firmly joined and backfilled after inspection
and approval of the pipe installations.
-Blind Drain
Trenches for blind drains are excavated to the width and depth as shown on
plans. The trench is the filled with granular backfill material to the required depth. Any
remaining upper portions of the trench should be filled with either granular or impervious
material in accordance with the requirements for excavations.

5-8. DEBRIS CONTROL

Flood waters usually carries objectionable objects like brushes, banana trunks,
tree branches etc. these floating debris clogs culvert entrances and raise the headwater
elevation overflowing the road and damaging adjoining properties. Culverts should be
designed to allow debris to pass a single large span box culvert is preferred on streams
carrying large floating objects than the multi-span culvert with the same area of
openings.

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 Another alternative is to extend the curtain wall separating the barrels of the multi
span culverts upstream, with its top slanting downward so that in time of flood, debris
carried by flood water will ride up on this wall or turn to pass easily through the opening.
Another method proven effective is to install up stream debris racks or wire, steel
rail or piling. Some design provides trap for the sand or gravel carried by the stream
rather than having it pass through the structure. However, design of debris control
devices depends upon the kind of debris to be handled, the volume of floodwater and
the site conditions.

5-9. THE LEGAL ASPECT OF DRAINAGE

Highway agency is legally responsible for any damage to private property
affected by the changes it makes in natural drainage patter within the limit that water
must flow.
Damage claim against the Department could be established if:
1. When as a result of the agency’s project, the flow of several streams or creeks
were concentrated into a single channel that resulted to erosion, silting or
flooding of private property.
2. When due to poor design or inadequate maintenance, water backed against
highway or embankment resulted to inundation of land or property or caused
injury or death.
3. Liability however, is limited to damages in direct consequences of the
improvement. The agency would be liable for damages if an unprecedented
storm causes the stream to overflow a newly constructed channel, provided that
this channel has the capacity equal to the natural volume of water flow.
4. Engineering decisions if based on an accepted practice, do not provide for a
course of action. In any cases, the responsibility of the highway agency would be
determined through negotiations or court litigations. Therefore, design of
drainage system must satisfy the various requirements of the environmental laws
and regulations.

5-10. ROADWAY DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR UNUSUAL SOIL

CONDITIONS
Problems usually encountered in the design and constructions of roadways are:
1. The stability of fill sand slope
2. The drainage
3. Capillarity and frost heave
4. Permafrost
5. Elasticity and rutting

-Stability of Fills and Slope

There are instances where the materials in cut bank slips down the roadway, or
sometimes, a portion of high fill slides outward carrying portion of the roadway. This
pattern of failure is common in fills or cut slope of homogenous non-granular materials.

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 1. Slides may happen during construction or at later date after the road is in service.
It is advisable to risk some sliding or adjustments of large slope than to flatten
increasing pay yardage.
2. If possible during the location surveys, areas that are threatened by frequent
slide, should be avoided. Minor slope adjustment, slides, and ledge falls that
occur during construction should be removed to widen fill or to flatten the slope.
3. Slides may be caused either by mud flows, slope adjustment, or movement due
to underground water or undercut rock strata. Slides happened when an
underlying inclined surface of shale, soapstone, or the like is lubricated by
seepage water.
4. Slides maybe controlled by removing large portion of the materials above the
slippage surface, or by some drainage devices that keeps water off the surface of
weakness.
5. Water must always be intercepted before it lubricates the critical slip surface.
-Capillarity
Capillarity is the tendency of water to seek its own level as if in an open channel
flows through the pores and fine channels of the soil. It is the force pulling free water
through the voids of the soil in all directions.
Capillarity action is most common in permeable materials such as dirty gravel and
soils composed mainly of fine sand, silts or clayey silts. Capillary flow however, is less
common in impermeable materials like clay and colloidal soils.
1. In roadway construction, moisture has to be controlled. Over saturation of the soil
in road structure reduces its strength and the differential expansion of the soil
due to uncontrolled moisture may lead to serious problems.
2. Moisture in the roadway is brought about by the changes in weather, seasons or
by capillary action of the water.
3. Water movement due to capillarity action take place in any directions, and an
upward movement may create undesirable conditions. If the surface of the soil is
open, evaporation of moisture is faster, and no damage may result, but, if the
surface is covered with pavement or other impervious blanket, capillary water
may be accumulated and saturate the subsurface layers that usually resulted to
pavement failure.
4. Consistency of soil varies from semi solid to plastic liquid if moisture content is
increased. The behaviour of the material used is directly correlated with changes
and percentages of moisture content.
5. Voids in soil are of the same order of magnitude as the particle sizes. Thus, the
height of capillary rise would be greater in fine grain soils than in coarse grain
soils. Likewise, temperature plays an important role in the capillary rise of water
in soils. The height of rise is greater in low temperature than in high temperature.
-Elasticity and Rutting
Elasticity is common in soils whose fines consist mainly of flat and flaky particles.
This kind of soil has rubberized characteristic that rebound under heavy loads.
1. Highly plastic soils should not be placed closer to the roadway surface where
heavy loads are expected. Early cracking of the pavement may happen due to
deformations caused by the rebound of the soil.
2. When heavy loads passes on a plastic soils, compression and rebound occurs to
at least 6 meters below the surface. 80% of the load is concentrated 90 cm. from
the top of the surface. The design therefore, is to sum up the total expected load

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 and rebound in the pavement to be sure that it does not produce fatigue and
failure in the pavement.
3. Deflection of the pavement surface as the wheel slowly rolls past the reference
point is measured by a measuring device called Bankelman Beam. A long
slender bar slips into the space between the dual tires of the truck wheels.
Deflection rate of travel shock wave is recorded.

5-11. STABILIZING THE UNSUPPORTED SLOPE

An existing earth slope that have been stable can experience significant movement
called slope failure or landslide due to the following physical changes:
a. Changes in natural conditions
b. Changes induced by man
-Changes in natural conditions may be the result from:
1. Occurrence of earthquake.
2. Subsidence of underground cavern.
3. Erosion.
4. Slope weakening due to the development of cracks or shrinkage cracks
that are followed by water intrusions.
5. Variations in the elevation of ground water or changes in the slope
subsurface flow that create new seepage forces.
6. Weakening of buried soil or rock seams due to ground water flow or
chemical leaching.
-Changes Induced by Man
a. Increased loading on a slope or near its crest.
b. Removal of earth below the toe of a slope.
c. Removal of materials from slope making it steeper.
d. Topographic modification like earth moving, excavations, change in
elevation from one area to another which may create slope failure.
e. Landslide or other conditions caused by man.
-Slide
Slide refers to the occurrence where the moving mass is defined and separated
from the underlying and adjacent earth by plane, comprising a number of adjacent
planes were seepage result. The seepage plane represents the continuous surface
where the maximum shear strength of the earth material has been reached with the
result that large displacement occurs.
Slide is classified into four:
1. Rotational slide.
2. Translational slide.
3. Block or wedge failure.
4. Flows and spread.
Rational slide is associated with natural slopes and constructed embankment of
homogenous materials possessing cohesion.
Translational slide is associated with slope of layered materials where the
mechanism of slippage occurs along a weak plane that possesses a downward dip and
in cohesionless soil slopes where seepage occurs.

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 Block or Wedge failure refers to the displacement of an intact mass of soil due
to the action of an adjacent zone of earth.
Flows and Spread failure is the most complex type of soil mass movement.
Flow involves lateral movement of soil having a characteristic of viscous fluid, although
the actual consistency of the moving mass may vary from very wet to dry.
Spread refers to the occurrence of multi-directional lateral movement by a
fractured soil mass. Earthquake is a typical causes of lateral spreads.

5-12. IMPROVING THE STABILITY OF SLOPE

Slope areas that have experienced slides in the past should be considered likely
to undergo further movement if loading condition changes.
Procedures adopted in the past which have been successful in stabilizing slopes
are enumerated as follows:
1. Corrective and preventive measures of reducing a mass or loading has
successfully prevented further slides.
2. Improving the shear strength of the earth in the failure zone by constructing
structural elements that will provide resistance to movement.
3. Consider the characteristics of the soil in the slope like:
a) The thickness and depth of the materials involved in sliding.
b) The ground water conditions.
c) The spaces available to undertake corrective changes.
d) The topographical conditions at the vicinity of the slope and tendency for
changes such as the advent of the seismic and vibratory loadings to occur.
4. Where area is available, flattening of the slope can be done to reduce the weight
of the mass that tends to slide.
5. If base failure is anticipated, placement of beam below the toe of the slope will
increase movement resistance.
6. If the zone below the toe is susceptible to severe erosion, protective rock fill
blanket and riprap can be installed at the toe area.
7. To prevent infiltration, erosion and to reduce seepage force, the stone
subsurface water and intercept surface water should be lowered.
8. If the soil is cohesionless, the shear strength of the slope material can be
improved through densification by using explosives or vibroflotation or terra
probe procedures.
9. For cohesive soils, shear strength reduction through surcharging which may
include wick drains, electro osmosis and thermal drying.
10. Where the weak condition is critical to the stability of the slope, grouting and
injection methods could be utilized to add cementing and bonding agent.
11. Pile Driving, sheet piling or retaining walls are utilized to provide lateral support
and increase resistance of slope tending to stocks.
12. Improvement and protective methods such as slope flattening and drainage
control are preferred for economic reasons.

5-13. RETAINING WALL

The practical use of gravity retaining wall is controlled by height limitations. Thus,
the required wall cross section increases significantly with tall heights due to the effect
of the triangular soil pressure distributed behind the retaining wall.

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 If the ground water level rises into the backfill behind a retaining wall because of
either changing ground water condition or percolating water surface, the lateral pressure
against the wall is also changed
To avoid the rise of water building up behind the retaining wall, a weep hole or
collector drainage system or both are provided as part of the design construction. Weep
holes should be at least 3 inches diameter provided with granular soil filter fabric at the
wall to prevent backfill erosion. The horizontal spacing of weep holes ranges from 1.2 to
3.0 meters.
For taller walls, two or more of weep holes may be provided with typical vertical
spacing at 1.5 meters.
a. Straight Sections
Used where tension valve of interlock is cellular construction. Piling ordered with
required interlock strength specified and type of structure indicated.
b. Z Sections
High ratio of beam strength to weight means maximum economy in steel sheet
piling. Used primarily in filled bulkheads or other walls requiring high beam
strength.
c. Archweb Sections
Designed for applications where a combination of beam strength and interlock
tightness is required. Used generally in light bulkheads internally braced single
wall cofferdams, cut-off walls.
A good retaining wall design must conform to the following requirements:
1. The bases and stem of the retaining must be capable of resisting the internal
shear and bending moments developing as a result of soil and other loading.
2. The wall must be safe against overturning.
3. The wall structure must be safe against sliding.
4. The bearing capacity of the foundation material supporting the wall must not be
exceeded.
-Item 504 Rip Rap and Grouted Rip Rap
This item includes furnishing and placing of riprap with or without grout; with or
without filter backing. Stones for riprap shall consist of rocks as nearly rectangular in
section as is practical except that riprap of Class A may consist of round natural stones.
The stone shall be sound, tough, durable, dense, resistance to the action of air and
water and suitable in all respects for the purpose intended.
Class of Stone for Riprapping
Class A – Stone ranging from 15 to 25 kg. with at least 50% of the stones
weighing more than 20 kg.
Class B – Stone ranging from 30 to 70 kg. with at least 50% of the stones
weighing more than 50 kg.
Class C – Stone ranging from 60 to 100 kg. with at least 50% of the stones
weighing more than 80 kg.
Class D – Stone weighing from 100 kg. to 200 kg. with at least 50% of the stones
weighing more than 150 kg.
Where required, riprap shall be placed on a filtered later to prevent fire
embankment materials from being washout through the voids of the faces stones.

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-Excavation and Placing
The bed for riprap is excavated down the required depth properly compacted,
trimmed and shaped. The riprap foundation is dug below the depth of scour. The toe
trench is filled with stone of the same class as specified.
Stones placed below the water line are distributed properly and those above the
water level are placed by hand or individually laid by machine with close broken joints
firmly bedded into the slope against the adjoining stones.
Grouting
When grouted riprap is specified, stones are placed by hand or individually laid
by machine. Spaces between stones are then filled with cement mortar sufficient
enough to completely fill all the voids except the face surface of the stones left exposed.
Cement grout is placed starting from the bottom to the top of the surface and
then swept with stiff broom. After grouting, the surface and then swept with stiff broom.
After grouting, the surface is cured like structural concrete for period of at least 3 days
after the installation.
Masonry stone is categorized under Item 505 of the DPWH standard
specifications. This item consists of stone masonry in minor structures, in headwalls for
culverts and retaining walls at the toes of the slope.
-Material Requirements
1. The stone should be clean, hard and durable. Adobe stone shall not be used
unless specified.
2. Stones shall have a thickness not less than 15 cm. and width not less than 1
and ½ times their respective width. Each stone shall be good of shape free of
depressions and projections that might weaken or prevent it from being
properly laid or bedded.
3. Stones are dressed to remove any thin or weak portions. Face stones are
also dressed to provide bed and joint lines that do not vary more than 2 cm.
from the true lines and to ensure the meeting of bed and joint lines without the
rounding of corners of the stone in excess of 3 centimeters in radius.
4. The bed surface of the face stone should be approximately normal to the face
of the stones for about 8 cm. and from this point may depart from a normal
plane not to exceed 5 cm. in 30 centimeters.
5. Face stones are pitched to line along the bed and joints. The minimum
projection of rock faces beyond the pitch lines should not be more than 5
centimeters.

5-14. HIGHWAY BRIDGES

Highway bridges are of two types:
1. Those that carry vehicular traffic and pedestrians over a large stream.
2. Those that separate traffic movements as interchanges and street pedestrians
over or under crossings.

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