Unit-IV.

Design of Deep
Foundation
 Pile Foundation
Introduction
• Shallow foundations are normally used where the soil close to the
ground surface and up to the zone of significant stress possesses
sufficient bearing strength to carry the superstructure load without
causing distress to the superstructure due to settlement.
• However, where the top soil is either loose or soft or of a swelling
type the load from the structure has to be transferred to deeper firm
strata.
• The structural loads may be transferred to deeper firm strata by
means of piles.

⇒Piles are long slender columns either driven, bored or cast-in-situ.

• Driven piles are made of a variety of materials such as concrete,
steel, timber etc., whereas cast-in-situ piles are concrete piles.
They may be subjected to vertical or lateral loads or a combination of
vertical and lateral loads.
 Pile Foundation
Classification of piles
• Piles may be classified as long or short in accordance with the L/d
ratio of the pile (where L = length, d = diameter of pile).
• A short pile behaves as a rigid body and rotates as a unit under
lateral loads.
The load transferred to the tip of the pile bears a significant
proportion of the total vertical load on the top.
• In the case of a long pile, the length beyond a particular depth loses
its significance under lateral loads, but when subjected to vertical
load, the frictional load on the sides of the pile bears a significant
part to the total load.
• Piles may further be classified as vertical piles or inclined piles.
Vertical piles are normally used to carry mainly vertical loads and
very little lateral load.
 Pile Foundation
Classification of piles
• When piles are inclined at an angle to the vertical, they are
called batter piles or raker piles.
• Batter piles are quite effective for taking lateral loads, but when
used in groups, they also can take vertical loads.

Types of Piles According to Their

Composition
• Piles may be classified according to their composition as:
1. Timber Piles,
2. Concrete Piles,
3. Steel Piles.
 Pile Foundation
Timber Piles
• Timber piles are made of tree trunks with the branches trimmed off.
Such piles shall be of sound quality and free of defects. The length
of the pile may be 15 m or more. If greater lengths are required, they
may be spliced. The diameter of the piles at the butt end may vary
from 30 to 40 cm. The diameter at the tip end should not be less than
15 cm.
• Piles entirely submerged in water last long without decay provided
marine borers are not present. When a pile is subjected to alternate
wetting and drying the useful life is relatively short unless treated
with a wood preservative, usually creosote at 250 kg per m3 for piles
in fresh water and 350 kg/m3 in sea water.
 Pile Foundation
Timber Piles (Cont’)
• After being driven to final depth, all pile heads, treated or untreated,
should be sawed square to sound undamaged wood to receive the
pile cap. But before concrete for the pile cap is poured, the head of
the treated piles should be protected by a zinc coat, lead paint or by
wrapping the pile heads with fabric upon which hot pitch is applied.
• Driving of timber piles usually results in the crushing of the fibers
on the head (or brooming) which can be somewhat controlled by
using a driving cap, or ring around the butt.
• The usual maximum design load per pile does not exceed 250 kN.
Timber piles are usually less expensive in places where timber is
plentiful.
 Pile Foundation
Concrete Piles
• Concrete piles are either precast or cast-in-situ piles. Precast
concrete piles are cast and cured in a casting yard and then
transported to the site of work for driving. If the work is of a very
big nature, they may be cast at the site also.
• Precast piles may be made of uniform sections with pointed tips.
Tapered piles may be manufactured when greater bearing resistance
is required.
• Normally piles of square or octagonal sections are manufactured
since these shapes are easy to cast in horizontal position. Necessary
reinforcement is provided to take care of handling stresses. Piles
may also be prestressed. Maximum load on a prestressed concrete
pile is approximately 2000 kN and on precast piles 1000 kN. The
optimum load range is 400 to 600 kN.
 Pile Foundation
Steel Piles
• Steel piles are usually rolled H shapes or pipe piles, H-piles are
proportioned to withstand large impact stresses during hard driving.

• Pipe piles are either welded or seamless steel pipes which may be
driven either open-end or closed-end. Pipe piles are often filled with
concrete after driving, although in some cases this is not necessary.

• The optimum load range on steel piles is 400 to 1200kN.

 Pile Foundation
Types of Piles According to the Method of
Installation

• According to the method of construction, there are three types

of piles. They are

1. Driven piles,

2. Cast-in-situ piles and

3. Driven and cast-in-situ piles.

 Pile Foundation
Driven Piles
• Piles may be of timber, steel or concrete. When the piles are of
concrete, they are to be precast. They may be driven either vertically
or at an angle to the vertical. Piles are driven using a pile hammer.
When a pile is driven into granular soil, the soil so displaced, equal
to the volume of the driven pile, compacts the soil around the sides
since the displaced soil particles enter the soil spaces of the adjacent
mass which leads to densification of the mass.
• The pile that compacts the soil adjacent to it is sometimes called a
compaction pile. The compaction of the soil mass around a pile
increases its bearing capacity. If a pile is driven into saturated silty or
cohesive soil, the soil around the pile cannot be densified because of
its poor drainage qualities. The displaced soil particles cannot enter
the void space unless the water in the pores is pushed out.
 Pile Foundation
Cast-in-situ Piles
• Cast-in-situ piles are concrete piles. These piles are distinguished
from drilled piers as small diameter piles.

• They are constructed by making holes in the ground to the required

depth and then filling the hole with concrete.

• Straight bored piles or piles with one or more bulbs at intervals may
be cast at the site. The latter type are called under-reamed piles.

• Reinforcement may be used as per the requirements.

 Pile Foundation
Driven and Cast-in-situ Piles
• A steel shell is driven into the ground with the aid of a mandrel
inserted into the shell. The mandrel is withdrawn and concrete is
placed in the shell. The shell is made of corrugated and reinforced
thin sheet steel (mono-tube piles) or pipes (Armco welded pipes or
common seamless pipes). The piles of this type are called a shell
type.
• The shell-less type is formed by withdrawing the shell while the
concrete is being placed.
• In both the types of piles the bottom of the shell is closed with a
conical tip which can be separated from the shell. By driving the
concrete out of the shell an enlarged bulb may be formed in both the
types of piles. Franki piles are of this type.
• The common types of driven and cast-in-situ piles are given in Fig.
15 below.
 Pile Foundation
Driven and Cast-in-situ Piles

Figure 15.1 Types of cast-in-situ and driven cast-in-situ concrete piles

 Pile Foundation
Uses of Piles
• The major uses of piles are:

1. To carry vertical compression load.

2. To resist uplift load.

3. To resist horizontal or inclined loads.

 Pile Foundation

Figure 15.2(a) Principles of floating foundation; and a typical rigid raft foundation
 Pile Foundation

Figure 15.2(b) Piles used to resist lateral loads

 Pile Foundation
Selection of Pile
• The selection of the type, length and capacity is usually made from
estimation based on the soil conditions and the magnitude of the load.
• The foundation design must be revised according to the test results.
The factors that govern the selection of piles are:
1. Length of pile in relation to the load and type of soil
2. Character of structure
3. Availability of materials
4. Type of loading
5. Factors causing deterioration
6. Ease of maintenance
7. Estimated costs of types of piles, taking into account the initial cost, life
expectancy and cost of maintenance
8. Availability of funds
• All the above factors have to be largely analyzed before deciding up
on a particular type.
 Pile Foundation
Installation of Piles
• The method of installing a pile at a site depends upon the type of
pile. The equipment required for this purpose varies. The
following types of piles are normally considered for the purpose
of installation:
1. Driven piles
2. Driven cast-in-situ piles
3. Bored cast-in-situ piles

Pile Driving Equipment for Driven and Driven Cast-in-situ Piles

• Pile driving equipment contains three parts. They are
1. A pile frame,
2. Piling winch,
3. Impact hammers.
Figure 15.3 Pile driving equipment and
vibratory pile driver
 Pile Foundation
Bearing Capacity of a Single Vertical Pile
• The bearing capacity of a single pile depends upon:
1. Type, size and length of pile,
2. Type of soil,
3. The method of installation.

• The design should comply with the following requirements:

1. It should ensure adequate safety against failure; the factor of
safety used depends on the importance of the structure and on the
reliability of the soil parameters and the loading systems used in
the design.
2. The settlements should be compatible with adequate behavior of
the superstructure to avoid impairing its efficiency.
 Pile Foundation
Load Transfer Mechanism

Figure 15.4 Load-transfer curves for a single pile

Load Transfer Mechanism (Cont’)

Figure 15.4 Load-transfer mechanism

 Pile Foundation
Load Transfer Mechanism (Cont’)
• When the ultimate load applied on the top of the pile is Qu , a part of
the load is transmitted to the soil along the length of the pile and the
balance is transmitted to the pile base.
• The load transmitted to the soil along the length of the pile is called
the ultimate friction load or skin load Qf and that transmitted to the
base is called the base or point load Qb . The total ultimate load Qu is
expressed as the sum of these two:

Qu = Qb + Q f = q b Ab + f s As (Eq.15.1)

• Where Qu = ultimate load applied on the top of the pile, qb =

ultimate unit bearing capacity of the pile at the base, Ab = bearing
area of the base of the pile, As = total surface area of pile embedded
below ground surface, fs = unit skin friction (ultimate)
 Load Transfer Mechanism (Cont’)
• The type of load-settlement curve for a pile depends on the
relative strength values of the surrounding and underlying soil.

Figure 15.5 Types of failure of piles. (a) buckling in very weak surrounding soil;
(b) general shear failure in the strong lower soil.
 Load Transfer Mechanism (Cont’)

Figure 15.5 Types of failure of piles. Figures (a) to (e) indicate how strength
of soil determines the type of failure: (a) buckling in very weak surrounding
soil; (b) general shear failure in the strong lower soil; (c) soil of uniform
strength; (d) low strength soil in the lower layer, skin friction predominant;
(e) skin friction in tension (Kezdi, 1975)
 Pile Foundation
Factor of Safety
• The working load for all pile types in all types of soil may be taken as
equal to the sum of the base resistance and shaft friction divided by a
suitable factor of safety. A safety factor of 2.5 is normally used.
Therefore we may write:
Qb + Q f
Qa = (Eq.15.2)
2.5
• In case where the values of Qb and Qf can be obtained independently,
the allowable load can be written as:
Qb Q f
Qa = + (Eq.15.3)
3 1.5
• It is permissible to take a safety factor equal to 1.5 for the skin friction
because the peak value of skin friction on a pile occurs at a settlement
of only 3-8 mm (relatively independent of shaft diameter and
embedded length but may depend on soil parameters) whereas the base
resistance requires a greater settlement for full mobilization.
Methods of Determining Ultimate Load
Bearing

Capacity of a Single Vertical Pile

• The ultimate bearing capacity, Qu , of a single vertical pile may

be determined by any of the following methods:

1. By the use of static bearing capacity equations.

2. By the use of SPT and CPT values.

3. By field load tests.

4. By dynamic method.
General Theory For Ultimate Bearing
Capacity
−
• The total failure load Qumay be written as follows:
_
Qu = Qu + WP = Qb + Q f + WP (Eq.15.4)

Where :
Qu = load at failure applied to the pile
Qb = base resistance
Qf = shaft resistance
Wp = weight of the pile.
General Theory For Ultimate Bearing
Capacity
• The general equation for the base resistance may be written as:

1
Qb = (cN c + q N q + γdN γ ) Ab
'
o (Eq.15.5)
2
Where
d = width or diameter of the shaft at base level
q' o = effective overburden pressure at the base level of the pile
Ab = base area of pile
c = cohesion of soil
y = effective unit weight of soil
Nc, Nq , Nγ = bearing capacity factors which take into account
the shape factor.
 General Theory For Ultimate Bearing
Capacity
For Cohesionless Soils
• For cohesionless soils, c = 0 and the term 1/2γdNγ becomes
insignificant in comparison with the term q0Nq for deep
foundations. Therefore Eq. (15.5) reduces to

Qb = q 0' N q Ab = qb Ab (Eq.15.6)

• And the total failure load in Eq. (15.4) may now be written as:
−
Qb = Qu + W p = q N q Ab + W p + Q f
'
0 (Eq.15.7)

The net ultimate load in excess of the overburden pressure load qoAb
is:
Qu + WP − q 0 Ab = q 0' N q Ab + WP − q 0' Ab + Q f (Eq.15.8)
 General Theory For Ultimate Bearing
Capacity
For Cohesionless Soils (Cont’)
• If we assume, for all practical purposes, Wp and q'0Ab are roughly
equal for straight side or moderately tapered piles, Eq. (15.8)
reduces to reduces to:
or
Qu = q 0' N q Ab + Q f
− −
Qu = q N q Ab + As q K s tan δ
'
0
'
0
(Eq.15.9)
General Theory For Ultimate Bearing
Capacity
For Cohesive Soils
• For cohesive soils such as saturated clays (normally
consolidated), we have for φ= 0, Nq = 1 and Nγ= 0.

• The ultimate base load from Eq. (15.5) is:

(Eq.15.10)

(Eq.15.11)
 General Theory For Ultimate Bearing
Capacity
For Cohesive Soils (Cont’)
• Therefore, the net ultimate load capacity of the pile, Qu , is:

(Eq.15.12)
 Critical Depth
• The ultimate bearing capacity Qu in cohesionless soils:

(Eq.15.16a)

(Eq.15.16b)

• The Eq. (15.16b) implies that both the point resistance qb and the skin
resistance fs are functions of the effective overburden pressure qo in
cohesionless soils and increase linearly with the depth of embedment,
L, of the pile.
• However, extensive research work carried out by Vesic (1967) has
revealed that the base and frictional resistances remain almost
constant beyond a certain depth of embedment which is a function of
φ. This phenomenon was attributed to arching by Vesic.
 Critical Depth
• One conclusion from the investigation of Vesic is that in cohesionless
soils, the bearing capacity factor, N , is not a constant depending on φ
only, but also on the ratio L/d (where L = length of embedment of pile,
d = diameter or width of pile
• In a similar way, the frictional resistance, fs, increases with the L/d
ratio and remains constant beyond a particular depth. Let Lc be the
depth, which may be called the critical depth, beyond which both qb
and fs remain constant. Experiments of Vesic have indicated that Lc is
a function of φ. The Lc /d ratio as a function of φ may be expressed as
follows (Poulos and Davis, 1980).

(Eq.15.17a)

(Eq.15.17b)
 Critical Depth
• The above expressions have been developed based on the curve
given by Poulos and Davis, (1980) giving the relationship between
Lc /d and φ °.
• The above The Eqs. (15.17) indicate that:

• The φ values to be used for obtaining Lc /d are as follows:

(Eq.15.18a)
(Eq.15.18b)
 Tomlinson’s Solution for Qb in Sand
Driven Piles
• The theoretical Nq
factor in Eq. (15.9) is a
function of φ.

Bearing capacity factor, Nq

• There is great variation
in the values of Nq
derived by different
investigators as shown
in Fig. 15.8.

Figure 15.8 Bearing capacity

factors for circular deep
foundations (after Kezdi, 1975)
Angle of internal friction φ °
 Tomlinson’s Solution for Qb in Sand
Driven Piles (Cont’)
• Nq Values established by Berezantsev et al., (1961) take into account the depth to
width ratio of the pile,
Figure 15.9 Berezantsev's bearing capacity
factor, N (after Tomlinson, 1986)
 Tomlinson’s Solution for Qb in Sand
Bored and Cast-in-situ Piles in
Cohesionless Soils
• In case of bored piles the sides and bottom of the hole will be loosened
as a result of the boring operations, even though it may be initially be
in a dense or medium dense state.
• Tomlinson suggests that the values of the parameters in Eq. (15.9)
must be calculated by assuming that the ɸ value will represent the
loose condition.
• The assumption of loose conditions for calculating skin friction and
base resistance means that the ultimate carrying capacity of a bored
pile in a cohesionless soil will be considerably lower than that of a pile
driven in the same soil type. As per De Beer (1965), the base
resistance qb of a bored and cast-in-situ pile is about one third of that
of a driven pile.
Meyerhof’s Method of Determining Qb for
Piles in Sand

Figure 15.10 Bearing capacity factors and critical depth ratios Lc/d for driven piles
(after Meyerhof, 1976)
Meyerhof’s Method of Determining Qb for
Piles in Sand
• As per Fig. 15.10, the value of L/d is about 25 for φ equal to 45° and it
decreases with a decrease in the angle of friction φ. Normally, the
magnitude of Lb/d for piles is greater than 0.5 (L/d) so that maximum
values of Nc and Nq may apply for the calculation of qb, the unit
bearing pressure of the pile.

• The expression for the limiting value, qb, is:

(Eq.15.19a)

(Eq.15.19b)
Where φ is the angle of shearing resistance of the bearing stratum,
• The equation for base resistance in sand may now be expressed as:

(Eq.15.20)
Meyerhof’s Method of Determining Qb for
Piles in Sand
• Eq. (15.20) is applicable only for driven piles in sand. For bored
cast-in-situ piles the value of qb is to be reduced by one third to
one-half.
Clay Soil (φ= 0)
• The base resistance Qb for piles in saturated clay soil may be
expressed as:

(Eq.15.21)

• Where Nc = 9, and cu = undrained shear strength of the soil at the

base level of the pile.
The Ultimate Skin Resistance Qf of a Single
Pile in Cohesionless Soil
Skin Resistance (Straight Shaft)
• The ultimate skin resistance in a homogeneous soil as per Eq.
(15.9) is expressed as:
(Eq.15.34a)
− ' −
• In a layered system of soil, q 0 , K s andδ vary with
respect to depth. The Equation (15.34a) above may then be
expressed as:

(Eq.15.34b)

− ' −
• Where q 0 , K s andδ refer to thickness dz of each layer
and P is the perimeter of the pile.
The Ultimate Skin Resistance Qf of a Single
Pile in Cohesionless Soil
Skin Resistance (Straight Shaft) Cont’
• It is therefore natural to expect the skin resistance fs also to
remain constant beyond depth Lc . The magnitude of Lc may be
taken as equal to 20d.
The Ultimate Skin Resistance Qf of a Single
Pile in Cohesionless Soil
Skin Resistance (Straight Shaft) Cont’

Figure 15.13 Values of Ks tanẟ in sand as per (a) Poulos and

Davis 1980, (b) Meyerhof, 1 976
The Ultimate Skin Resistance Qf of a Single
Pile in Cohesionless Soil
Skin Resistance (Straight Shaft) Cont’

Figure 15.13 (c) taper factor Fꞷ (after Nordlund, 1 963)

The Ultimate Skin Resistance Qf of a Single
Pile in Cohesionless Soil
Skin Resistance (Straight Shaft) Cont’
• Eq. (15.34) may also be written as

(Eq.15.35)

• The relationship between β and ɸ is given in Fig. 15.13(a) for

driven pile.
• For bored piles, Poulos et al, recommend the relationship
given by Meyerhof (1976) between ɸ and β (Fig. 15.13(b)).
The Ultimate Skin Resistance Qf of a Single
Pile in Cohesionless Soil
Skin Resistance on Tapered Piles
• Nordlund (1963) has shown that even a small taper of 1° on the
shaft gives a four fold increase in unit friction in medium dense
sand under compression loading.
• Based on Nordlund's analysis, curves have been developed
(Poulos and Davis, 1980) giving a relationship between taper
angle ꞷº and a taper correction factor Fꞷ, which can be used in
Eq. (15.35) as

(Eq.15.36)

• Eq. (15.36) gives the ultimate skin load for tapered piles. The
correction factor Fꞷ can be obtained from Fig. 15.13(c). The value of
ɸ to be used for obtaining Fꞷ is as per Eq. (15.18a) for driven piles.
Bearing Capacity of Piles in Granular Soils
Based on SPT Value
• Meyerhof (1956) suggests the following equations for single piles in
granular soils based on SPT values.
• For displacement piles:
(Eq.15.47a)
• For H-piles:
(47b)
• For bored piles:
(Eq.15.48)
Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
• Various methods for using CPT results to predict vertical
pile capacity have been proposed.

• The following methods will be discussed:

1. Vander Veen's method.

2. Schmertmann's method.
Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
Vander Veen's Method for Piles in
Cohesionless Soils
• The equations for ultimate bearing capacity and allowable load
may be written as,
(Eq.15.51a)
(Eq.15.51b)

(Eq.15.51c)

• where, qp= average cone resistance over a depth 4d as shown in

Fig. 15.17(a) and Fs = factor of safety.
 Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
(Cont’)
The skin friction on the pile shaft in cohesionless soils is obtained from
the relationships established by Meyerhof (1956) as follows.
• For displacement piles, the ultimate skin friction, fs, is given
by:
(Eq.15.52a)

• And for H-section piles, the ultimate limiting skin friction is

given by:

(Eq.15.52b)
_

Where q c = average cone resistance in kg/cm2 over the length of

the pile shaft under consideration.
 Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
(Cont’)
• Meyerhof states that for straight sided displacement piles, the ultimate
unit skin friction, fs, has a maximum value of 107 kPa and for H-
sections, a maximum of 54 kPa (calculated on all faces of flanges and
web). The ultimate skin load is
(Eq.15.53a)

(Eq.15.53b)

(Eq.15.53c)
 Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
(Cont’)

Figure 15.17 Pile capacity by use of CPT values (a) Vander Veen's method,
 Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
Schmertmann's Method for Cohesionless and
Cohesive Soils
• Schmertmann (1978) recommends one procedure for all types of soil
for computing the point bearing capacity of piles.
• However, for computing side friction, Schmertmann gives two
different approaches, one for sand and one for clay soils.
Point Bearing Capacity Qb in All Types of Soil
• The value of q may be expressed as:

(Eq.15.54)

Where;
• qc1: average cone resistance below the tip of the pile over a depth
which may vary between 0.7d and 4d, where d = diameter of pile,
 Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
(Cont’)
• qc2: minimum cone resistance recorded below the pile tip over the
same depth 0.7d to 4d.
• qc3: average of the envelope of minimum cone resistance recorded
above the pile tip to a height of 8d.

Now, the unit point resistance of the pile, qb, is

qb (pile) = qp (cone) (Eq.15.55a)

The ultimate base resistance, Qb, of a pile is:

(Eq.15.55b)

(Eq.15.55c)
Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
(Cont’)

Figure 15.17 Pile capacity by use of CPT values (b) and (c) Schmertmann's method
Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
Design CPT Values for Sand and Clay
Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
Ultimate Skin Load Qf in Cohesionless Soils
• For the computation of skin load, Qf, Schmertmann (1978)
presents the following equation:

(Eq.15.56c)
Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
Ultimate Skin Load Qf in Cohesionless Soils
(Cont’)
• When fc does not vary significantly with depth, the Eq. (15.56c)
above Equation can be written in a simplified form as:

(Eq.15.56d)

Where 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐̅ is the average value within the depths specified. The
correction factor K is given in
Fig. 15.18(a)..
Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
Ultimate Skin Load Qf for Piles in Clay Soil
• For piles in clay Schmertmann gives the expression

(Eq.15.57)
 Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
(Cont’)

Figure 15.18 (a) Penetrometer design curves for pile side friction in sand (Schmertmann,
1978)
 Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static
Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)
(Cont’)

Figure 15.18 (b) Penetrometer design curves for pile side friction in clay (Schmertmann,
Bearing Capacity of Piles Founded on a
Rocky Bed

• Tomlinson (1986) suggests an equation for computing

the end bearing resistance of piles resting on rocky
strata as:

(Eq.15.64)

• qur : Unconfined compressive strength of the rock.

 Uplift Resistance of Piles
• The equation for the uplift force Pul may be written as:
(Eq.15.65)

Uplift Resistance of Pile in Clay

(Eq.15.66)
Uplift Resistance of Piles (Cont’)
 Uplift Resistance of Piles (Cont’)

Figure 15.23 Relationship between adhesion factor a and undrained shear strength cu
(Source: Poulos and Davis, 1980)
 Exercises

• Do example 15.1, 15.2, 15.4, 15.5, 15.9, 15.10, 15.11,

15.13, 15.15, 15.16, 15.17, 15.18, 15.19, 15.20, 15.23,
15.24 in the book of principles and practices of soil
mechanics and foundation engineering (Murthy)
 Pile Group
Number and Spacing of Piles in a Group
• Very rarely are structures founded on single piles. Normally,
there will be a minimum of three piles under a column or a
foundation element because of alignment problems and
inadvertent eccentricities.

• The spacing of piles in a group depends upon many factors

such as:
1. overlapping of stresses of adjacent piles,
2. cost of foundation,
3. efficiency of the pile group.
 Pile Group

Figure 15.24 Pressure isobars of (a) single pile, (b) group of piles, closely spaced.
 Pile Group
(Cont’)

Figure 15.24 Pressure isobars (c) group of piles with piles far apart.
 Pile Group
Number and Spacing of Piles in a Group (Cont’)
• The spacing of piles depends upon the method of installing the
piles and the type of soil.

• The piles can be driven piles or cast-in-situ piles. When the

piles are driven there will be greater overlapping of stresses due
to the displacement of soil.

• If the displacement of soil compacts the soil in between the

piles as in the case of loose sandy soils, the piles may be placed
at closer intervals.
 Pile Group
Number and Spacing of Piles in a Group (Cont’)

Figure 15.25 Typical arrangements of piles in

groups
 Pile Group
Pile Group Efficiency
• The spacing of piles is usually predetermined by practical and
economical considerations. The design of a pile foundation subjected
to vertical loads consists of:
1. The determination of the ultimate load bearing capacity of the
group Qgu.
2. Determination of the settlement of the group, Sg , under an
allowable load Qga .
• The ultimate load of the group is generally different from the sum of
the ultimate loads of individual piles Qu.

(Eq.15.67)
The factor
is called group efficiency which depends on parameters such as type of
soil in which the piles are embedded, method of installation of piles i.e.
either driven or cast-in-situ piles, and spacing of piles.
 Pile Group
Efficiency of Pile Groups in Sand
• Vesic (1967) carried out tests on 4 and 9 pile groups driven into
sand under controlled conditions. Piles with spacings 2, 3,4, and 6
times the diameter were used in the tests.
• The tests were conducted in homogeneous, medium dense sand.
His findings are given in Fig. 15.26. The figure gives the
following:
1. The efficiencies of 4 and 9 pile groups when the pile caps do
not rest on the surface.
2. The efficiencies of 4 and 9 pile groups when the pile caps rest
on the surface.
3. The skin efficiency of 4 and 9 pile groups.
4. The average point efficiency of all the pile groups.
 Pile Group
Efficiency of Pile Groups in Sand

Figure 15.26 Efficiency of pile groups in sand

(Vesic, 1967)
 Pile Group
Pile Group Efficiency Equation
• There are many pile group equations. These equations are to be
used very cautiously, and may in many cases be no better than a
good guess. The Converse-Labarre Formula is one of the most
widely used group-efficiency equations which is expressed as:

(Eq.15.68)
Vertical Bearing Capacity of Pile Groups
Embedded in Sands and Gravels
• When piles are driven in a group at close spacing, the soil around
and between them becomes highly compacted. When the group is
loaded, the piles and the soil between them move together as a unit.
Thus, the pile group acts as a pier foundation having a base area
equal to the gross plan area contained by the piles. The efficiency of
the pile group will be greater than unity as explained earlier.
• It is conservative to assume an efficiency factor of unity for all
practical purposes. We may, therefore, write

(Eq.15.69)

Where n = the number of piles in the group

 Pile Groups In Cohesive Soils
• Experimental results
have indicated that
when a pile group
installed in cohesive
soils is loaded, it may
fail by any one of the
following ways:

1. May fail as a block

(called block
failure).

2. Individual piles in
the group may fail.

Figure 15.27 Block failure of a

pile group in clay soil
 Pile Groups In Cohesive Soils
• The equation for block failure may be written as:
(Eq.15.70)

• The bearing capacity of a pile group on the basis of individual pile

failure may be written as
(Eq.15.71)

• The bearing capacity of a pile group is normally taken as the smaller

of the two given by Eqs.(15.70) and (15.71).
 Exercises

• Do example 15.25 in the book of principles and

practices of soil mechanics and foundation
engineering (Murthy)
Settlement of Piles and Pile Groups in
Sands and Gravels

• Normally it is not necessary to compute the settlement of a

single pile as this settlement under a working load will be
within the tolerable limits. However, settlement analysis of a
pile group is very much essential. The total settlement analysis
of a pile group does not bear any relationship with that of a
single pile since in a group the settlement is very much affected
due to the interaction stresses between piles and the stressed
zone below the tips of piles.
Settlement of Piles and Pile Groups in
Sands and Gravels
Semi-Empirical Formulas and Curves
• The equation for total settlement of a single pile may be
expressed as:
(Eq.15.72)

(Eq.15.73)
Settlement of Piles and Pile Groups in
Sands and Gravels
Settlement of Piles and Pile Groups in
Sands and Gravels
Settlement of Pile Groups in Sand
• The relation between the settlement of a group and a single pile at
corresponding working loads may be expressed as:

(Eq.15.75)
Settlement of Piles and Pile Groups in
Sands and Gravels

Figure 15.28 Curve showing the relationship between group settlement ratio and
relative widths of pile groups in sand (Vesic, 1967)
Settlement of Piles and Pile Groups in
Sands and Gravels

Figure 15.29 Curve showing relationship between F and pile group width
(Skempton, et al., 1953)
 Negative Skin Friction
Computation of Negative Friction on a Single Pile
• The magnitude of negative friction Fn for a single pile in a fill may
be taken as
(a) For cohesive soils
(Eq.15.80)
(b) For cohesionless soils
(Eq.15.81)
 Negative Skin Friction
Negative Friction on Pile Groups
• When a group of piles passes through a compressible fill, the negative
friction, Fn , on the group may be found by any of the following
methods

(Eq.15.82)

(Eq.15.83)
 Negative Skin Friction
Negative Friction on Pile Groups (Cont’)
• Negative friction must be allowed when considering the
factor of safety on the ultimate carrying capacity of a pile.
• The factor of safety, Fs, where negative friction is likely to
occur may be written as:

Note: The maximum value of the negative friction obtained

from Eqs. (15.82) or (15.83) should be used for the design of
pile groups.
 Exercises

• Example 15.25 & 15.28 in the book Principles and

practices of soil mechanics and foundation
engineering.