Chapter 11: Geometry in Space and Vectors

➢ Cartesian Coordinates in Three-Space

➢ Vectors

➢ The Dot Product

➢ The Cross Product

➢ Equations of Lines and Planes in Three-Space

 §11.1 Cartesian Coordinates in Three-Space

To locate a point in plane How to locate a point in space?

An ordered triple of numbers (x,y,z)

x: x-coordinate
An ordered pair (a,b) of real numbers y: y-coordinate
a : x-coordinate z: z-coordinate
b : y-coordinate
Right-Handed System

 A fixed point O (the origin)

 Three directed lines through O,
perpendicular to each other
(The coordinate axes:
x-axis, y-axis, z-axis)
 x-axis and y-axis: horizontal
 z-axis: vertical
 the direction of the z-axis is
determined by the right-hand
rule.
➢ The planes x=0, y=0 and z=0 divide space into eight octants.
➢ The octant in which the point coordinates are all positive is called the
first octant.
 The plane x=2 is the plane
perpendicular to the x-axis at x=2
(The points on this plane have the
same x-coordinate x=2)

The plane y=3 is the plane

perpendicular to the y-axis at y=3

The plane z=5 is the plane

perpendicular to the z-axis at z=5

➢ The intersect of two planes is a line

➢ The intersect of three planes is a point
The Distance Formula

Proof:
| P1P2 |2 =| P1 B |2 + | BP2 |2

=| P1 A |2 + | AB |2 + | BP2 |2

= ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2

Example 1. Find the distance between the points P(2,-3,4) and Q(-3,2,-5).

Solution. | PQ |= (−3 − 2) 2 + (2 − (−3)) 2 + (−5 − 4) 2 = 131

Example 2. Show that A(4,5,3), B(1,7,4) and C(2,4,6) are vertices of
an equilateral triangle.

Solution. | AB |2 = (1 − 4) 2 + (7 − 5) 2 + (4 − 3) 2 = 14

| AC |2 = (2 − 4) 2 + (4 − 5) 2 + (6 − 3) 2 = 14

| BC |2 = (2 − 1) 2 + (4 − 7) 2 + (6 − 4) 2 = 14

So | AB |=| AC |=| BC |
Thus A, B and C are vertices of an equilateral triangle.
Spheres and Their Equations

Sphere:
The set of all points in three-
dimensional space that are a
constant distance (the radius)
to a fixed point (the center).
General Form:

x + y + z + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0
2 2 2

Example 3. Find the center and radius of the sphere with equation
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 10 x − 8 y − 12 z + 68 = 0
Solution. Completing the square

( x 2 − 10 x + ) + ( y2 − 8y + ) + ( z 2 − 12 z + ) = −68
( x 2 − 10 x + 25) + ( y 2 − 8 y + 16) + ( z 2 − 12 z + 36) = −68 + 25 + 16 + 36

( x − 5) 2 + ( y − 4) 2 + ( z − 6) 2 = 9 = 32
Thus, the equation represents a sphere with center(5,4,6) and radius 3.
Midpoint of line segment

The coordinates of the midpoint are

the averages of the coordinates of the
two end points.
Example 4. Find the equation of the sphere that has the line segment
jointing (-1,2,3) and (5,-2,7) as a diameter.

Solution. The center of this sphere is at the midpoint of the segment,

1
that is at (−1 + 5,2 − 2,3 + 7) = (2,0,5);
2
The radius r satisfies
r 2 = (5 − 2) 2 + (−2 − 0) 2 + (7 − 5) 2 = 17

So, the equation of the sphere is

( x − 2) 2 + y 2 + ( z − 5) 2 = 17
 Homework

Page 559-560, Problem Set 11.1

5.(a),(b)
7,12,13,14
 §11.2 Vectors

 Quantities such as velocity, force, displacement…

➢ Vector is represented by an
arrow or a directed line segment

➢ magnitude (length): the length of

the vector

➢ direction: the direction of the

vector

➢ Initial point and Terminal point

➢ We shall symbolize vector by boldface letters, such as 𝒖andv

➢ In normal writing, you might use 𝑢and 𝑣.
Ԧ
➢ The magnitude of a vector 𝒖 is symbolized by 𝒖 .
➢ Two vectors are equivalent (equal) if they have the same
magnitude and direction

Vectors 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑂𝑃 = 𝐸𝐹.
Components of vector
 𝒗 = 𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1, 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧1

The magnitude of the vector 𝒗 = 𝑃𝑄 is

𝒗 = 𝑣12 + 𝑣22 + 𝑣32

= (𝑥2−𝑥1)2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 +(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

➢ The only vector with length 0 is zero vector 𝟎 = 0,0 or 𝟎 = 0,0,0 .

➢ Zero vector has no specific direction.
➢ If two vectors are equal, then their each corresponding components
are equal.
Example 1. Find
(a) the component form and (b) the magnitude of the
vector with initial point P(-3,4,1) and terminal point Q(-5,2,2).

Solution.

(a) The component form

𝒗 = 𝑃𝑄 = −5 − −3 , 2 − 4,2 − 1 = −2, −2,1

(b) The magnitude of the vector 𝒗 = 𝑃𝑄 is

Operations on vectors

Example 2. If 𝒖 = −1,3,2 and 𝒗 = 6, −2,0 , then find 𝒖 + 𝒗and −𝒖.

Solution. 𝒖 + 𝒗 = −1 + 6,3 − 2,2 + 0 = 5,1,2

−𝒖 = 1, −3, −2
Geometric illustration

 Addition: sum or resultant vector

Triangle Law Parallelogram Law

Geometric illustration

 Scalar multiplication

𝑘𝒖 = |𝑘| ∙ 𝒖
Properties of vector operations

Example 3. Let 𝒖 = −1,3,1 and 𝒗 = 4,7,0 , find

𝟏
a 2𝒖 + 𝟑𝒗 𝑏 𝒖−𝒗 𝑐 − 𝒖
𝟐
Solution.
(a) 2𝒖 + 𝟑𝒗 = 2 ∙ −1,3,1 + 3 ∙ 4,7,0 = 10,27,2
(b) 𝒖 − 𝒗 = −1 − 4,3 − 7,1 − 0 = −5, −4,1
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 11
(c) − 𝒖 = − 𝒖 = (−1)2 +32 + 12 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 2
Unit vector

➢ A vector of length 1 is called a unit vector. The

standard unit vectors (basis vectors) are
𝐢 = 1,0,0 , 𝐣 = 0,1,0 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐤 = 0,0,1

➢ Any vector 𝒗 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 can be written as a linear

combinationof the standard unit vectors as follows:
𝒗 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2, 𝑣3 = 𝑣1 , 0,0 + 0, 𝑣2 , 0 + 0 , 0, 𝑣3
= 𝑣1 1,0,0 + 𝑣2 0,1,0 + 𝑣3 0,0,1 = 𝑣1 𝐢 + 𝑣2 𝐣 + 𝑣3 𝐤

➢ 𝑣1: i-component of vector 𝒗

➢ 𝑣2: j-componentof vector 𝒗
➢ 𝑣3: k-componentof vector 𝒗
Whenever 𝒗 ≠ 𝟎, the vector

is a unit vector in the

direction of 𝒗, called the
direction of the nonzero
vector 𝒗.
Example 4. Let 𝒖 = 1,1,2 and 𝒗 = 0, −1,2 . Find
a 𝒖 + 𝒗 and b 𝒖 − 2𝒗 , and express them in terms of i, j,
and k. Find c 𝒖 and d 3𝒖
Solution.
(a) 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 1 + 0,1 − 1,2 + 2 = 1,0,4 =i+4k

(b) 𝒖 − 2𝒗 = 1,1,2 − 2 0, −1,2 = 1,3, −2 =i+3j-2k

(c) 𝒖 = 12 + 12 + 22 = 6

(d) 3𝒖 = 3 𝒖 = 3 6

Example 5. Let 𝒗 = 4, −3 . Find 𝒗 ,andfind a unit vector 𝒖 with the

same direction as 𝒗.

Solution. 𝒗 = 42 + (−3)2 = 5
𝒗 1 4 3
The unit vector 𝒖 = = 4, −3 = ,−
𝒗 5 5 5
 Homework

Page 565: Problem Set 11.2

5,6,14,15
 §11.3 The Dot Product

 Question: Is it possible to multiply two vectors?

Properties of dot product
Angle between vectors

➢ 𝜃is the angle between 𝒖and 𝒗

➢ 0≤𝜃≤𝜋
➢ If 𝒖and 𝒗lie along the same line
and point in the same direction,
then 𝜃 = 0.
➢ If 𝒖and 𝒗lie along the same line
and point in the opposite
direction, then 𝜃 = 𝜋.

Theorem
If 𝜃is the smallest nonnegative angle between the nonzero
vectors 𝒖and 𝒗,then
𝒖 ∙ 𝒗 = 𝒖 𝒗 cos𝜃
Example 2. If the lengthes of vector u and v are 4 and 6 respectively,

and the angle between them is , find u  v.
3
Solution. u  v = u v cos  = 4  6  cos( / 3) = 12

Example 3. Find the angle between u = 1,2,−2 and v = − 2,6,3 .

Solution. u = 12 + 2 2 + (−2) 2 = 3 v = (−2) 2 + 6 2 + 32 = 7

u  v = 1 (−2) + 2  6 + (−2)  3 = 4
Let  be the angle between u and v, then
uv 4  4
cos = = So  = cos −1  
u v 21  
21
Orthogonal vectors
§11.4 The Cross Product

Definition Cross Product

𝒖×𝒗= 𝒖 𝒗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝒏

➢ 𝒖 × 𝒗 is perpendicular to both 𝒖and 𝒗

➢ The cross product of𝒖and 𝒗is a vector
➢ The dot product of𝒖and 𝒗is a scalar
Determinant Definition

Example . Let 𝒖 = 1, −2, −1 and 𝒗 = −2,4,1 . Caculate

𝒖 × 𝒗 and𝒗 × 𝒖using the determinate definition.

Solution.

−2 −1 1 −1 1 −2
= 𝒊− 𝒋+ 𝒌
4 1 −2 1 −2 4
= 2𝒊+𝒋+0𝒌 = 2𝒊+𝒋

𝒗 × 𝒖 = −𝒖 × 𝒗 = −2 𝒊 − 𝒋
 Homework

Page 572, Problem Set 11.3

5,8,12
Page 578: Problem Set 11.4
2:(a),(b)
 Application I: Equation of Planes

➢ A plane in space is
determined by a point
𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) in the plane,
and a vector 𝐧 orthogonal
to the plane.
➢ The vector 𝐧 is called a
normal vector.

Let 𝐧 = 𝐴𝐢 + 𝐵𝐣 + 𝐶𝐤,then

𝐧 ∙ 𝑃0 𝑃 = 0implies

𝐴 𝑥 − 𝑥0 + 𝐵 𝑦 − 𝑦0 + 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 0
Example 1. Find an equation for a plane through 𝑃0 =
−3,0,7 perpendicular ton= 5𝐢 + 2𝐣 − 𝐤.

Solution.
5 𝑥 − −3 + 2 𝑦 − 0 + −1 𝑧 − 7 = 0
5𝑥 + 15 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 + 7 = 0
5𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = −22

Exercise. Find an equation for a plane through 𝑃0 = 2,4, −1 with

normal vector n= 2,3,4 . Sketch the graph.
Angle between planes
Example 2. Find the equation of the plane through 𝑃0 =
5,1, −2 perpendicular ton= 2,4,3 . Then find the angle
between this plane and the one with equation 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 +
Solution. 12𝑧 = 5.
The equation of the plane is
2 𝑥 − 5 + 4(𝑦 − 1) + 3(𝑧 + 2) = 0.
That is 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 8

A vector m perpendicular to the second plane is

m= 3, −4,12
The angle between these two planes is the same as the
angle between their normal vectors n and m.
Let 𝜃 be the angle between n and m. So
n m 2  3 + 4  (−4) + 3 12 26 2
cos = = = =
n m 2 2 + 4 2 + 32 32 + (−4) 2 + 12 2 13 29 29

 2 
 = cos 
−1

 29 
The distance from a point to a plane
The distance L from the point 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 to the plane 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 +
𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷 is given by the formula

Example 3. Find the distance from S(1,1,3) to the plane 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 +

6𝑧 = 6.

Solution.
|3 ∙ 1 + 2 ∙ 1 + 6 ∙ 3 − 6|
𝐿=
32 + 22 + 62

17
=
7
 Application II: Equation of Lines

➢ A line in a plane is
determined by a point
and a number giving the
slope of the line.

➢ In space, a line is
determined by a point
and a vector giving the
direction of the line.
Symmetric Equations for a Line

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
v1 v2 v3
Example 1. Find the parametric equations for the line through
(3,-2,4) and (5,6,-2).

Solution. A vector parallel to the given line is

𝒗 = 5 − 3,6 − (−2), −2 − 4 = 2,8, −6

If we choose 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 = (3, −2,4), then the equation is

𝑥 = 3 + 2𝑡, 𝑦 = −2 + 8𝑡,
𝑧 = 4 − 6𝑡 (−∞ < 𝑡 < ∞)
Example 2. Find the symmetric equations of the line that is parallel
to the vector 4,−3,2 and goes through (2,5,-1).
Solution.
x − 2 y − 5 z +1
= =
4 −3 2
 Homework

Page 573, Problem Set 11.3

70,73
Page 592: Problem Set 11.6
3,5,6