Engineering Encyclopedia

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Determining Steam Turbine

Performance Characteristics

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Rotating Equipment For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX21302 Darryl Turner on 873-4120
Engineering Encyclopedia Rotating Equipment
Determining Steam Turbine Performance Characteristics

Content Page

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1

STEAM CONDITIONS AND THEIR EFFECT ON TURBINE STAGE

PERFORMANCE................................................................................................................. 4

CALCULATING STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS ................. 9

Steam Rate and Efficiency ......................................................................................... 9
TSR Calculations ........................................................................................... 9
ASR Calculations..........................................................................................14
Shortcut Method for Turbine Efficiency Determination and Performance
Estimates ......................................................................................................18
Power ......................................................................................................................21
STEAM TURBINE EXTRACTION CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR EFFECT ON
EXTRACTION STEAM TURBINES..................................................................................28
Extraction Characteristics.........................................................................................28
Effects on Turbine Performance................................................................................29
WORK AID 1: MOLLIER DIAGRAM AND GUIDES USED TO CALCULATE
STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS ............................................32
Mollier Diagram .......................................................................................................32
Guides for Calculation..............................................................................................33
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................34

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Table of Figures Page

Figure 1. Mollier Diagram (Adapted with permission from 1967 ASME Steam
Tables) ...................................................................................................... 3
Figure 2. Efficiency Versus Stage Type .................................................................... 4
Figure 3. Mollier Diagram (Adapted with permission from 1967 ASME Steam
Tables) ...................................................................................................... 6
Figure 4. Efficiency Versus Stage Type .................................................................... 7
Figure 5. Simplified Mollier Diagram.......................................................................11
Figure 6. Theoretical Steam Rates for Steam Turbines at Various Inlet
Conditions and Exhaust Pressures, lb/kW-hr.............................................12
Figure 7. Theoretical Steam Rates for Steam Turbines at Various Common Inlet
Conditions and Exhaust Pressures, lbm/hp-hr............................................13
Figure 8. Simplified Mollier Diagram.......................................................................15
Figure 9. Typical Willans Line .................................................................................17
Figure 10. Average Efficiency for Multi-Stage Turbines...........................................20
Figure 11. Mollier Diagram (Adapted with permission from 1967 ASME Steam
Tables) .....................................................................................................24
Figure 12. Extraction Map.......................................................................................30
Figure 13. Steam Flow Versus First Stage Shell Pressure.........................................31

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INTRODUCTION

Steam turbines utilized by Saudi Aramco to drive electric generators, gas compressors, and boiler
feedwater pumps are designed to operate at optimum performance for the steam conditions
existing at the installation. Turbine performance characteristics are used to evaluate the turbine
design and the installation and to identify when turbine maintenance is required. In order to
evaluate turbine performance, the Mechanical Engineer must understand the principles used to
determine steam turbine performance characteristics, and, in order to have this understanding, he
must have sufficient knowledge of turbine stage designs, turbine stage arrangements, and turbine
types. This module will examine the following information that is pertinent to the determination
of turbine performance characteristics:
• Steam Conditions and Their Effect on Turbine Stage Performance
• Calculating Steam Turbine Performance Characteristics
• Steam Turbine Extraction Characteristics and Their Effect on Extraction Steam
Turbines
Many steam turbine performance characteristics are related to the amount of energy that is
available for use by the turbine. Determination of available energy requires the use of a Mollier
diagram. This section describes the use of a Mollier diagram to determine the steam parameters
needed to calculate turbine performance characteristics.

A Mollier diagram is a plot of enthalpy (h) versus entropy (s) of a fluid that includes lines of
constant pressure (psia) and temperature (°F). The y-axis of the Mollier diagram is enthalpy in
Btus per pound. Enthalpy is a measure of the internal energy plus the flow energy of the steam.
The x-axis of the Mollier diagram is entropy in Btus per pound per degree Rankine. Processes
that are reversible and isentropic (constant entropy) occur along the vertical paths on the Mollier
diagram.

Enthalpy is defined as a thermodynamic property that is the sum of the internal energy (the energy
stored within a substance) and the product of the pressure and specific volume, as shown in the
following equation:

h = u + Pv

Where:
h = enthalpy, Btus/lb
u = internal energy, Btus/lb
P = Pressure, psia
Ft 3
ν = specific volume,
lb

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Entropy is an abstract concept and a thermodynamic property that is defined as the quotient of a
quantity of heat divided by its absolute temperature. The transformation of heat to work is always
dependent upon a flow of heat from a high temperature region to a low temperature region. If
there is to be any conversion of heat to work, some heat must always be rejected to a receiver that
is at a lower temperature than the source. The heat that must be rejected is unavailable for
conversion into mechanical work. Entropy is an index of the unavailability of this energy.
Because heat can never be completely converted into work, entropy can be thought of as a
measure or an indication of how much heat must be rejected to a low temperature receiver. The
remainder of the heat is utilized for the production of useful work.

Changes in entropy depend upon the following:

• The amount of heat that is transferred to or from the working fluid.
• The absolute temperature of the heat source.
• The absolute temperature of the heat receiver.
Although actual entropy calculations are beyond the scope of this text, the following equation is
provided to indicate the units in which entropy is measured and to show the relationship between
entropy and heat and temperature. Note that this equation applies only to a reversible isothermal
process in which T1 = T2.

S2 - S1 = Q/T

Where:

S1 = total entropy of working fluid at state 1, in Btus per °R

S2 = total entropy of working fluid at state 2, in Btus per °R
Q = heat supplied, in Btus
T = absolute temperature at which process takes place, in °R

The fact that the total entropy of an isolated system must always increase does not mean that the
entropy of all parts of the system must always increase. In many real processes, entropy increases
in some parts of a system and, at the same time, entropy decreases in other parts of the system.
The increases in entropy are always greater than the decreases in entropy so that the total entropy
of an isolated system always increases. When both the system and its surroundings are
considered, any thermodynamic change that occurs results in a net entropy increase.

A Mollier diagram for steam is a graphical representation of the steam properties (enthalpy and
entropy) that are used for steam turbine performance characteristic calculations, such as steam
rates, turbine efficiency, and power. Figure 1 shows a Mollier diagram for steam.

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Figure 1. Mollier Diagram (Adapted with permission from 1967 ASME

Steam Tables)

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STEAM CONDITIONS AND THEIR EFFECT ON TURBINE STAGE PERFORMANCE

Stage performance for each type of turbine stage is related to the stage velocity ratio. The overall
turbine performance is a function of the average performance of the turbine stages. The following
section will describe how steam conditions can affect the turbine stage performance.

Turbine staging is designed for optimum efficiency at the normal operating steam conditions.
Changing steam conditions, such as an increase in turbine exhaust pressure, can affect the
performance of the turbine stages and, therefore, the performance of the turbine. A change in
steam conditions can also occur when a turbine that was installed in a steam system is removed
and then installed in a different steam system that operates with different steam supply pressures.

As discussed in MEX 213.01, stage efficiencies for each type of turbine stage and the number of
stages are related to the stage velocity ratio. Figure 2 shows a comparison of stage efficiencies to
velocity ratios for the different stage arrangements.

Figure 2. Efficiency Versus Stage Type

The velocity ratio is determined by using the following equation:

Vb
Velocity Ratio =
Vj
Where:

Vb = Blade velocity in feet per second (ft/sec) or meters per second (m/sec)
Vj = Steam jet velocity in feet per second (ft/sec) or meters per second (m/sec)

The blade velocity can be determined from the following equation:

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In English units:
πDN
Vb =
720
In metric units:
πDN
Vb =
60000
Where:

Vb = Blade velocity in feet per second (ft/sec) or meters per second (m/sec)
D = Pitch diameter of the wheel as measured from the center of the shaft to the
end of the blade, in inches or millimeters
N = Rotative speed (rpm)

The steam jet velocity can be determined from the following equation:
In English units:
V j = 224 h1 − h2
In metric units:
V j = 44.72 h1 − h2
Where:

Vj = Steam jet velocity in feet per second (ft/sec) or meters per second (m/sec)
h1 = Stage inlet steam enthalpy in Btu/lb or kJ/kg
h2 = Stage exhaust enthalpy in Btu/lb of kJ/kg

The following example illustrates the effect of changing steam conditions on turbine stage
performance. A single, two-row Curtis stage turbine is designed to operate at 415 psia and 600°F
inlet conditions and with turbine exhaust steam at 165 psia and 400°F (commonly expressed as
415 psia/600°F/165 psia/400°F). The stage diameter is 34 inches with 1-inch stage blades. The
turbine normally operates at a constant 5,000 rpm.

The blade velocity is calculated as:

( )
p 36 in (5,000)
Vb =
720
V b = 785 ft / sec
From the Mollier diagram shown in Figure 3, the enthalpy of the steam at the inlet conditions is
approximately 1305 Btu/lb, and the isentropic enthalpy at the exhaust conditions is approximately
1207 Btu/lb.

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Figure 3. Mollier Diagram (Adapted with permission from 1967 ASME

Steam Tables)

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The stage steam velocity is calculated as:

V j = 224 1305 − 1207
V j = 2217 ft / sec
The velocity ratio is calculated as:
Vb
Velocity Ratio =
Vj
785 ft / sec
=
2217 ft / sec
= 0.354
Using Figure 4, the efficiency of a single, two-row Curtis stage turbine with a velocity ratio of
0.354 is approximately 70%.

Figure 4. Efficiency Versus Stage Type

If the steam exhaust conditions are changed to 115 psia/330°F, while the turbine speed is
maintained at 5,000 rpm, the blade velocity will be the same as previously calculated (785 ft/sec),
but the stage steam velocity will change. The enthalpy of the steam at the new exhaust conditions
is approximately 1185 Btu/lb. (See Figure 3.)

The new steam velocity is calculated as:

V j = 224 1305 − 1185
V j = 2454 ft / sec

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The velocity ratio is calculated as:

Vb
Velocity Ratio =
Vj
785 ft / sec
=
2454 ft / sec
= 0.32
Using Figure 4, the efficiency of a single, two-row Curtis stage turbine has changed to
approximately 77%.

The example describes the change in efficiency for a single, two-row Curtis stage turbine. If the
turbine was a single-stage Rateau stage turbine operating with the same steam conditions, the
change in the steam exhaust condition would lower the stage efficiency.

When a multi-stage turbine is designed to accommodate the expected steam conditions, each
stage type and the number of stages are determined for optimum stage efficiency. This method
results in an optimum overall efficiency of the turbine. After a turbine is constructed, changing
the steam conditions will affect the individual stage and overall turbine efficiency.

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CALCULATING STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

This section of the module will cover the following information that is pertinent to calculating the
performance characteristics of a steam turbine:
• Steam Rate and Efficiency
• Power
Steam Rate and Efficiency

Steam rate calculations are used to determine turbine efficiency and power based on the turbine
steam inlet and exhaust conditions. Steam rate is the weight flow rate of steam in kilograms or
pounds per hour that is required to produce one unit of output in kilowatts or horsepower. The
units of steam rate are kilograms per kilowatt hour (kg/kW-hr), pounds per horsepower hour
(lb/hp-hr), or pounds per kilowatt hour (lb/kW-hr). The theoretical steam rate (TSR) defines the
isentropic (reversible) expansion process between two conditions. The actual steam rate (ASR)
defines the actual expansion process, and it includes the inefficiency of the turbine.

TSR Calculations

To determine steam turbine performance characteristics, it is useful to plot the steam cycle
processes that occur at the turbine components on a Mollier diagram. Figure 5 is a simplified
form of the Mollier diagram that is used for the steam rate and efficiency calculations in the
example of a turbine with the following steam conditions: 600 psia/750°F/50 psia. Point 1 of
Figure 5 represents the inlet steam conditions of 600 psia/750°F. Point 2 is identified by drawing
a vertical line down from point 1 to the intersection at the exhaust pressure line (50 psia).

For an isentropic expansion to the 50 psia exhaust pressure, the path of the steam would be from
point 1 to point 2. Any point that is above the saturation line is in a region that is called the
superheated steam region. Any point that is below the saturation line is in a region that is called
the saturated wet steam region. Point 1 is above the saturation line in the superheated steam
region, and point 2 is below the saturation line in the wet steam region. The change in enthalpy
from point 1 (h1) to point 2 (h2) is called the theoretical, available energy. The theoretical,
available energy assumes that all of the energy that is available can be used by the turbine (turbine
efficiency at 100%). The theoretical, available energy for the 600 psia/750°F turbine is
determined by subtracting the enthalpy at the steam inlet conditions from the enthalpy at the
isentropic exhaust conditions shown on the Mollier diagram, and it would be:

Available Energy = h1 - h2

Available Energy = 1380 - 1150 = 230 Btu/lb

For each pound of steam that expands isentropically through this reversible process, 230 Btus of
output power can be produced.

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The amount of Btus that is required to perform work at the rate of one horsepower for one hour
is 2545. To calculate the theoretical steam rate in pounds per horsepower-hour, the Btus that are
required to perform work are divided by the available energy. With 230 Btus/lb of available
energy, the theoretical steam rate in pounds per horsepower-hour would be as follows:

2545 Btu / hp − hr
TSR: = 11.06 lb / hp − hr
230 Btu / lb

The amount of Btus that is required to perform work at the rate of one kilowatt for one hour is
3411. To calculate the theoretical steam rate in pounds per kilowatt-hour, the number of Btus
that is required to perform work is divided by the available energy. With 230 Btus/lb of available
energy, the theoretical steam rate in pounds per kilowatt hour would be as follows:

3411 Btu / kW − hr
TSR: = 14.83 lb / kW − hr
230 Btu / lb

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Figure 5. Simplified Mollier Diagram

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The Mollier diagram can be difficult to interpret, and it has limited accuracy. To simplify the
power output calculations and to increase accuracy, the data along isentropic expansions have
been compiled into a table of theoretical steam rates. The units of the theoretical steam rates have
been converted to a more common measure of steam turbine output, which, instead of Btus, is
either pounds per kilowatt-hour (lb/kW-hr) or pounds per horsepower-hour (lb/hp-hr). Figure 6
is a sample of the theoretical steam rate tabulation for steam turbines at various common inlet
conditions and exhaust pressures. This tabulation is in lb/kW-hr. The intersection between the
inlet conditions column and the exhaust pressure column provides the theoretical steam rate.
From the previous example of the turbine with 600 psia/750°F/50 psia steam conditions, the
calculated value of 15.4 lb/kW-hr was obtained. The intersection between the inlet conditions
column (600 psig, 750°F) and the exhaust pressure column (50 psig) provides the theoretical
steam rate of 15.36 lb/kW-hr.

Theoretical Steam Rates for Steam Turbines at Some Common Conditions, lb/kW-hr
Inlet Conditions
Exhaust 150 lb/sq in 200 lb/sq in 250 lb/sq in 400 lb/sq in 600 lb/sq in 600 lb/sq in 850 lb/sq in 850 lb/sq.in.
gage, 366°F, gage, 366°F, gage, 500°F, gage, 750°F, gage, 750°F, gage, 825°F, gage, 825°F, gage, 900°F,
Pressure saturated saturated 94°F superheat 302°F 261°F 336°F 298°F 373°F
superheat superheat superheat superheat superheat
2 in Hg 10.52 10.01 9.07 7.37 7.09 6.77 6.58 6.28
4 in Hg 11.76 11.12 10.00 7.99 7.65 7.28 7.06 6.73
0 lb/sq in gage 19.37 17.61 15.16 11.20 10.40 9.82 9.31 8.81
10 lb/sq in gage 23.96 21.09 17.90 12.72 11.64 10.96 10.29 9.71
30 lb/sq in gage 33.60 28.05 22.94 15.23 13.62 12.75 11.80 11.07
50 lb/sq in gage 46.00 36.00 28.20 17.57 15.36 14.31 13.07 12.21
60 lb/sq in gage 53.90 40.40 31.10 18.75 16.19 15.05 13.66 12.74
70 lb/sq in gage 63.50 45.60 34.10 19.96 17.00 15.79 14.22 13.25
75 lb/sq in gage 69.30 48.50 35.80 20.59 17.40 16.17 14.50 13.51

Figure 6. Theoretical Steam Rates for Steam Turbines at Various Inlet Conditions and
Exhaust Pressures, lb/kW-hr

Theoretical steam rate tables are available as separate publications. Figure 7 is another example
of the theoretical steam rate tabulation for steam turbines at various common inlet
pressure/temperature and exhaust pressure conditions provided in lb/hp-hr. From the previous
example of the turbine with 600 psia/750°F/50 psia steam conditions, the calculated value of 11.4
lb/hp-hr was obtained. The table in Figure 7 shows this value to be 11.45 lb/hp-hr.

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Theoretical Steam Rates for Steam Turbines

Inlet Pressure/Temperature
Exhaust 125 psig 150 psig 200 psig 200 psig 250 psig 250 psig 400 psig 400 psig 600 psig 600 psig
Pressure 500°°F 500°°F 388°°F 500°°F 406°°F 500°°F 448°°F 750°°F 579°°F 750°°F
3 in HgA 7.88 7.67 7.92 7.36 7.62 7.15 7.07 5.74 6.22 5.52
4 in HgA 8.28 8.04 8.29 7.69 7.95 7.46 7.35 5.96 6.44 5.70
5 in HgA 8.63 8.36 8.61 7.98 8.24 7.72 7.58 6.13 6.63 5.86
0 psig 13.83 13.05 13.06 11.90 12.16 11.30 10.61 8.34 8.92 7.76
10 psig 17.29 16.02 15.71 14.38 14.40 13.35 12.25 9.48 10.05 8.60
20 psig 20.85 18.99 18.31 16.66 16.50 15.24 13.68 10.45 11.03 9.46
30 psig 24.83 22.17 20.96 18.99 18.58 17.11 15.03 11.36 11.92 10.16
50 psig 35.20 29.75 26.84 24.09 22.97 21.04 17.65 13.09 13.56 11.45
60 psig 42.65 34.60 30.24 26.99 25.65 23.17 18.98 13.97 14.36 12.07
75 psig 58.99 44.07 36.17 31.99 29.38 26.70 21.04 15.34 15.55 12.98
100 psig - 72.04 49.66 43.33 37.36 33.71 24.71 17.79 17.55 14.49
150 psig - - - - - - 33.71 23.81 21.80 17.77
250 psig - - - - - - - - 32.79 26.40
400 psig - - - - - - - - - -

Theoretical Steam Rates for Steam Turbines

Inlet Pressure/Temperature
Exhaust 600 psig 850 psig 850 psig 850 psig 1250 psig 1250 psig 1500 psig 1500 psig 1800 psig
Pressure 825°°F 750°°F 825°°F 900°°F 825°°F 900°°F 825°°F 900°°F 1000°°F
3 in HgA 5.26 5.37 5.11 4.87 4.99 4.74 4.95 4.70 4.37
4 in HgA 5.43 5.53 5.26 5.02 5.13 4.88 5.09 4.83 4.48
5 in HgA 5.58 5.67 5.40 5.14 5.25 4.99 5.21 4.94 4.58
0 psig 7.32 7.36 6.95 6.57 6.64 6.26 6.53 6.15 5.62
10 psig 8.17 8.16 7.68 7.24 7.27 6.85 7.13 6.70 6.09
20 psig 8.87 8.81 8.28 7.78 7.78 7.31 7.61 7.13 6.44
30 psig 9.52 9.40 8.80 8.26 8.23 7.71 8.02 7.51 6.76
50 psig 10.67 10.45 9.75 9.11 9.00 8.41 8.74 8.16 7.29
60 psig 11.23 10.93 10.19 9.50 9.36 8.73 9.07 8.46 7.52
75 psig 12.06 11.64 10.82 10.07 9.86 9.19 9.52 8.95 7.85
100 psig 13.48 12.78 11.84 11.01 10.65 9.89 10.25 9.60 8.35
150 psig 16.52 15.03 13.89 12.92 12.14 11.22 11.57 10.69 9.27
250 psig 24.54 20.01 18.49 17.21 15.08 13.92 14.09 12.95 11.02
400 psig - - - - 20.17 18.64 18.12 16.64 13.71

Figure 7. Theoretical Steam Rates for Steam Turbines at Various Common Inlet
Conditions and Exhaust Pressures, lbm/hp-hr

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ASR Calculations

The ASR is obtained through the division of the theoretical steam rate by the turbine efficiency,
which includes thermodynamic and mechanical losses:
TSR
ASR =
Efficiency
The ASR can also be calculated according to the following relationships:
2545 ( Btu / hp − hr )
ASR =
Actual Energy ( Btu / lbm)

3411 ( Btu / kW − hr )
ASR =
Actual Energy ( Btu / lbm)
These relationships are frequently used when determining turbine efficiency for back-pressure
turbines that operate in the superheated steam region. Figure 8 shows the Mollier diagram used
for the previous TSR calculation example. Based on the actually observed exhaust conditions of
50 psia/440°F, point 3 (h3) represents the actual exhaust enthalpy for the turbine. The actual
exhaust conditions are in the superheated steam region. The actual exhaust enthalpy is higher
than the theoretical exhaust enthalpy (h2) because the actual turbine efficiency is less than 100%.
The actual energy is calculated according to the following:
Actual Energy = h1 - h3

Actual Energy = 1380 - 1250 = 130 Btu/lb

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Figure 8. Simplified Mollier Diagram

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For each pound-mass of steam that expands through this turbine, 130 Btus of output power can
be produced. The actual steam rate can be calculated by using the following equation:
3411 Btus / kW − hr
ASR = = 26.24 lb / kW − hr
130 Btus / lb
or
2545 Btus / hp − hr
ASR = = 19.58 lb / hp − hr
130 Btus / lb
The efficiency for this turbine can now be determined through use of the following equation:
 Actual Energy 
Turbine Efficiency ( hTURB ) =  
 Available Energy 

130 Btus / lb
=
230 Btus / lb

= 565%
.
Turbine efficiency can only be determined through use of this procedure if the exhaust operating
point is in the superheated region. Determination of turbine efficiency for turbine exhaust
operations in the saturated steam region requires determination of the moisture percentage, which
is difficult to accurately measure. An alternate approach to calculating saturated steam turbine
efficiency is to determine the ASR by calculating the brake horsepower (bhp) load of the driven
equipment and then measuring steam flow into the turbine:
Steam Flow (lb / hr )
ASR =
Calculated Load ( bhp)
When a turbine is operated under throttle control at constant revolutions per minute, a general
method that is used to determine the steam rate at any load is based on the relationship between
total steam flow in pounds per hour and horsepower output. This relationship can be graphically
shown by a nearly straight line that is called a Willans line. Figure 9 shows typical Willans lines
for a partial load, single-stage, backpressure turbine in which the steam flow is controlled by a
single governor valve and two manual hand valves. The graph for the partial-load single-valve
turbine has several individual Willans lines in which each line represents a throttle valve and
manual hand valve combination. The steam rate curve is stepped in relation to these valve
combinations. The partial-load Willans line is a stepped-line plot of steam flow in pounds per
hour (lb/hr) versus output. The first line represents both manual hand valves in the closed
position. If the governor valve is open, the turbine will have a steam flow of 11,250 lbs per hour.

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The second line represents steam flow when the first manual hand valve is open, the second hand
valve is closed, and the governor valve is controlling steam flow. The third line represents steam
flow when both manual hand valves are open and the governor valve is controlling steam flow.
Steam rates at any load may be calculated by dividing the total steam flow obtained from the
Willans line by the corresponding horsepower line. For example, the total steam flow at 400
horsepower is approximately 16,000 lbs per hour. The steam rate at 400 horsepower is calculated
by dividing 16,000 lbs per hour by 400 horsepower. The steam rate at 400 horsepower would be
40 lbs per horsepower-hour.

The Willans line intercepts the zero load point at some steam flow. The point at which the
Willans line intercepts the zero load point represents the minimum steam flow that is required to
supply the turbine's no-load losses.

Figure 9. Typical Willans Line

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Shortcut Method for Turbine Efficiency Determination and Performance Estimates

The problem of the determination of the predicted performance of steam turbines is frequently
encountered in connection with preliminary estimates for proposed industrial steam plants or for
extensions or modernization of existing steam plants. At the preliminary estimate stage of a
project, the available information is usually incomplete, or it is based on assumption. The actual
design of the turbine and its physical dimensions normally are not known at the time of the
preliminary estimation. The use of a shortcut method to determine the approximate performance
of a turbine may be justified for the comparison of different alternative turbines. As a preliminary
approach, only the required horsepower, the approximate speed, and the steam conditions are
known or assumed. One method that can be used to compare different alternative turbines is to
use average turbine efficiencies.

From a study of a number of tests and published reports that relate to various sizes and types of
steam turbines, fairly consistent efficiency curves can be established that apply to groups of similar
turbines that operate at selected standard conditions. One group of similar turbines is multi-stage
turbines (condensing and noncondensing) in sizes from 200 to 100,000 rated horsepower. Figure
10 shows the average efficiency curves that apply to this group of turbines. As a general
approximation, the curves may be used to make performance estimates that are based on the
percent of the average efficiency of condensing and noncondensing turbines. The average
efficiencies that are shown on the curves are from 40% to 90%. The curves that are shown are
for multi-stage turbines with the following conditions:
• Inlet steam condition pressure that ranges from 200 to 1500 lb/in2.
• Superheat that is equal to 100°F.
• Condensing turbine exhaust pressure that is equal to a vacuum of 28 in. Hg.
• Noncondensing turbine exhaust backpressure that is equal to atmospheric pressure.

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Curves of efficiency correction factors are included in the average efficiency curves. The
efficiency correction factor curves correct for condensing and noncondensing superheat over a
range from 0°F to 300°F. The efficiency correction factor curves also correct for the condensing
turbine vacuum over a range of 26 to 29 in. Hg. If the amount of superheat or the vacuum of the
proposed turbine is not within the conditions that are stated on the average efficiency curves, the
correction factors are used to determine the average efficiency of the proposed turbine. For
example, if the proposed turbine is a 3,000 bhp, multi-stage, condensing turbine that operates with
an inlet steam pressure of 600 lb/in2, 0°F superheat, and 29 in. Hg vacuum exhaust, the initial
average efficiency would be approximately 72 percent. Because the proposed turbine does not
operate at the conditions of the average efficiency curves, the initial average efficiency must be
corrected for the conditions of the operational conditions of the turbine. The correction factor for
the superheat of 0°F would be approximately 0.985. The correction factor for the condenser
vacuum of 29 in. Hg would be approximately 0.985. The average efficiency of the turbine is
calculated by the multiplication of the initial average efficiency (72 percent) times the corrections
factors (0.985 for superheat and 0.985 for condenser vacuum). The average efficiency for the
proposed turbine would be approximately 70%, and it is calculated in the following manner:
Average efficiency = (72%)(0.985)(0.985) = 69.8%

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Figure 10. Average Efficiency for Multi-Stage Turbines

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Power

The following sample problem demonstrates how the concepts of steam condition, Mollier
diagram, steam rates, and efficiencies work in relation to each other to predict turbine conditions
and to calculate turbine power.

Sample Problem 1:

Given the following information, the theoretical steam rate, the actual steam rate (water rate), and
steam exhaust conditions of percent moisture content and temperature are calculated:
• Inlet steam pressure - 600 psia
• Inlet steam temperature - 700°F
• Exhaust steam pressure - 2 psia
• Turbine efficiency - 75%
• horsepower required - 1000 hp
The Mollier diagram, which is shown in Figure 11, is used for this sample problem:
• The inlet enthalpy is determined by locating the point at which the inlet steam
temperature (700°F) and the inlet steam pressure (600 psia) intersect on the
Mollier diagram and by reading horizontally to the inlet enthalpy, h1:
h1 = 1350 Btu/lb

• The theoretical exhaust enthalpy is determined by locating the point at which the
inlet steam temperature (700°F) and the inlet steam pressure (600 psia) intersect
on the Mollier diagram. From this point, the Mollier diagram is read vertically
downward along a line of constant entropy to the point at which the line of
constant entropy intersects the exhaust pressure of 2 psia. At the point at which
the constant entropy intersects the exhaust pressure, the Mollier diagram is read
horizontally to determine the exhaust enthalpy, h2:
h2 = 923 Btu/lb

• The isentropic (ideal) change in enthalpy, ∆his, is calculated through the use of the
following formula:
∆h is = h 1 − h 2

= 1350 − 923

= 427 Btu / lb

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The theoretical steam rate, TSR, is determined by the division of the number of Btus that are
required to perform work (2545 Btus per horsepower-hour) by the available energy (isentropic
[ideal] change in enthalpy, ∆his):
2545
TSR =
Isentropic ∆h

2545 Btu / hp − hr
=
427 Btu / lb

= 5.96 lb / hp − hr

• The actual steam rate, ASR, is calculated by the division of the TSR by the turbine
efficiency:
TSR
ASR =
Turbine Efficiency

5.96 lb / hp − hr
=
0.75

= 7.95 lb / hp − hr

• The steam flow rate is calculated by the multiplication of the brake horsepower
that is required (hp) by the actual steam rate, ASR:
Steam Flow Rate = ( hp) × (Actual Steam Rate)

= (1000 hp) × (7.95 lb / hp − hr)

= 7950 lb / hr

• The steam exhaust conditions of percent moisture content and temperature are
determined by calculating the actual exhaust enthalpy and then locating the actual
exhaust enthalpy on the Mollier diagram in order to read the exhaust moisture
content and an approximation of the exhaust temperature.
• The actual exhaust enthalpy, h2, is calculated by determining the actual change in
enthalpy (Actual ∆h) and by subtracting the actual change in enthalpy (Actual ∆h)
from the inlet enthalpy:

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Actual ∆h = ( ∆h is ) × (Turbine Efficiency)

= ( 427 Btu / lb) × (0.75)

= 320 Btu / lb

Actual h 2 = h 1 − Actual ∆h

= 1350 − 320

= 1030 Btu / lb

• The percent moisture content is determined by locating the constant moisture

percent line that intersects the point at which actual exhaust enthalpy, h2 (1030
Btus/lb) and the exhaust steam pressure (2 psia) intersect on the Mollier diagram:
Moisture Content = 8.4%

• An approximation of the exhaust temperature is determined by locating the point

at which the exhaust steam pressure line (2 psia) intersects the saturated vapor line
and by reading the constant temperature line:

Outlet Temperature = 130°F

Note that in the saturated region, the constant temperature lines are parallel to the
constant pressure lines.

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Figure 11. Mollier Diagram (Adapted with permission from 1967 ASME
Steam Tables)

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Sample Problem 2:

Given the following information, the turbine thermodynamic efficiency and brake horsepower,
bhp, are calculated:
• Inlet steam pressure - 400 psia
• Exhaust steam pressure - 40 psia
• Inlet steam temperature - 650°F
• Exhaust steam temperature - 320°F
• Steam flow rate - 28,000 lbm/hr
The Mollier diagram, which was shown previously in Figure 11, is also used for this sample
problem.

As shown in the following formula, the turbine thermodynamic efficiency is calculated by the
division of the actual change in enthalpy by the isentropic change in enthalpy:
Actual Differential Enthalpy
Turbine Thermodynamic Efficiency =
Isentropic Differential Enthalpy

∆h act
=
∆h is
The isentropic change in enthalpy is calculated by determining the inlet enthalpy and exhaust
enthalpy from the Mollier diagram as follows:
• The inlet enthalpy is determined by locating the point at which the inlet steam
temperature (650oF) and inlet steam pressure (400 psia) intersect on the Mollier
diagram and by reading horizontally to the inlet enthalpy, h1:
h1 = 1335 Btu/lb

• The isentropic exhaust enthalpy is determined by locating the point at which the
inlet steam temperature (650oF) and inlet steam pressure (400 psia) intersect on the
Mollier diagram. From this point, the Mollier diagram is read vertically downward
along a line of constant entropy (isentropic expansion) to the point at which the
line of constant entropy intersects the exhaust pressure of 40 psia. At the point at
which the constant entropy intersects the exhaust pressure, the Mollier diagram is
read horizontally to determine the exhaust enthalpy, h2is:
h2is = 1127 Btu/lb

• The isentropic (ideal) change in enthalpy, ∆his, is calculated through use of the
following formula:

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∆h is = h 1 − h 2 is

= 1335 − 1127

= 208 Btu / lb

• The actual exhaust enthalpy is determined by locating the point at which the actual
exhaust steam temperature (320oF) and exhaust steam pressure (40 psia) intersect
on the Mollier diagram and by reading horizontally to the actual exhaust enthalpy,
h2 act:
h 2 act = 1200 Btu / lb

• The actual (real) change in enthalpy, ∆hact, is calculated through use of the
following formula:
∆h is = h 1 − h 2 act

= 1335 − 1200

= 135 Btu / lb

• As shown in the following formula, the turbine thermodynamic efficiency is

calculated by the division of the actual change in enthalpy (∆hact) by the isentropic
change in enthalpy (∆his):
∆h act
Turbine Efficiency =
∆h is

135
=
208

= 0.65
• The actual brake horsepower is calculated by the division of the steam flow rate by
the actual steam rate (water rate). As shown in the following formulas, the water
rate is determined by the division of the number of Btus required to perform work
(2545 Btus per horsepower-hour) by the available energy (actual change in
enthalpy, ∆hact):

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Steam Flow Rate

Actual Brake Horsepower (bhp) =
ASR (Water Rate)

2545 Btu / hp − hr
Water Rate =
Dh act

2545 Btu / hp − hr
Water Rate =
135 Btu / lbm

= 18.9 lbm. hp − hr

28,100 lbm / hr
Actual Brake Horsepower ( bhp) =
18.9 lbm. hp − hr

= 1486.8 hp

If the exhaust steam is saturated, the above method cannot be used to determine turbine
thermodynamic efficiency or brake horsepower. Because the steam is saturated (contains water
as well as steam), exhaust enthalpy can be calculated only if the steam quality (fraction of dry
steam) or the moisture content (as a percentage) of the steam is known. The moisture content of
the exhaust steam cannot be easily measured with accuracy. Determining the steam quality
requires the use of a throttling calorimeter. The throttling calorimeter is installed in the turbine
exhaust. The range of a throttling calorimeter is limited to small percentages of moisture. ASME
code PTC-6 (Performance Test Code 6 on Steam Turbines) provides information and references
for steam quality testing.

There is an alternate method for determining turbine efficiency for turbines with saturated exhaust
steam. The turbine efficiency can be calculated if the brake horsepower of the driven machine (for
example, the compressor) is known. The turbine efficiency is determined by the division of the
theoretical steam rate by the actual steam rate. The theoretical steam rate is determined by the
calculation of the isentropic change in enthalpy, and the actual steam rate is determined by the
division of the actual steam flow (lbm/hr) by the actual brake horsepower of the driven machine.

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STEAM TURBINE EXTRACTION CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR EFFECT ON

EXTRACTION STEAM TURBINES

For a given set of steam conditions, extraction characteristics are an important performance
consideration. These extraction characteristics are used to determine the total amount of steam
flow required to maintain a given load and to maintain an amount of extraction steam flow.

As described in MEX 213.01, an extraction turbine is a multi-stage turbine in which some of the
steam is exhausted, or bled, from between the turbine stages. The extraction steam is used for
various processes, such as to drive general-purpose turbines, to heat feedwater, or to heat
buildings. An extraction turbine can be either a non-condensing or a condensing turbine,
equipped with one or more extraction points. An extraction turbine can be considered as two (or
more, depending on the number of extraction points) turbines on a single shaft. The first turbine
is subjected to varying exhaust pressure as the extraction pressure changes. The extraction of
steam between the stages will affect the steam inlet pressure to the “second” turbine.

Extraction Characteristics

The extraction characteristics that are important to determine the performance of an extraction
turbine include the throttle flow, the extraction pressure, the first stage pressure after the throttle
valve(s), and the shaft horsepower.

The throttle flow is the amount of steam flow in pounds per hour (lbs/hr) that passes through the
steam turbine throttle valve(s). The amount of flow represents the amount of steam that is
required to produce a given shaft power output and a given amount of extraction steam.

The extraction pressure is the pressure of the steam that is extracted from the turbine. The low
pressure end of an extraction turbine is designed for the steam flow that, at full load and with the
extraction valve (low pressure end throttle valve) wide open, will give the extraction pressure that
is required in the extraction line. If it were not for the action of the extraction valve (low pressure
end throttle valve), the extraction pressure would decrease in proportion to the steam flow when
the steam turbine was operated at a partial load. The extraction valve throttles the steam to
maintain the required extraction pressure or flow by adjusting the amount of steam to the low
pressure end of the turbine.

The first stage pressure after the throttle valve is the steam pressure downstream of the throttle
valve, which is the pressure applied to the high pressure or the low pressure section of the turbine.
The first stage pressure after the throttle high pressure and the extraction low pressure valves
provides information to determine the steam flow to the high pressure and low pressure sections
of the turbine. Vendors typically provide first stage pressure versus steam flow curve for both the
high pressure and the low pressure sections of the turbine. Increase of the first-stage pressure
generally indicates turbine fouling because the flow area of the turbine blades is reduced.

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The shaft horsepower is the output power of the turbine.

Effects on Turbine Performance

The guaranteed steam rate that is provided from the manufacturers for condensing and
noncondensing automatic-extraction turbines is always based on a condensing or a noncondensing
performance that is obtained with no extraction and with the extraction valve wide open. With
the extraction valve wide open, all of the steam that enters the throttle valve will pass through the
low pressure section (the extraction valve does not function to maintain the extraction pressure).

This guaranteed nonextraction performance for an automatic-extraction turbine will be typically

two to three percent less than the guaranteed nonextraction performance of a condensing or a
noncondensing unit of the same capacity that is designed for the same steam conditions.

The complete performance of an extraction turbine can be represented by a diagram that is called
an extraction map, which is shown Figure 12. Figure 12 is a graph of the throttle flow in pounds
per hour (lbs/hr) versus the shaft output in horsepower (hp) for an automatic-extraction turbine.
The extraction map is used to determine the amount of throttle flow that is required to maintain a
specific shaft output and extraction flow. For example, to produce an output of 15,000 shaft
horsepower with no extraction, the turbine will require 149,000 lbs/hr throttle flow. The amount
of steam flow out the exhaust will be at the maximum exhaust end flow. If 100,000 lbs/hr of
extraction flow is desired from the turbine that carries a given load, the throttle flow must
increase. The throttle flow increase is not equal to the amount of extracted steam. The throttle
flow will increase to approximately 180,000 lbs/hr to provide 100,000 lbs/hr of extraction flow
and a shaft output of 15,000 shaft horsepower. The exhaust flow of the turbine will no longer be
at the maximum exhaust flow.

The line that is labeled “Minimum Exhaust End Flow” represents the performance when most of
the steam that enters the throttle is extracted with a minimum amount of steam flowing through
the turbine. The minimum amount of steam flow through the turbine is required to cool the
exhaust end of the turbine. If all of the steam is extracted (no minimum steam flow through the
turbine), the exhaust end of the turbine will overheat because the spinning rotor blades will
transfer energy to the fluid in the exhaust end, and thereby result in a temperature rise. The
amount of flow going to the exhaust end can be calculated from the extraction map, and this
amount of flow is the difference between the extraction flow and the throttle flow. The minimum
exhaust end flow is typically a fixed value and is provided to the LP end of the turbine by an
internal bypass.

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The line that is labeled “Maximum Throttle Flow” represents the limit of the maximum flow that
the high-pressure section of the turbine can pass when the turbine is operated within its normal
steam conditions. The limit that corresponds to the “Maximum Throttle Flow” limit for the low-
pressure section of the turbine is represented by the line that is labeled “Maximum Exhaust End
Flow.” For some extraction turbines, the turbine can be operated in the region to the right of the
low-pressure section limit, but the turbine will not be able to maintain normal extraction pressure
(note: this situation is not a normal mode of operation). For any given load, the flow to exhaust is
maximum at zero extraction. The exhaust section of the turbine is designed so the turbine can
produce the required power with zero extraction.

Figure 12. Extraction Map

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Another curve that is useful in the determination of the performance of a steam turbine is, as
shown in Figure 13, the curve of steam flow versus first stage shell pressure. Steam flow versus
first stage shell pressure curves are provided by the turbine manufacturer as part of the turbine’s
data package. Steam flow versus first stage pressure curves are primarily used to determine
whether a turbine is fouling. A turbine that has an increase in the first stage shell pressure for a
given steam flow is indicating a fouling condition in the turbine. For example, a turbine that has
400,000 lbs/hr steam flow should have a first stage shell pressure of 250 psig. If the first stage
shell pressure that is required to maintain 400,000 lbs/hr steam flow is 280 psig, the steam turbine
may be operating under a fouled condition. For extraction turbines, the curves (not shown in
Figure 13) for the first stage shell pressure and the first stage after the extraction low pressure
valve are also provided by the manufacturer.

Figure 13. Steam Flow Versus First Stage Shell Pressure

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WORK AID 1: MOLLIER DIAGRAM AND GUIDES USED TO CALCULATE

STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Mollier Diagram
Use Work Aid 1, as necessary, to complete Exercise 1.

Figure 14. Mollier Diagram (Adapted with permission from 1967 ASME
Steam Tables)

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Guides for Calculation

The isentropic change in enthalpy is calculated by determining the inlet enthalpy and exhaust
enthalpy from the Mollier diagram as follows:
• The inlet enthalpy is determined by locating the point at which the inlet steam
temperature (745°F) and inlet steam pressure (535 psia) intersect on the Mollier
diagram and by reading horizontally to the inlet enthalpy, h1.
• The isentropic exhaust enthalpy is determined by locating the point at which the
inlet steam temperature (745°F) and the inlet steam pressure (535 psia) intersect
on the Mollier diagram. From this point, the Mollier diagram is read vertically
downward along a line of constant entropy to the point at which the line of
constant entropy intersects the exhaust pressure of 45 psia. At the point at which
the constant entropy intersects the exhaust pressure, the Mollier diagram is read
horizontally to determine the exhaust enthalpy, h2 is.
• The isentropic (ideal) change in enthalpy, ∆his, is calculated through use of the
following formula:
∆h is = h 1 − h 2 is
The actual exhaust enthalpy is determined by locating the point at which the actual exhaust steam
temperature (559°F) and exhaust steam pressure (45 psia) intersect on the Mollier diagram and by
reading horizontally to the actual exhaust enthalpy, h2act.

The actual (real) change in enthalpy, ∆hact, is calculated through use of the following formula:
∆h act = h 1 − h 2 act
The turbine thermodynamic efficiency is calculated by the division of the actual change in enthalpy
(∆hact) by the isentropic change in enthalpy (∆his), as shown in the following formula:
∆h act
Turbine Efficiency =
∆h is
The brake horsepower is calculated by the division of the steam flow rate by the water rate. The
water rate is determined by the division of the number of Btus required to perform work (2545
Btus per horsepower-hour) by the available energy (actual change in enthalpy, ∆hact), as shown in
the following formulas:
2545 Btus / hp − hr
Water Rate =
∆h act

Steam Flow Rate

Actual Brake Horsepower ( bhp) =
Water Rate

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GLOSSARY

automatic A steam turbine with the capacity to extract steam. The pressure or flow
extraction turbine rate of the extracted steam is controlled by a valve gear at the inlet to the
low pressure section of the turbine and the main valve gear. (Steam
turbines can be furnished with automatic extraction and admission
capability.)

available energy The difference in enthalpy between an inlet steam condition (a specific
pressure and temperature) and an exhaust pressure along an isentropic
expansion path of constant entropy.

backpressure A steam turbine that exhausts at a pressure that is equal to or greater than
turbine atmospheric pressure. A backpressure turbine is also known as a
noncondensing steam turbine.

brake horsepower Brake horsepower is equal to the steam flow rate (lb/hr) divided by the
(bhp) actual steam rate (water rate) (lbm/hp-hr).

efficiency The ratio of the work output of a machine to the energy input to the
machine.

extraction factor The ratio of the increase in throttle flow over the increase in flow that is
required for zero extraction for a given turbine and a given set of steam
conditions.

induction turbine A steam turbine that has the capacity to admit steam at two or more
pressures. Commonly called an automatic-admission turbine.

Mollier diagram A plot of enthalpy versus entropy of a fluid. The plot includes lines of
constant pressure, temperature, and moisture (in the saturation region).

pressure control The ability of steam turbine governor systems to maintain constant
pressure in a steam line, by the action of a valve gear, as the turbine
supplies steam to the header or draws steam from it.

pressure rise point In an automatic-extraction steam turbine, the point of maximum exhaust
flow with zero extraction flow.

steam flow rate Flow rate of the steam to the turbine in lbm/hr.

steam rate The weight flow rate of steam that is required to produce a unit of output
expressed in pounds per kilowatt-hour or pounds per horsepower hour.
The theoretical steam rate (TSR) defines a perfect expansion process
between two conditions. An actual steam rate (ASR) defines the actual
expansion. The determination of ASR takes into account the inefficiency

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of both the turbine and the generator.

thermodynamic The efficiency of the turbine. Thermodynamic efficiency is the actual

efficiency work that is produced by the turbine divided by the ideal or isentropic
work that is expected for the given conditions.

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