1.

4 Taylor Series

Brook Taylor was an

accomplished musician and
painter. He did research in a
variety of areas, but is most
famous for his development of
ideas regarding infinite series.
Brook Taylor
1685 - 1731
 1.4 Taylor Series
Suppose we wanted to find a fourth degree polynomial of
the form:
P ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4

that approximates the behavior of f ( x ) = ln ( x + 1) at x = 0

If we make P ( 0 ) = f ( 0 ), and the first, second, third and fourth

derivatives the same, then we would have a pretty good
approximation.
 1.4 Taylor Series
f ( x ) = ln ( x + 1) P ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4
f ( 0 ) = ln (1) = 0 P ( 0 ) = a0 a0 = 0

f ( x) =
1 P ( x ) = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x 2 + 4a4 x 3
1+ x
1
f  ( 0) = = 1 P ( 0 ) = a1 a1 = 1
1

f  ( x ) = −
1 P ( x ) = 2a2 + 6a3 x + 12a4 x 2
(1 + x )
2
1
1
f  ( 0 ) = − = −1
P ( 0 ) = 2a2 a2 = −
1
2
 1.4 Taylor Series
f  ( x ) = −
1
P ( x ) = 2a2 + 6a3 x + 12a4 x 2
(1 + x )
2

1
1
f  ( 0 ) = − = −1
P ( 0 ) = 2 a2
 a2 = −
1 2

f  ( x ) = 2 
1
P ( x ) = 6a3 + 24a4 x
(1 + x )
3

f  ( 0 ) = 2 P ( 0 ) = 6a3 a3 =

2
6
P ( 4) ( x ) = 24a4
1
f ( 4) ( x ) = −6
(1 + x )
4
6
f ( 4) ( 0 ) = −6 P ( 4)
( 0 ) = 24a4 a4 = −
24
 1.4 Taylor Series
1 2 2 3 6 4
P ( x ) = 0 + 1x − x + x − x f ( x ) = ln ( x + 1)
2 6 24
x 2 x3 x 4
P ( x) = 0 + x − + −
5 2 3 4
4 If we plot both functions, 1
3 we see that near zero the
2 functions match very well!
f ( x)
0.5
1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-2
-3
-0.5
-4
-5 P ( x)
-1
 1.4 Taylor Series
1 2 2 3 6 4
Our polynomial: 0 + 1x − x + x − x
2 6 24
f  ( 0 ) 2 f  ( 0 ) 3 f ( 4) ( 0 ) 4
has the form: f ( 0) + f  ( 0) x + x + x + x
2 6 24

or: f ( 0) f  ( 0) f  ( 0 ) 2 f  ( 0 ) 3 f ( 4) ( 0 ) 4
+ x+ x + x + x
0! 1! 2! 3! 4!

This pattern occurs no matter what the original function was!

1.4 Taylor Series

Maclaurin Series:
(generated by f at x = 0 )

f  ( 0 ) 2 f  ( 0 ) 3
P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f  ( 0) x + x + x + 
2! 3!
 1.4 Taylor Series

If we want to center the series (and it’s graph) at some

point other than zero, we get the Taylor Series:

Taylor Series:
(generated by f at x = a )

f  ( a ) f  ( a )
P ( x ) = f ( a ) + f  ( a )( x − a ) + ( − ) + ( − ) + 
2 3
x a x a
2! 3!
 1.4 Taylor Series
f ( x ) = cos x f (0) = 1 f  ( x ) = sin x f  ( 0 ) = 0

f  ( x ) = − sin x f  ( 0) = 0 f ( 4 ) ( x ) = cos x f ( 4) ( 0 ) = 1

f  ( x ) = − cos x f  ( 0 ) = −1

1x 2 0 x3 1x 4 0 x5 1x 6
P ( x) = 1+ 0x − + + + − + 
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!

x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x10
P ( x) = 1− + − + − 
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
 1.4 Taylor Series
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 x10
y = cos x P ( x) = 1− + − + − 
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1

The more terms we add, the better our approximation.

 1.4 Taylor Series
y = cos ( 2 x )

Rather than start from scratch, we can use the function

that we already know:

( 2x) ( 2x) ( 2x ) ( 2x ) ( 2x )
2 4 6 8 10

P ( x) = 1− + − + − 
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
 1.4 Taylor Series

example: y = cos ( x ) at x =
2
 
f ( x ) = cos x f  =0   0  1 
2 3

2 P ( x ) = 0 − 1 x −  +  x −  +  x −  + 
 2  2!  2  3!  2
f  ( x ) = − sin x   
f   = −1
2    
3 5

  x−  x− 
f  ( x ) = − cos x f    = 0   
P ( x) = −  x −  +   −  + 
2 2
2  2 3! 5!
 
f  ( x ) = sin x f    = 1
2
( 4)  

f ( 4)
( x ) = cos x f  =0
2
 1.4 Taylor Series
There are some Maclaurin series that occur often enough
that they should be memorized. They are on pg 477

1
= 1 + x + x 2 + ... + x n + ... =  x n (| x | 1)
1− x n =0


1
= 1 − x + x 2 − ... + (− x)n + ... =  (−1) n x n (| x | 1)
1+ x n =0

2 n  n
x x x
e = 1 + x + + ... + + ... =  (all real x)
x

2! n! n =0 n!
 1.4 Taylor Series
3 5 2 n+1  2 n+1
x x x x
sin x = x − + − ... + (−1) n
=  (−1) n

3! 5! (2n + 1)! n=0 (2n + 1)!

2 4 2n  2n
x x n x n x
cos x = 1 − + − ... + (−1) =  (−1)
2! 4! (2n)! n=0 (2n)!
3 5 7 ( 2 n +1)
x x x
tan ( x ) = x − + − +  
−1 x
= ( −1) n

3 5 7 n =0 (2n + 1)
 1.4 Taylor Series
When referring to Taylor polynomials, we can talk about
number of terms, order or degree.

x2 x4
cos x = 1 − + This is a polynomial in 3 terms.
2! 4!
 1.4 Taylor Series
x2 x4
cos x = 1 − +
2! 4!
It is a 4th order Taylor polynomial, because it was
found using the 4th derivative.
It is also a 4th degree polynomial, because x is raised
to the 4th power.
x2
The 3rd order polynomial for cos x is 1 − , but it is
degree 2. 2!

The x3 term drops out when using the third derivative.

This is also the 2nd order polynomial.
 1.4 Taylor Series
1 f  ( 0 ) 2 f  ( 0 ) 3
= (1 − x )
−1
P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f  ( 0) x + x + x + 
1− x 2! 3!

f (n) ( x )
List the function and its
(1 − x )
−1
derivatives.
(1 − x )
−2

2 (1 − x )
−3

6 (1 − x )
−4

24 (1 − x )
−5
 1.4 Taylor Series
1
= (1 − x )
−1
f  ( 0 ) 2 f  ( 0 ) 3
1− x P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f  ( 0) x + x + x + 
2! 3!
f (n) ( x ) f ( 0 )
( )
n

Evaluate column one

(1 − x )
−1
1
1 for x = 0. 2 2 3! 3 4! 4
= 1 + 1x + x + x + x + 
(1 − x )
−2
1 1− x 2! 3! 4!
2 (1 − x )
−3
2 1
= 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + x 4 + 
1− x
6 (1 − x )
−4
6 = 3!
24 (1 − x )
−5
24 = 4! This is a geometric series with
a = 1 and r = x.
 1.4 Taylor Series
We could generate this
same series for
1 + x + x2 + x3 +
1 (1 − x ) 1
1− x 1− x
with polynomial x 2
long division: x−x
x2
x −x
2 3

x3
 1.4 Taylor Series
f  ( 0 ) 2 f  ( 0 ) 3
1 P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f  ( 0) x + x + x + 
= (1 + x )
−1
2! 3!
1+ x
2 2 −3! 3 4! 4
( x) f (n) ( 0 )
(n) 1
f = 1 + −1x + x + x + x + 
1+ x 2! 3! 4!
(1 + x )
−1
1 1
= 1 − x + x 2 − x3 + x 4 + 
− (1 + x )
−2
−1 1+ x
2 (1 + x )
−3
2
This is a geometric series with
−6 (1 + x )
−4
−6 = −3!
a = 1 and r = -x.
24 (1 + x )
−5
24 = 4!
 1.4 Taylor Series
We wouldn’t expect to use the previous two series to
evaluate the functions, since we can evaluate the
functions directly.
They do help to explain where the formula for the sum of
an infinite geometric comes from.
We will find other uses for these series, as well.

A more impressive use of Taylor series is to

evaluate transcendental functions.
 1.4 Taylor Series
f  ( 0 ) 2 f  ( 0 ) 3
cos ( x ) P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f  ( 0) x + x + x + 
2! 3!
−1 2 0 3 1 4
cos ( x ) = 1 + 0 x + x + x + x + 
f (n)
( x) f (n) ( 0 ) 2! 3! 4!

cos ( x ) x2 x4 x6
cos ( x ) = 1 − +
1 − 
− sin ( x ) 0 2! 4! 6!

− cos ( x ) −1 Both sides are even functions.

sin ( x ) 0
Cos (0) = 1 for both sides.
cos ( x ) 1
 1.4 Taylor Series
f  ( 0 ) 2 f  ( 0 ) 3
sin ( x ) P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f  ( 0) x + x + x + 
2! 3!

f (n) ( x ) f (n) ( 0 )
0 2 −1 3 0 4
sin ( x ) = 0 + 1x + x + x + x + 
sin ( x ) 0 2! 3! 4!
cos ( x ) 1 x3 x5 x 7
sin ( x ) = x − + − 
− sin ( x ) 0 3! 5! 7!
− cos ( x ) −1
sin ( x ) 0 Both sides are odd functions.

Sin (0) = 0 for both sides.

 1.4 Taylor Series
1
1 + x2

1
If we start with this function: = 1 − x + x 2 − x3 + x 4 + 
1+ x
1
and substitute x 2
for x , we get: 1 + x 2 = 1 − x 2
+ x 4
− x 6
+ x 8
+ 

This is a geometric series with a = 1 and r = -x2.

 1.4 Taylor Series
1
= 1 − x 2
+ x 4
− x 6
+ x 8
+ 
1+ x 2

If we integrate both sides:

1
 1 + x2 =  − + − + +  dx
2 4 6 8
dx 1 x x x x
This looks the same as the
x3 x5 x 7
tan ( x ) = x − + − + 
−1 series for sin (x), but without
3 5 7 the factorials.
 1.4 Taylor Series
f  ( 0 ) 2 f  ( 0 ) 3
ln (1 + x ) P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f  ( 0) x + x + x + 
2! 3!

f (n)
( x) f (n) ( 0 )

ln (1 + x ) 0
−1 2 2 3 −3! 4
ln (1 + x ) = 0 + 1x + x + x + x + 
(1 + x )
−1
1 2! 3! 4!
− (1 + x )
−2
−1

2 (1 + x ) x 2 x3 x 4
−3
2 ln (1 + x ) = x − + − + 
2 3 4
−6 (1 − x )
−4
−6 = −3!
 1.4 Taylor Series
f  ( 0 ) 2 f  ( 0 ) 3
e x P ( x ) = f ( 0) + f  ( 0) x + x + x + 
2! 3!

f (n) ( x ) f (n) ( 0 )

ex 1
1 2 1 3 1 4
1 e = 1 + 1x + x + x + x + 
x
ex 2! 3! 4!
ex 1
ex 1 x 2 x3 x 4
e = 1 + x + + + + 
x

ex 1 2! 3! 4!
 1.4 Taylor Series
An amazing use for infinite series:

x 2 x3 x 4
e = 1 + x + + + + 
x
Substitute xi for x.
2! 3! 4!

( xi )2 ( xi )3 ( xi )4 ( xi )5 ( xi )6
e = 1 + xi +
xi
+ + + + + 
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!

x 2i 2 x3i 3 x 4i 4 x 5i 5 x 6i 6
e = 1 + xi +
xi
+ + + + + 
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
 1.4 Taylor Series

2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6
x i x i x i x i x i
e xi = 1 + xi + + + + + + 
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
2 3 4 5 6
x x i x x i x
e xi = 1 + xi − − + + − +  Factor out the i terms.
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!

 
2 4 6
x x x x3 x5
e = 1 − + − +  + i  x − + +  
xi

2! 4! 6!  3! 5! 
 1.4 Taylor Series
 
2 4 6
x x x x3 x5
e = 1 − + − +  + i  x − + +  
xi

2! 4! 6!  3! 5! 

This is the series This is the series

for cosine. for sine.
exi = cos ( x ) + i sin ( x )
i
Let x =
e = cos ( ) + i sin ( )
ei = −1 + i  0
This amazing identity contains
i
e +1 = 0 the five most famous numbers
in mathematics, and shows
that they are interrelated.
 1.5 Radius of Convergence
Convergence
The series that are of the most interest to us are those
that converge.

Today we will consider the question:

“Does this series converge, and if so, for what values of

x does it converge?”
 1.5 Radius of Convergence
The first requirement of convergence is that the terms
must approach zero.

nth term test for divergence



n =1
a n diverges if lim an
n →
fails to exist or is not zero.

Note that this can prove that a series diverges, but can
not prove that a series converges.
 1.5 Radius of Convergence

 n =0 n ! x
 n
If x  1 then n! xn grows without
bound.
n!
If 0  x  1 then lim n ! x = lim
n
=
n → n →  1  n
 
 x
1
As 
n →  The series diverges. (except
, eventually n is larger than
x
, therefore
when x=0)
the numerator grows faster than the denominator.
 1.5 Radius of Convergence
1 The series converges over some finite interval:
(the interval of convergence).
There is a positive number R such that the series
diverges for x − a  R but converges for x − a  R .
The series may or may not converge at the endpoints
of the interval.
2 The series converges for every x. ( R =  )

3 The series converges for at x=a and diverges

everywhere else. ( R = 0 ) The number R is the
radius of convergence.
 1.5 Radius of Convergence
Direct Comparison Test
This series converges.
For non-negative series:
So this series
If every term of a series is must also
less than the corresponding converge.
term of a convergent series,
then both series converge.
If every term of a series is So this series must also diverge.
greater than the
corresponding term of a
divergent series, then both This series
series diverge. diverges.
 1.5 Radius of Convergence

x2n
Ex. 3: Prove that  2 converges for all real x.
n = 0 ( n !)

x2n ( x2 ) n

There are no negative terms:  

( n !) 2
n!

(x )
 2 n
larger denominator
 is the Taylor series for e x2
, which converges.
n =0 n!
 The original series converges.
The direct comparison test only works when the terms are
non-negative.
 1.5 Radius of Convergence
Absolute Convergence

If a n converges, then we say a n converges absolutely.


If “converges
The term absolutely”
an converges, 
then means that the series
an converges.
formed by taking the absolute value of each term
converges. Sometimes in the English language we use
the word “absolutely” to mean “really” or “actually”. This
If the series formed by taking the absolute value of each
is not the case here!
term converges, then the original series must also
converge.

“If a series converges absolutely, then it converges.”

 1.5 Radius of Convergence
( sin x )
n


n =0 n!

n
We test for absolute convergence: sin x 1

n! n!
2 3 n
x x x
Since e x = 1 + x + + +  + ,
2! 3! n!
 1.5 Radius of Convergence
2 3 n
x x x
Since e x = 1 + x + + +  + ,
2! 3! n!

1

n =0 n !
converges to e = e
1

n

sin x
 converges by the direct comparison test.
n =0 n!
( sin x )
n

Since 
n =0 n!
converges absolutely, it converges.
 1.5 Radius of Convergence
Ratio Technique

We have learned that the partial sum of a geometric series

is given by:

1− rn
S n = t1  where r = common ratio between terms
1− r
When r  1 , the series converges.
 1.5 Radius of Convergence

Geometric series have a constant ratio between terms.

Other series have ratios that are not constant. If the
absolute value of the limit of the ratio between
consecutive terms is less than one, then the series will
converge.
1.5 Radius of Convergence


For t
n =1
n , if L = lim
tn +1
n → t
n
then:

if L 1 the series converges.

if L 1 the series diverges.

if L =1 the series may or may not converge.

 1.5 Radius of Convergence
Ex: x 2 x3 x 4
ln (1 + x ) = x − + − +  If we replace x with x-1, we get:
2 3 4

1
 ( −1)  ( x − 1)
1 1 1 n +1
ln ( x ) = ( x − 1) − ( x − 1) + ( x − 1) − ( x − 1) +  =
2 3 4 n

2 3 4 n =1 n

( −1) ( x − 1)
n+2 n +1

L = lim 
n an +1 1
= an +1 
( −1) ( x − 1)
n +1
n → n +1 n
an an
 1.5 Radius of Convergence

( x − 1) ( x − 1)
n
n
= lim 
n +1 ( x − 1)
n → n

If the limit of the ratio

= lim
( x − 1) n
= x −1
between consecutive terms
n → n +1 is less than one, then the
series will converge.
1.5 Radius of Convergence
If the limit of the ratio between consecutive terms
is less than one, then the series will converge.

x −1  1 −1  x −1  1 0 x2

The interval of convergence is (0,2).

The radius of convergence is 1.

 1.5 Radius of Convergence

n
 n (
x − 5)
n
1 2 3
( x − 5) + ( x − 5) + ( x − 5) + 
2 3

n =1 3 3 9 27

( n + 1)( x − 5 )
n +1
3n
L = lim 
n ( x − 5)
n → n +1 n
3

( n + 1)( x − 5) ( x − 5 )  3n
n

L = lim L = lim
( n + 1)( x − 5 )
3  3  n ( x − 5)
n → n n
n → 3n
 1.5 Radius of Convergence

n
 n (
x − 5)
n 1
x −5 1
n =1 3
3
x −5  3
L = lim
( n + 1)( x − 5)
n → 3n −3  x − 5  3

n +1 2 x8
L = x − 5 lim
n → 3n The interval of convergence is (2,8).
1 8−2
L = x−5  The radius of convergence is =3 .
3 2
 1.5 Radius of Convergence

n!
 4 (
x − 3)
n

n =1 n

1 2 3
( x − 3) + ( x − 3) + ( x − 3) + ( x − 3) + 
2 3 4

8 27 32

( n + 1)!( x − 3)
n +1
n4
L = lim 
( n + 1) n !( x − 3)
n → 4 n
 1.5 Radius of Convergence

n!
 4 (
x − 3)
n

n =1 n

n !( n + 1)( x − 3) ( x − 3)
n
n4
L = lim 
( n + 1) n !( x − 3)
n → 4 n

1
4
 n 
L = x − 3 lim ( n + 1)  
n →
 n + 1 
 1.5 Radius of Convergence

n!
 4 (
x − 3)
n

n =1 n
1
4
 n 
L = x − 3 lim ( n + 1)  
n →
 n +1 

L= for all x 3. Radius of convergence = 0.

At x = 3, the series is 0 + 0 + 0 +  , which converges to zero.

Note: If r is infinite, then the series converges for all values of x.
 1.5 Radius of Convergence
Another series for which it is easy to find the
sum is the telescoping series. by partial

1  fractions
 n ( n + 1) 
1
−
1
n =1 n =1 n n +1
Telescoping Series
 1  +  1 1  +  1 1  + 
1 −   −   − 
 2  2 3 3 4 

1 1
 (b
n =1
n − bn +1 )
S3 = 1 − Sn = 1 −
4 n +1
converges to b1
lim Sn = 1
n →
 1.6 Testing of Convergence

This section in the book presents several other tests or

techniques to test for convergence, and discusses
some specific convergent and divergent series.
 1.6 Testing of Convergence
Nth Root Test:

If a n is a series with positive terms and lim n an = L then:

n →

The series converges if L 1 .

Note that the
The series diverges if L 1 . rules are the
same as for
the Ratio Test.
The test is inconclusive if L = 1.
1.6 Testing of Convergence
 2
n

n =1 2 n

( )
2 n 2 2
n n lim n n 2 = lim n n
n
n
= n → n →
2 2
 1.6 Testing of Convergence
n 1
lim n
n →
lim n
( )
1 1 n→ 1
lim n n lim ln
n→ nn
e
n → e 0
1
lim ln n
e
n→ n
e 1
ln n
lim Indeterminate, so we use L’Hôpital’s Rule
n→ n
e
 1.6 Testing of Convergence
 2
n
 
example: n 2
1
n =
2 n lim it converges
n =1 n → 2 2

( )
2 n 2 2
n n lim n n 2 = lim n n
n
n
= n → n →
2 2
=1 2
=1
?
 1.6 Testing of Convergence

2n
another example: 
n =1 n
2

n
2 = 2
n

2 n 2
n n

2

2
lim
n → n 2
= =2 it diverges
n 1
 1.6 Testing of Convergence
Remember: The Ratio Test:

If  an is a series with positive terms and lim n +1 = L

a
n → a
n

then:
The series converges if L 1 .
The series diverges if L 1 .
The test is inconclusive if L = 1.
 1.6 Testing of Convergence
3

1
This leads to:

0 1 2 3 4
The Integral Test
If an  is a positive sequence and an = f ( n) where
f ( n) is a continuous, positive decreasing function, then:


a


n= N
n and 
N
f ( x ) dx both converge or both diverge.
 1.6 Testing of Convergence

1
Example 1: Does n
n =1 n
converge?

3
 1 − 1 b

b
dx = lim  x 2
dx = lim
−2 x
−
2
1 b → 1 b →
x x 1

Since the integral converges,

 −2  the series must converge.
= lim  + 2 = 2 (but not necessarily to 2.)
b →
 b 
 1.6 Testing of Convergence
p-series Test

1 1 1 1

n =1 n
p
= p + p + p + 
1 2 3
converges if p  1 , diverges if p  1 .

If this test seems backward after the ratio and nth root
tests, remember that larger values of p would make the
denominators increase faster and the terms decrease
faster.
 1.6 Testing of Convergence
the harmonic series:

1 1 1 1 1

n =1 n
= + + + + 
1 2 3 4
diverges.

(It is a p-series with p=1.)

It diverges very slowly, but it diverges.

Because the p-series is so easy to evaluate, we use it

to compare to other series.
 Limit Comparison Test

If an  0 and bn  0 for all n  N (N a positive integer)

If
an
lim = c 0  c  
n → b
, then both  an and bn 
n converge or both diverge.

If
an
lim = 0
n → b
, then a n converges if b n converges.
n

If
an
lim = 
n → b
, then a n diverges if  b diverges.
n
n
→
 1.6 Testing of Convergence
3 5 7 9 
2n + 1 2n 2
+ + + +  =  =
n =1 ( n + 1)
2 2
4 9 16 25 n n
When n is large,
the function behaves like: 2n + 1
an ( n + 1) 2 ( 2n + 1) n
2 1
 lim = lim = lim
n → (
n + 1)
2
n → b n → 1
n n n
n harmonic series
1
2n + n Since 
2
= lim 2 =2 n
diverges, the
n → n + 2n + 1
series diverges.
 1.6 Testing of Convergence

1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +  =  n When n is large, the
n =1 2 − 1
1 3 7 15 function behaves like:
1
1
an n 2n
= lim 2 − 1 = lim n
lim
n 2
n → b n → 1 n→ 2 − 1
=1
n
2n
geometric series
1
Since  n converges, the series converges.
2
 1.6 Testing of Convergence
Theorem 12 The Alternating Series Test

The series  (
n=1
−1) n+1
un = u1 − u2 + u3 − ...

converges if all three of the following conditions are

satisfied:
1. each un is positive;
2. un > un+1 for all n > N for some integer N (decreasing);
3. lim n→ un⃗ 0
 1.6 Testing of Convergence
Alternating Series Test
Alternating Series If the absolute values of the terms
approach zero, then an alternating
series will always converge!

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
example:  ( −1)
n =1
n +1
= − + − + − + 
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
This series converges (by the Alternating Series Test.)
This series is convergent, but not absolutely convergent.
Therefore we say that it is conditionally convergent.
1.6 Testing of Convergence
Since each term of a convergent alternating series
moves the partial sum a little closer to the limit:

Alternating Series Estimation Theorem

For a convergent alternating series, the truncation

error is less than the first missing term, and is the
same sign as that term.

This is a good tool to remember, because it is easier

than the LaGrange Error Bound.
 no series diverges
nth-Term Test Is lim an=0
yes or maybe
Geometric yes Converges to a/(1-r)
Series Test Is Σan = a+ar+ar2+ …? if |r|<1. Diverges if
|r|>1
no

1 yes Converges if p>1
p-Series Test Is series form  Diverges if p<1
p
n =1 n
no yes
non-negative
Does Σ |an| converge? Original Series
terms and/or
absolute Apply Integral Test, Ratio Converges
convergence Test or nth-root Test
no or maybe yes Is there an integer N
such that uN>uN-1…?
Alternating Is Σan = u1-u2+u3-…
Series Test yes
an alternating series
Converges if un → 0
Diverges if un→ 0